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Human health risks due to exposure to water pollution: a review.

1. Introduction

2. data collection, 2.1. anthropogenic factors, 2.2. microplastics, 2.3. geogenic factors, 2.4. pharmaceuticals, 2.5. heavy metals, 3. remedies and mitigations.

• Natural Bioremediation: A passive or inherent type of remediation that uses natural processes to remove contaminants from groundwater. Additionally, this mechanism changes the pollutant. The pollutant is changed through advection, disintegration, co-metabolism, adsorption, diffusion, and dispersion [ 58 ]. Natural in situ biological remediation has the advantage of using native microorganisms. It is, therefore, less expensive than developed bioremediation since there is no need for modification, and the microorganisms modify to their natural surroundings until oxygen and levels of nutrients reach their limiting levels [ 59 ].
• Engineered bioremediation: Utilizes constructed systems that deliver nutrients, attract electrons, and/or other proliferation-stimulating elements. It is a method of remediation that boosts the development and degradative activity of microorganisms. Biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biological permeable reactive barrier (PRB), and phytoremediation are some of the procedures used in this method. (a) Bioaugmentation: A technique that uses immobilized, genetically stable, or free microorganisms to function as a culture, destroying pollutants and forcing them to endure unfavorable conditions. To increase their functional capability, these specialized bacteria may move. The result of this process is heavily reliant on how local microorganism groups respond to the presence of these genetically modified microorganisms (GMM) or nonindigenous species since they are encapsulated in the groundwater plume that must be repaired. This is because the nutrients they contain are crucial to this process [ 60 ]; (b) Biosimulation: A technique for accelerating the rate of bioremediation. By changing the groundwater’s chemical and physical characteristics, bioremediation is sped up in this procedure. To boost the biological absorption of electron donors, several nutrient sources are added to the polluted groundwater, including biogas, dung, slurry, and other organic material. When it comes to eliminating hydrocarbon petroleum, comparative research found that biostimulation performs better than bioaugmentation, but when they are combined, they produce the best results in the quickest length of time; (c) Bioventing: The process involves oxidative-biological remediation and soil venting to remove light and moderate distillate hydrocarbons from the groundwater’s vadose zone [ 61 ]; (d) Bioslurping: The adaption and use of vacuum-enhanced dewatering methods to rehabilitate hydrocarbon-contaminated locations. To address two different pollutant media, it makes use of components of both biological ventilation and free product recovery; (e) Permeable reactive barrier (PRB): A zone of in situ treatment that passively traps a plume of pollutants, removes or degrades the contaminants, and releases uncontaminated water. Swelling and precipitation, chemical reactions, and biological mechanism-based reactions are the three main techniques for elimination; (f) Phytoremediation: A technique that uses interactions between plants and pollutants to lessen the hazardous effects of toxins in polluted groundwater. Numerous processes, including filtering, accumulation, decomposition, volatilization, and stabilization, are involved in this process [ 62 ].
• To increase the amount and quality of groundwater in the study region, the best rainfall recharge solutions for an urban context must be put into practice;
• To stop future contamination, regulate wastewater outflow, and improve mining waste management;
• To lessen groundwater contamination, septic tanks and sewage systems must undergo routine maintenance;
• Reusing residential wastewater will benefit from the building of biological treatment facilities;
• To prevent the production of leachate, reusable solid wastes ought to be treated separately, and municipal solid waste disposal yards should be constructed with suitable lining,
• Rigid management of environmental effect regulations and improvised government regulations.

4. Conclusions

Author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Babuji, P.; Thirumalaisamy, S.; Duraisamy, K.; Periyasamy, G. Human Health Risks due to Exposure to Water Pollution: A Review. Water 2023 , 15 , 2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142532

Babuji P, Thirumalaisamy S, Duraisamy K, Periyasamy G. Human Health Risks due to Exposure to Water Pollution: A Review. Water . 2023; 15(14):2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142532

Babuji, Preethi, Subramani Thirumalaisamy, Karunanidhi Duraisamy, and Gopinathan Periyasamy. 2023. "Human Health Risks due to Exposure to Water Pollution: A Review" Water 15, no. 14: 2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142532

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A Current Review of Water Pollutants in American Continent: Trends and Perspectives in Detection, Health Risks, and Treatment Technologies

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Currently, water pollution represents a serious environmental threat, causing an impact not only to fauna and flora but also to human health. Among these pollutants, inorganic and organic pollutants are predominantly important representing high toxicity and persistence and being difficult to treat using current methodologies. For this reason, several research groups are searching for strategies to detect and remedy contaminated water bodies and effluents. Due to the above, a current review of the state of the situation has been carried out. The results obtained show that in the American continent a high diversity of contaminants is present in the water bodies affecting several aspects, in which in some cases, there exists alternatives to realize the remediation of contaminated water. It is concluded that the actual challenge is to establish sanitation measures at the local level based on the specific needs of the geographical area of interest. Therefore, water treatment plants must be designed according to the contaminants present in the water of the region and tailored to the needs of the population of interest.

1. Introduction

Water contamination represents a current crisis in human and environmental health. The presence of contaminants in the water and the lack of basic sanitation hinder the eradication of extreme poverty and diseases in the poorest countries [ 1 ]. For example, water sanitation deficiency is one of the leading causes of mortality in several countries. Due to unsafe water and a lack of sanitation, there are several diseases present in the population [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Therefore, the sixth global objective of the United Nations, foreseen as part of its sustainable development agent 2030, aims to guarantee the availability and sustainable management of water resources. In this sense, numerous research groups have focused on proposing alternative solutions focusing on three fundamental aspects: (a) detection of contaminants present in water for human consumption, (b) assessment of risks to public and environmental health due to the presence of contaminants in the water, and (c) the proposal of water treatment technologies. In the case of the American continent, the detection of contaminants (inorganic and organic) has been studied; the research works show alarming results in which the impact of water pollution is demonstrated, how the ecosystem is being affected, and consequently the repercussion towards human health [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This last point becomes worrying due to the fact that there are reported cases in which newborns, children, and adults consumed drinking water from various sources (such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, and wells) without the certainty that it is free of contaminants, representing a health risk factor [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Some of the detected contaminants have been associated with a potential health risk, such as the case of some disinfectants with cancer [ 12 ] and NO 3 − and NO 2 − as potential carcinogens in the digestive system [ 13 ]. The lack of safe drinking water has been reported in several countries [ 3 , 14 ] since the presence of contaminants in water has demonstrated that actual quality controls are not able to detect or treat pollutants that are present [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ].

In this sense, numerous research groups have focused on proposing alternative solutions focusing on three fundamental aspects: (a) the detection of contaminants present in water for human consumption, (b) assessment of risks to public and environmental health due to the presence of contaminants in the water, and (c) a proposal for water treatment technologies. This communication shows a critical review of the latest published research works. The use of Web Of Science from Clarivate Analytics was used for the bibliographic review. The bibliographic search was carried out in January 2023 using the keywords “public health pollutants/contaminants water” + “name of the American country.” The retrieved articles were filtered considering the following: (i) articles published in the period 2018–2023, (ii) articles carried out based on effluents and bodies of water belonging to the American continent, and (iii) articles that demonstrate the presence and/or treatment of organic (excluding biological contaminants) and inorganic contaminants in water. The selection of these research articles was used to carry out a critical review of the current situation to propose future challenges to achieve efficient, and sustainable water treatment processes.

2. Critical Review: Evaluation of the Current Situation, Perspectives, and Challenges in the Detection of Contaminants, Health Risk Assessment, and Water Treatment Technologies in the American Continent

2.1. detection of contaminants in water.

At present, there are various analytical techniques that have been used in the detection and quantification of inorganic and organic contaminants in aqueous matrices. Mainly, these techniques can be divided into three major groups: chromatographic, spectroscopic, and other techniques, such as electrochemical and colorimetric titration. A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the most commonly used analytical techniques is presented in Supplementary Table S1 . From these, techniques that have been used the most are shown below.

In chromatographic techniques, the most reported are gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with selected ion monitoring (GC-MS/SIM), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight- mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS), ultra-performance liquid chromatography- electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS), high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detector (HPLC-CAD), and ion chromatography (IC). In the case of spectroscopic techniques, these include inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma dynamic reaction cell mass spectrometry (ICP-DRC-MS), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), high resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS), particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), fluorescence spectrometry, inductively coupled optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and cold vapor atomic absorption spectrophotometry (CVAAS).

From these techniques, it has been possible to determine the concentrations of various pollutants of interest to human health and the environment.

The compilation of information from the latest scientific reports (related to the detection of inorganic contaminants present in the water) is shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 (geographical distribution). On the other hand, the comparison of the detection limits for the limits of interest using different analytical techniques is presented in Supplementary Table S2 . Among them, some works have been carried out based on water bodies in different countries, such as Canada [ 19 ], USA [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], Mexico [ 23 ], and Brazil [ 24 ], in which the presence of As, Fe, U, Zn, Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO 3 − , and Hg with respect to interactions among water, bedrock mineralogy, and geochemical conditions of the region has been studied, so they can be classified as contamination due to a natural source. A particular case can be analyzed for U, which is present in water bodies of the southwest and west central USA, because high levels of acute exposure can be fatal for the population, and chronic exposure at low levels is associated with health problems, such as renal and cardiac risk. Although, exposure studies of surrounding communities cannot be considered conclusive, they correspond to a great advance in the field, and future studies should be carried out to assess possible damage to human health and the ecosystem.

Geographical distribution of pollutants detected in the American continent in different matrices (water, blood, sediments, biota) in the last 5 years.

On the other hand, research works stand out showing that water pollution can occur due to anthropogenic activities [ 25 ], being evident that modern practices of agriculture and livestock have consequences as the indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides, and hormones results in nitrates in the water, which are associated with a risk of congenital anomalies, such as heart and neural tube defects.

Within the works carried out, one of the most concurrent techniques used in the evaluation of contaminants has been performed via ICP (MS or OES) due to its high precision, low cost, low detection limits, and the advantage of analyzing a large number of elements simultaneously in a short time [ 26 ]. However, in some cases, the detection limits of the technique are above the maximum permissible limits proposed by the WHO (World Health Organization), such is the case of Hg, for which the detection limit is of 0.0025 mg L − 1 and the maximum detection limit recommended by the WHO is 0.002 mg L − 1 . Therefore, it is concluded that one of the challenges to be dealt with for metal detection in water is based in the fact that current techniques must be complemented by advanced analytical techniques, such as electrochemical tests [ 27 ]. These techniques are of great interest for their study due to the benefits they have, such as improvements in detection limits, low operating costs, short analysis times, and mobility, being able to perform analytical determinations in situ [ 27 ]. It is concluded that the contaminants with the greatest presence in the continent are As, U, Pb, Mn, Se, and Hg, mainly related to the mineralogy of the analyzed site and anthropogenic activities in the analysis areas. However, in some cases, the source of contamination is natural and occurs periodically due to seasonal changes, with the rainy season being the period with the greatest presence due to the mobility of metals contained in the rock and soil of the region [ 28 , 29 ]. Moreover, the presence of ions in solution related to the use of fertilizers and agrochemicals in crop fields has also been documented [ 30 ]. It is important to denote that the origin of the contamination source is not accurately concluded, providing a current challenge for the exact determination of the source to propose containment and sanitation actions to solve the problem.

Detection of inorganic pollutants in environmental samples.

Research studies presented in Table 1 demonstrated the potential human health risks that metal presence can have in water bodies, being important to highlight that there is still a need to evaluate the impact that inorganic contaminants have on human health. Furthermore, several research groups in different countries have detected the presence of contaminants not only in the supply sources, such as water bodies, but also in aquatic environments, such as flora and fauna being affected and representing economic importance since certain species can be traded, based on great demand to satisfy local and international markets.

On the other hand, organic contaminants can be divided into several groups; nevertheless, the principal groups are the ones denominated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These pollutants have an important impact on the environment and human health. Some examples are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), personal care products, pharmaceutical compounds, pesticides, phenolic compounds, dyes, hormones, sweeteners, surfactants, and others.

Their detection has been primarily necessary to assess the effects that these pollutants have. Most of them are primarily obtained from industrial activities having different uses, such as flame retardants, coolants, cement, and others. Their presence represents an important contribution to water ecotoxicity (Ecuador, Argentina, Mexico) that affects the integrity of the species that inhabit that ecosystem [ 53 , 54 , 55 ].

Important issues have been detected in aquatic environments. The bioaccumulation of several organic compounds, such as polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PBCs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), in important water bodies, such as Lake Chapala (Mexico), has been reported, through the analysis of samples recollected from water, fish, and sediments from two local seasonal periods. In this case, the fish analyzed were Cyprinus carpio , Oreochromis aureus , and Chirostoma spp., establishing that these chemical substances can reach the lake via industrial activities and strong winds and enter from the Lerma River (Mexico) [ 55 ].

In the study of Ramos et al. (2021), a water analysis was performed in the river and its treated water throughout a year in Minas-Gerais (Brazil). The detection of seventeen phenolic compounds with a single quadrupole gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer equipment (GCMS-QP2010 SE) coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) was analyzed. From the samples analyzed, only sixteen were detected, being that 3-methylphenol was the only one not detected. In raw water, the detection of 2,3,4-trichlorophenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, and 4-nitrophenol was found with the most frequency and for treated water, 4-nitrophenol and bisphenol A, establishing that a health risk to the environment and humans was identified with the contamination of these phenolic compounds [ 56 ]. Another study carried out in the St. Lawrence River, Quebec, (Canada), was performed based on an analysis of surface water for the detection of ultraviolet absorbents (UVAs) and industrial antioxidants (IAs). The detection was carried out via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) detecting several groups of UVAs, such as organic UV filters (benzophenone (BP), 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP3), 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexylsalicylate (HMS), 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate (OC), and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC)), aromatic secondary amines (diphenylamine (DPA)), benzotriazole UV stabilizers (2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-di-tert-pentylphenol (UV238), and synthetic phenolic antioxidants (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (BHTQ)). The field-based tissue-specific bioaccumulation factors (BAF) were analyzed to assess these contaminants in fish tissues (lake sturgeon and northern pike) in which some of the compounds that accumulated in lake sturgeon were BP3, BHT, and UV238. For northern pike, some were BP, BP3, BHT, and BHTQ, establishing an environmental risk assessment in terms of possible adverse effects on fish [ 57 ].

Finally, in the case of PAHs, several compounds have been detected (fluorene, naphthalene, anthracene, chrysene, and others) in different American countries, such as Canada, United States of America, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Brazil [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. Their presence has been related to anthropogenic activities, such as aluminum smelter or oil production, having a negative impact on health, such as carcinogenic effects.

For this reason, analytical assays must be performed to establish the concentrations of these pollutants using techniques that are capable of studying a complex matrix and if it is possible, in situ. In Table 2 , the description of several studies that were able to detect organic compounds in environmental samples and the technique that was employed are provided.

Detection of organic pollutants in environmental samples.

As it can be appreciated in Table 2 , a variety of organic compounds have been identified as being associated with several disorders and diseases. Nevertheless, most of the studies analyzed correlated its contaminant of interest with previous research that evaluated its potential human health risk effect. For this reason, it is important to detect the contaminant and correlate it with its health impact in the environment (population and biota).

2.2. Presence of Pollutants in Water: Impact on Human Health and Its Possible Sources

The inorganic contaminants with the greatest presence in water bodies correspond to heavy metals. At the moment, the potential damage to health due to heavy metals has been reported as listed below: As(III) (skin damage, circulatory system issues), Cd(II) (kidney damage, carcinogenic, cardiovascular damage, hematological, and skeletal changes), Cr(III) (allergic dermatitis, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting), Cu(II) (gastrointestinal, liver or kidney damage), Pb(II) (kidney damage, reduced neural development, behavioral disorders), Hg(II) (kidney damage, nervous system).

According to the scientific reports analyzed, it is concluded that there are two main risk factors in public health: (i) the intake of contaminated water, being the main factor due to direct exposure to the contaminant, which can produce different anomalies as those described in the previous paragraph. However, the studies presented cannot be considered conclusive, since the reports show that the impact on health is directly related to the clinical history of the exposed population [ 20 ]. (ii) The consumption of contaminated food, such as in the case of the report of da-Silva et al. (2019) [ 24 ], which reported Hg migration in water from the Western Amazon Basin (Amazon Triple Frontier: Brazil, Peru, and Colombia) to fish; being that if they are intended for human consumption, this can cause mercury intoxication (mercurialism). While the intake of contaminated food is the most likely action to occur, there are other special factors that particularly attract attention, such as the report presented by Oliveira et al. (2021) [ 87 ] studying a potential health risk in terms of a cognitive deficit due to soil intake by pre-school children aged 1 to 4 years, which presents high levels of Pb and Cd due to contact with contaminated wastewater from industries in the region of São Paulo (Brazil).

On the other hand, for organic contaminants, data analysis and comparison has been performed in different countries evidencing the necessity of establishing strategies to remediate water pollution ( Figure 1 ). These strategies are urgent, based on the potential risk that these contaminants can have on human health [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. Although there are currently certain reports, guidance values or standards that allow establishing criteria based on the presence of these contaminants and their potential toxic effect are needed [ 43 , 91 ]. Efforts have been performed to establish international regulations since the majority of organic compounds are not quality controls [ 92 ].

For this reason, several research groups have tried to determine the impact a chemical compound has on human health. For example, atrazine, an artificial herbicide that was detected in surface water, has been associated with an impact on human health and aquatic biota [ 93 ], upon evaluating endocrine-disrupting compounds that can affect human health via cell-based assays [ 94 ]. Moreover, per and polyfluoroalkyl substances have been determined, but there are no reference points that establish a water quality criterion for its impact on human health [ 91 ]. Based on this, there is a need to establish scientific studies in a human population and evaluate the impact of water pollution on its health. Some studies have been performed (see Table 3 ) to correlate the exposure of contaminants in people’s life and if possible, establish the impact that water sources and body contamination have.

Scientific studies on the correlation between a water source and the presence of certain pollutants in a human population.

2.3. Water Treatment Technologies for the Removal of Contaminants in Water: Status and Perspectives

2.3.1. inorganic contaminants.

Taking into consideration the environmental and public health risk represented by effluents and water bodies contaminated with metals, numerous research groups have focused on proposing remediation alternatives, highlighting the adsorption process [ 104 , 105 ], coagulation/flocculation [ 106 ], chemical precipitation [ 107 ], ion exchange [ 108 ], electrochemical treatments [ 109 , 110 ], membrane use (ultrafiltration, osmosis, and nanofiltration) [ 111 , 112 ], and other alternative treatments based on the use of biopolyelectrolytes and coupled adsorption processes with electrochemical regeneration [ 113 , 114 ]. In all cases, the actual challenge consists of evaluating the scale-up process, for which studies have been performed on a small scale under controlled conditions.

Although, scientific reports have demonstrated great efficiencies in the removal of heavy metals, there has been certain problems documented for each technology, which must be addressed to present advanced remediation technologies. For the ion exchange process, it has been documented that those present with low efficiencies for the removal of high concentrations of metals [ 115 ]. For example, Malik et al. (2019) reported removal efficiencies of 55% for Pb and 30–40% for Hg [ 116 ]. In the case of membrane filtration, good removal efficiencies have been reported (around 90% for Cu and Cd) [ 116 ],;however, it requires high installation costs and maintenance [ 117 ]. Likewise, it has been reported that the electrochemical, catalysis, and coagulation/flocculation processes present high metal removal efficiencies (around 85–99% for Cd, Zn, and Mn) [ 118 ]. On the other hand, the main drawbacks are high installation costs and extra operational costs, as well as the generation of unwanted by-products (sludge) [ 119 ]. These drawbacks significantly reduce the effectiveness of water treatment processes, so a second challenge to deal with is process optimization.

Finally, the third challenge is the design of environmentally and economically sustainable treatment processes. The current paradigm of water treatment of metal contamination must be broken; the importance is not only in water sanitation, but also in recovering the metal in order to obtain valuable products and not only change the pollutant phase [ 120 ]. For all the above, adsorption and chemical precipitation have turned out to be the most used methods. However, the removal results obtained depend on each matrix used, so the materials and experimental conditions must be proposed based on the needs and the type of effluent to be treated [ 121 ].

2.3.2. Organic Contaminants

In the previous sections, the detection of these pollutants is only the first step to evaluate the environmental risk that communities and countries have in their respective water sources. The next step is to determine technologies that can establish an efficiency in the removal of these contaminants in a complex matrix without affecting the environment using novel systems [ 122 , 123 , 124 ]. In this regard, an actual challenge is the development of technologies capable of treating specific organic compounds and if it is possible, to use these treatment technologies with the current systems that governments have implemented. Some technologies that have been investigated are the use of continuous flow supercritical water (SCW) for the removal of hormones from the wastewater of a pharmaceutical industry. In their results, the technology was demonstrated to reduce 88.4% of the initial total organic carbon (TOC) value, and the presence in gas phase of H 2 , CH 4 , CO, CO 2 , C 2 H 6 , and C 2 H 4 , which could be used to produce renewable energy. Moreover, phytotoxicity assays demonstrated that there was no risk of the treated samples with respect to the germination of Cucumis sativus seeds [ 125 ]. Another technology that has been used is direct contact membrane distillation, which can be used to treat raw surface water contaminated with phenolic compounds [ 126 ]. In this case, water samples were spiked with 15 phenolic compounds. An important parameter evaluated was the recovery rate (RR) to demonstrate the stability of the direct membrane distillation, being up to a 30%. Pollutant removal reached 94.3 ± 1.9% and 95.0 ± 2.2% for 30% and 70% RR, respectively. A consideration for this technology is to work at a recovery rate in which flux does not decay (RR < 30%) to avoid performing loss and fouling.

Different approaches have been used for the removal of contaminants, such as the use of a photocatalytic paint based on TiO 2 nanoparticles and acrylate-based photopolymer resin for the removal of dyes in different water matrices [ 127 ]. Another strategy was subsurface horizontal flow-constructed wetlands (planted in polyculture and unplanted) as secondary domestic wastewater treatment to demonstrate the removal of personal care and pharmaceutical products [ 128 ].

Considering the above mentioned content, among all technologies evaluated currently to eliminate organic contaminants present in water, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) stand out, since they generate highly reactive and non-selective radicals capable of almost completely mineralizing the contaminant of interest, generating mainly CO 2 and H 2 O as an oxidation product. In this sense, the most widely studied AOPs correspond to catalytic wet peroxide oxidation, catalytic wet air oxidation, homogeneous catalyst, photo-Fenton, Fenton process, photocatalysis, Fenton-like, electro-Fenton, heterogeneous catalyst, ultrasound, and microwave [ 129 ]. Although the results show the potential use of technologies for water treatment, there are still challenges to address. The current challenge of this technology must be aimed at scaling the process, optimizing operational parameters, and designing a sustainable technology to have a low cost and be environmentally friendly, achieving the lowest generation of by-products. In this sense, two recently published research articles stand out in which AOPs have been evaluated for the treatment of contaminated water effluents in the Latin American region. Mejía-Morales et al. (2020) [ 130 ] presented the use of an AOP based on UV/H 2 O 2 /O 3 for the remediation of residual water from a hospital in Puebla (Mexico), showing the feasibility of its use to remediate effluents contaminated with a high organic load. On the other hand, Zárate-Guzmán et al. (2021) [ 131 ] presented the scale-up of a Fenton and Photo-Fenton process for the treatment of piggery wastewater in Guanajuato (Mexico). The results show that these two AOPs have great application potential for the remediation of effluents contaminated with a high organic load due to their high removal percentages (COD, TOC, and Color) and low operating costs.

3. Conclusions

The presence of contaminants in the water is a severe environmental and public health problem in the American continent. The presence of inorganic (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Hg, and U) and organic pollutants (dyes, phenolic compounds, hormones, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals compounds) in effluents and water bodies is due to anthropogenic activities and natural factors in the region. The health risks associated with these contaminants primarily encompass skin damage, carcinogenic effects, nervous system damage, circulatory system issues, kidney damage, gastrointestinal damage, and impacts on the food chain. The critical review of the reports presented in this document identifies the following as the main challenges:

• (i) Implement advanced analytical detection techniques, such as those based on electrochemical tests, to achieve improvements in detection limits, low operating costs, short analysis times, and mobility to perform in situ determinations.
• (ii) Accurately determine the source of contamination in each geographic site of interest to propose containment and sanitation actions to solve the problem.
• (iii) Evaluate water treatment technologies on a large scale and under real conditions to optimize the treatment processes.
• (iv) Design and/or conditioning of specific water treatment plants according to the pollutant of interest in the region. The universal design paradigm of a water treatment plant must be broken; the pertinent modifications must be made according to the needs of the population of interest.
• (v) Design environmentally and economically sustainable treatment processes. Future water treatment processes will need to integrate circular economy concepts to obtain high-quality water and valuable products, such as precious metals, and/or produce biofuels.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the “Secretaria de Innovación, Ciencia y tecnología (SICyT)” and “Consejo Estatal de Ciencia y Tecnología de Jalisco (COECYTJAL)” for the support received through the Convocatoria del fondo de Desarrollo Científico de Jalisco para Atender Retos Sociales “FODECIJAL 2022” (Clave del Proyecto: 10169-2022).

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph20054499/s1 , Supplementary Table S1: Comparative table of analytical techniques most used for the detection of inorganic contaminants present in water. Supplementary Table S2: Comparison of detection limits in μg L −1 at 3 sigma [ 132 ].

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.I.Z.-G. and L.A.R.-C.; Methodology, all authors; Formal analysis, all authors; writing—original draft preparation, all authors; writing—review and editing, all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

REVIEW article

Effects of water pollution on human health and disease heterogeneity: a review.

• 1 Research Center for Economy of Upper Reaches of the Yangtse River/School of Economics, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing, China
• 2 School of Economics and Management, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China

Background: More than 80% of sewage generated by human activities is discharged into rivers and oceans without any treatment, which results in environmental pollution and more than 50 diseases. 80% of diseases and 50% of child deaths worldwide are related to poor water quality.

Methods: This paper selected 85 relevant papers finally based on the keywords of water pollution, water quality, health, cancer, and so on.

Results: The impact of water pollution on human health is significant, although there may be regional, age, gender, and other differences in degree. The most common disease caused by water pollution is diarrhea, which is mainly transmitted by enteroviruses in the aquatic environment.

Discussion: Governments should strengthen water intervention management and carry out intervention measures to improve water quality and reduce water pollution’s impact on human health.

Introduction

Water is an essential resource for human survival. According to the 2021 World Water Development Report released by UNESCO, the global use of freshwater has increased six-fold in the past 100 years and has been growing by about 1% per year since the 1980s. With the increase of water consumption, water quality is facing severe challenges. Industrialization, agricultural production, and urban life have resulted in the degradation and pollution of the environment, adversely affecting the water bodies (rivers and oceans) necessary for life, ultimately affecting human health and sustainable social development ( Xu et al., 2022a ). Globally, an estimated 80% of industrial and municipal wastewater is discharged into the environment without any prior treatment, with adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. This proportion is higher in the least developed countries, where sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities are severely lacking.

Sources of Water Pollution

Water pollution are mainly concentrated in industrialization, agricultural activities, natural factors, and insufficient water supply and sewage treatment facilities. First, industry is the main cause of water pollution, these industries include distillery industry, tannery industry, pulp and paper industry, textile industry, food industry, iron and steel industry, nuclear industry and so on. Various toxic chemicals, organic and inorganic substances, toxic solvents and volatile organic chemicals may be released in industrial production. If these wastes are released into aquatic ecosystems without adequate treatment, they will cause water pollution ( Chowdhary et al., 2020 ). Arsenic, cadmium, and chromium are vital pollutants discharged in wastewater, and the industrial sector is a significant contributor to harmful pollutants ( Chen et al., 2019 ). With the acceleration of urbanization, wastewater from industrial production has gradually increased. ( Wu et al., 2020 ). In addition, water pollution caused by industrialization is also greatly affected by foreign direct investment. Industrial water pollution in less developed countries is positively correlated with foreign direct investment ( Jorgenson, 2009 ). Second, water pollution is closely related to agriculture. Pesticides, nitrogen fertilizers and organic farm wastes from agriculture are significant causes of water pollution (RCEP, 1979). Agricultural activities will contaminate the water with nitrates, phosphorus, pesticides, soil sediments, salts and pathogens ( Parris, 2011 ). Furthermore, agriculture has severely damaged all freshwater systems in their pristine state ( Moss, 2008 ). Untreated or partially treated wastewater is widely used for irrigation in water-scarce regions of developing countries, including China and India, and the presence of pollutants in sewage poses risks to the environment and health. Taking China as an example, the imbalance in the quantity and quality of surface water resources has led to the long-term use of wastewater irrigation in some areas in developing countries to meet the water demand of agricultural production, resulting in serious agricultural land and food pollution, pesticide residues and heavy metal pollution threatening food safety and Human Health ( Lu et al., 2015 ). Pesticides have an adverse impact on health through drinking water. Comparing pesticide use with health life Expectancy Longitudinal Survey data, it was found that a 10% increase in pesticide use resulted in a 1% increase in the medical disability index over 65 years of age ( Lai, 2017 ). The case of the Musi River in India shows a higher incidence of morbidity in wastewater-irrigated villages than normal-water households. Third, water pollution is related to natural factors. Taking Child Loess Plateau as an example, the concentration of trace elements in water quality is higher than the average world level, and trace elements come from natural weathering and manufacture causes. Poor river water quality is associated with high sodium and salinity hazards ( Xiao et al., 2019 ). The most typical water pollution in the middle part of the loess Plateau is hexavalent chromium pollution, which is caused by the natural environment and human activities. Loess and mudstone are the main sources, and groundwater with high concentrations of hexavalent chromium is also an important factor in surface water pollution (He et al., 2020). Finally, water supply and sewage treatment facilities are also important factors affecting drinking water quality, especially in developing countries. In parallel with China rapid economic growth, industrialization and urbanization, underinvestment in basic water supply and treatment facilities has led to water pollution, increased incidence of infectious and parasitic diseases, and increased exposure to industrial chemicals, heavy metals and algal toxins ( Wu et al., 1999 ). An econometric model predicts the impact of water purification equipment on water quality and therefore human health. When the proportion of household water treated with water purification equipment is reduced from 100% to 90%, the expected health benefits are reduced by up to 96%.. When the risk of pretreatment water quality is high, the decline is even more significant ( Brown and Clasen, 2012 ).

To sum up, water pollution results from both human and natural factors. Various human activities will directly affect water quality, including urbanization, population growth, industrial production, climate change, and other factors ( Halder and Islam, 2015 ) and religious activities ( Dwivedi et al., 2018 ). Improper disposal of solid waste, sand, and gravel is also one reason for decreasing water quality ( Ustaoğlua et al., 2020 ).

Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health

Unsafe water has severe implications for human health. According to UNESCO 2021 World Water Development Report , about 829,000 people die each year from diarrhea caused by unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hand hygiene, including nearly 300,000 children under the age of five, representing 5.3 percent of all deaths in this age group. Data from Palestine suggest that people who drink municipal water directly are more likely to suffer from diseases such as diarrhea than those who use desalinated and household-filtered drinking water ( Yassin et al., 2006 ). In a comparative study of tap water, purified water, and bottled water, tap water was an essential source of gastrointestinal disease ( Payment et al., 1997 ). Lack of water and sanitation services also increases the incidence of diseases such as cholera, trachoma, schistosomiasis, and helminthiasis. Data from studies in developing countries show a clear relationship between cholera and contaminated water, and household water treatment and storage can reduce cholera ( Gundry et al., 2004 ). In addition to disease, unsafe drinking water, and poor environmental hygiene can lead to gastrointestinal illness, inhibiting nutrient absorption and malnutrition. These effects are especially pronounced for children.

Purpose of This Paper

More than two million people worldwide die each year from diarrhoeal diseases, with poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water being the leading cause of nearly 90% of deaths and affecting children the most (United Nations, 2016). More than 50 kinds of diseases are caused by poor drinking water quality, and 80% of diseases and 50% of child deaths are related to poor drinking water quality in the world. However, water pollution causes diarrhea, skin diseases, malnutrition, and even cancer and other diseases related to water pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to study the impact of water pollution on human health, especially disease heterogeneity, and clarify the importance of clean drinking water, which has important theoretical and practical significance for realizing sustainable development goals. Unfortunately, although many kinds of literature focus on water pollution and a particular disease, there is still a lack of research results that systematically analyze the impact of water pollution on human health and the heterogeneity of diseases. Based on the above background and discussion, this paper focuses on the effect of water pollution on human health and its disease heterogeneity.

Materials and Methods

Search process.

This article uses keywords such as “water,” “water pollution,” “water quality,” “health,” “diarrhea,” “skin disease,” “cancer” and “children” to search Web of Science and Google Scholar include SCI and SSCI indexed papers, research reports, and works from 1990 to 2021.

Inclusion-Exclusion Criteria and Data Extraction Process

The existing literature shows that water pollution and human health are important research topics in health economics, and scholars have conducted in-depth research. As of 30 December 2021, 104 related literatures were searched, including research papers, reviews and conference papers. Then, according to the content relevancy, 19 papers were eliminated, and 85 papers remained. The purpose of this review is to summarize the impact of water pollution on human health and its disease heterogeneity and to explore how to improve human health by improving water pollution control measures.

Information extracted from all included papers included: author, publication date, sample country, study methodology, study purpose, and key findings. All analysis results will be analyzed according to the process in Figure 1 .

FIGURE 1 . Data extraction process (PRISMA).

The relevant information of the paper is exported to the Excel database through Endnote, and the duplicates are deleted. The results were initially extracted by one researcher and then cross-checked by another researcher to ensure that all data had been filtered and reviewed. If two researchers have different opinions, the two researchers will review together until a final agreement is reached.

Quality Assessment of the Literature

The JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist was used to evaluate the quality of each paper. The JBI (Joanna Briggs Institute) key assessment tool was developed by the JBI Scientific Committee after extensive peer review and is designed for system review. All features of the study that meet the following eight criteria are included in the final summary:1) clear purpose; 2) Complete information of sample variables; 3) Data basis; 4) the validity of data sorting; 5) ethical norms; (6); 7) Effective results; 8) Apply appropriate quantitative methods and state the results clearly. Method quality is evaluated by the Yes/No questions listed in the JBI Key Assessment List. Each analysis paper received 6 out of 8.

The quality of drinking water is an essential factor affecting human health. Poor drinking water quality has led to the occurrence of water-borne diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) survey, 80% of the world’s diseases and 50% of the world’s child deaths are related to poor drinking water quality, and there are more than 50 diseases caused by poor drinking water quality. The quality of drinking water in developing countries is worrying. The negative health effects of water pollution remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries. Different from the existing literature review, this paper mainly studies the impact of water pollution on human health according to the heterogeneity of diseases. We focuses on diarrhea, skin diseases, cancer, child health, etc., and sorts out the main effects of water pollution on human health ( Table 1 ).

TABLE 1 . Major studies on the relationship between water pollution and health.

Water Pollution and Diarrhea

Diarrhea is a common symptom of gastrointestinal diseases and the most common disease caused by water pollution. Diarrhea is a leading cause of illness and death in young children in low-income countries. Diarrhoeal diseases account for 21% of annual deaths among children under 5 years of age in developing countries ( Waddington et al., 2009 ). Many infectious agents associated with diarrhea are directly related to contaminated water ( Ahmed and Ismail, 2018 ). Parasitic worms present in non-purifying drinking water when is consumed by human beings causes diseases ( Ansari and Akhmatov., 2020 ) . It was found that treated water from water treatment facilities was associated with a lower risk of diarrhea than untreated water for all ages ( Clasen et al., 2015 ). For example, in the southern region of Brazil, a study found that factors significantly associated with an increased risk of mortality from diarrhoea included lack of plumbed water, lack of flush toilets, poor housing conditions, and overcrowded households. Households without access to piped water had a 4.8 times higher risk of infant death from diarrhea than households with access to piped water ( Victora et al., 1988 )

Enteroviruses exist in the aquatic environment. More than 100 pathogenic viruses are excreted in human and animal excreta and spread in the environment through groundwater, estuarine water, seawater, rivers, sewage treatment plants, insufficiently treated water, drinking water, and private wells ( Fong and Lipp., 2005 ). A study in Pakistan showed that coliform contamination was found in some water sources. Improper disposal of sewage and solid waste, excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, and deteriorating pipeline networks are the main causes of drinking water pollution. The main source of water-borne diseases such as gastroenteritis, dysentery, diarrhea, and viral hepatitis in this area is the water pollution of coliform bacteria ( Khan et al., 2013 ). Therefore, the most important role of water and sanitation health interventions is to hinder the transmission of diarrheal pathogens from the environment to humans ( Waddington et al., 2009 ).

Meta-analyses are the most commonly used method for water quality and diarrhea studies. It was found that improving water supply and sanitation reduced the overall incidence of diarrhea by 26%. Among Malaysian infants, having clean water and sanitation was associated with an 82% reduction in infant mortality, especially among infants who were not breastfed ( Esrey et al., 1991 ). All water quality and sanitation interventions significantly reduced the risk of diarrhoeal disease, and water quality interventions were found to be more effective than previously thought. Multiple interventions (including water, sanitation, and sanitation measures) were not more effective than single-focus interventions ( Fewtrell and Colford., 2005 ). Water quality interventions reduced the risk of diarrhoea in children and reduced the risk of E. coli contamination of stored water ( Arnold and Colford., 2007 ). Interventions to improve water quality are generally effective in preventing diarrhoea in children of all ages and under 5. However, some trials showed significant heterogeneity, which may be due to the research methods and their conditions ( Clasen et al., 2007 ).

Water Pollution and Skin Diseases

Contrary to common sense that swimming is good for health, studies as early as the 1950s found that the overall disease incidence in the swimming group was significantly higher than that in the non-swimming group. The survey shows that the incidence of the disease in people under the age of 10 is about 100% higher than that of people over 10 years old. Skin diseases account for a certain proportion ( Stevenson, 1953 ). A prospective epidemiological study of beach water pollution was conducted in Hong Kong in the summer of 1986–1987. The study found that swimmers on Hong Kong’s coastal beaches were more likely than non-swimmers to complain of systemic ailments such as skin and eyes. And swimming in more polluted beach waters has a much higher risk of contracting skin diseases and other diseases. Swimming-related disease symptom rates correlated with beach cleanliness ( Cheung et al., 1990 ).

A study of arsenic-affected villages in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan emphasized that skin diseases were caused by excessive water quality. By studying the relationship between excessive arsenic in drinking water caused by water pollution and skin diseases (mainly melanosis and keratosis), it was found that compared with people who consumed urban low-arsenic drinking water, the hair of people who consumed high-arsenic drinking water arsenic concentration increased significantly. The level of arsenic in drinking water directly affects the health of local residents, and skin disease is the most common clinical complication of arsenic poisoning. There is a correlation between arsenic concentrations in biological samples (hair and blood) from patients with skin diseases and intake of arsenic-contaminated drinking water ( Kazi et al., 2009 ). Another Bangladesh study showed that many people suffer from scabies due to river pollution ( Hanif et al., 2020 ). Not only that, but water pollution from industry can also cause skin cancer ( Arif et al., 2020 ).

Studies using meta-analysis have shown that exposure to polluted Marine recreational waters can have adverse consequences, including frequent skin discomfort (such as rash or itching). Skin diseases in swimmers may be caused by a variety of pathogenic microorganisms ( Yau et al., 2009 ). People (swimmers and non-swimmers) exposed to waters above threshold levels of bacteria had a higher relative risk of developing skin disease, and levels of bacteria in seawater were highly correlated with skin symptoms.

Studies have also suggested that swimmers are 3.5 times more likely to report skin diseases than non-swimmers. This difference may be a “risk perception bias” at work on swimmers, who are generally aware that such exposure may lead to health effects and are more likely to detect and report skin disorders. It is also possible that swimmers exaggerated their symptoms, reporting conditions that others would not classify as true skin disorders ( Fleisher and Kay. 2006 ).

Water Pollution and Cancer

According to WHO statistics, the number of cancer patients diagnosed in 2020 reached 19.3 million, while the number of deaths from cancer increased to 10 million. Currently, one-fifth of all global fevers will develop cancer during their lifetime. The types and amounts of carcinogens present in drinking water will vary depending on where they enter: contamination of the water source, water treatment processes, or when the water is delivered to users ( Morris, 1995 ).

From the perspective of water sources, arsenic, nitrate, chromium, etc. are highly associated with cancer. Ingestion of arsenic from drinking water can cause skin cancer and kidney and bladder cancer ( Marmot et al., 2007 ). The risk of cancer in the population from arsenic in the United States water supply may be comparable to the risk from tobacco smoke and radon in the home environment. However, individual susceptibility to the carcinogenic effects of arsenic varies ( Smith et al., 1992 ). A high association of arsenic in drinking water with lung cancer was demonstrated in a northern Chilean controlled study involving patients diagnosed with lung cancer and a frequency-matched hospital between 1994 and 1996. Studies have also shown a synergistic effect of smoking and arsenic intake in drinking water in causing lung cancer ( Ferreccio et al., 2000 ). Exposure to high arsenic levels in drinking water was also associated with the development of liver cancer, but this effect was not significant at exposure levels below 0.64 mg/L ( Lin et al., 2013 ).

Nitrates are a broader contaminant that is more closely associated with human cancers, especially colorectal cancer. A study in East Azerbaijan confirmed a significant association between colorectal cancer and nitrate in men, but not in women (Maleki et al., 2021). The carcinogenic risk of nitrates is concentration-dependent. The risk increases significantly when drinking water levels exceed 3.87 mg/L, well below the current drinking water standard of 50 mg/L. Drinking water with nitrate concentrations lower than current drinking water standards also increases the risk of colorectal cancer ( Schullehner et al., 2018 ).

Drinking water with high chromium content will bring high carcinogenicity caused by hexavalent chromium to residents. Drinking water intake of hexavalent chromium experiments showed that hexavalent chromium has the potential to cause human respiratory cancer. ( Zhitkovich, 2011 ). A case from Changhua County, Taiwan also showed that high levels of chromium pollution were associated with gastric cancer incidence ( Tseng et al., 2018 ).

There is a correlation between trihalomethane (THM) levels in drinking water and cancer mortality. Bladder and brain cancers in both men and women and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and kidney cancer in men were positively correlated with THM levels, and bladder cancer mortality had the strongest and most consistent association with THM exposure index ( Cantor et al., 1978 ).

From the perspective of water treatment process, carcinogens may be introduced during chlorine treatment, and drinking water is associated with all cancers, urinary cancers and gastrointestinal cancers ( Page et al., 1976 ). Chlorinated byproducts from the use of chlorine in water treatment are associated with an increased risk of bladder and rectal cancer, with perhaps 5,000 cases of bladder and 8,000 cases of rectal cancer occurring each year in the United States (Morris, 1995).

The impact of drinking water pollutants on cancer is complex. Epidemiological studies have shown that drinking water contaminants, such as chlorinated by-products, nitrates, arsenic, and radionuclides, are associated with cancer in humans ( Cantor, 1997 ). Pb, U, F- and no3- are the main groundwater pollutants and one of the potential causes of cancer ( Kaur et al., 2021 ). In addition, many other water pollutants are also considered carcinogenic, including herbicides and pesticides, and fertilizers that contain and release nitrates ( Marmot et al., 2007 ). A case from Hebei, China showed that the contamination of nitrogen compounds in well water was closely related to the use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture, and the levels of three nitrogen compounds in well water were significantly positively correlated with esophageal cancer mortality ( Zhang et al., 2003 ).

In addition, due to the time-lag effect, the impact of watershed water pollution on cancer is spatially heterogeneous. The mortality rate of esophageal cancer caused by water pollution is significantly higher downstream than in other regions due to the impact of historical water pollution ( Xu et al., 2019 ). A study based on changes in water quality in the watershed showed that a grade 6 deterioration in water quality resulted in a 9.3% increase in deaths from digestive cancer. ( Ebenstein, 2012 ).

Water Pollution and Child Health

Diarrhea is a common disease in children. Diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera) kill 1.8 million people each year, 90 per cent of them children under the age of five, mostly in developing countries. 88% of diarrhoeal diseases are caused by inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene (Team, 2004). A large proportion of these are caused by exposure to microbially infected water and food, and diarrhea in infants and young children can lead to malnutrition and reduced immune resistance, thereby increasing the likelihood of prolonged and recurrent diarrhea ( Marino, 2007 ). Pollution exposure experienced by children during critical periods of development is associated with height loss in adulthood ( Zaveri et al., 2020 ). Diseases directly related to water and sanitation, combined with malnutrition, also lead to other causes of death, such as measles and pneumonia. Child malnutrition and stunting due to inadequate water and sanitation will continue to affect more than one-third of children in the world ( Bartlett, 2003 ). A study from rural India showed that children living in households with tap water had significantly lower disease prevalence and duration ( Jalan and Ravallion, 2003 ).

In conclusion, water pollution is a significant cause of childhood diseases. Air, water, and soil pollution together killed 940,000 children worldwide in 2016, two-thirds of whom were under the age of 5, and the vast majority occurred in low- and middle-income countries ( Landrigan et al., 2018 ). The intensity of industrial organic water pollution is positively correlated with infant mortality and child mortality in less developed countries, and industrial water pollution is an important cause of infant and child mortality in less developed countries ( Jorgenson, 2009 ). In addition, arsenic in drinking water is a potential carcinogenic risk in children (García-Rico et al., 2018). Nitrate contamination in drinking water may cause goiter in children ( Vladeva et al.., 2000 ).

Discussions

This paper reviews the environmental science, health, and medical literature, with a particular focus on epidemiological studies linking water quality, water pollution, and human disease, as well as studies on water-related disease morbidity and mortality. At the same time, special attention is paid to publications from the United Nations and the World Health Organization on water and sanitation health research. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between water pollution and human health, including: The relationship between water pollution and diarrhea, the mechanism of action, and the research situation of meta-analysis; The relationship between water pollution and skin diseases, pathogenic factors, and meta-analysis research; The relationship between water pollution and cancer, carcinogenic factors, and types of cancer; The relationship between water pollution and Child health, and the major childhood diseases caused.

A study of more than 100 literatures found that although factors such as country, region, age, and gender may have different influences, in general, water pollution has a huge impact on human health. Water pollution is the cause of many human diseases, mainly diarrhoea, skin diseases, cancer and various childhood diseases. The impact of water pollution on different diseases is mainly reflected in the following aspects. Firstly, diarrhea is the most easily caused disease by water pollution, mainly transmitted by enterovirus existing in the aquatic environment. The transmission environment of enterovirus depends on includes groundwater, river, seawater, sewage, drinking water, etc. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent the transmission of enterovirus from the environment to people through drinking water intervention. Secondly, exposure to or use of heavily polluted water is associated with a risk of skin diseases. Excessive bacteria in seawater and heavy metals in drinking water are the main pathogenic factors of skin diseases. Thirdly, water pollution can pose health risks to humans through any of the three links: the source of water, the treatment of water, and the delivery of water. Arsenic, nitrate, chromium, and trihalomethane are major carcinogens in water sources. Carcinogens may be introduced during chlorine treatment from water treatment. The effects of drinking water pollution on cancer are complex, including chlorinated by-products, heavy metals, radionuclides, herbicides and pesticides left in water, etc., Finally, water pollution is an important cause of children’s diseases. Contact with microbiologically infected water can cause diarrhoeal disease in children. Malnutrition and weakened immunity from diarrhoeal diseases can lead to other diseases.

This study systematically analyzed the impact of water pollution on human health and the heterogeneity of diseases from the perspective of different diseases, focusing on a detailed review of the relationship, mechanism and influencing factors of water pollution and diseases. From the point of view of limitations, this paper mainly focuses on the research of environmental science and environmental management, and the research on pathology is less involved. Based on this, future research can strengthen research at medical and pathological levels.

In response to the above research conclusions, countries, especially developing countries, need to adopt corresponding water management policies to reduce the harm caused by water pollution to human health. Firstly, there is a focus on water quality at the point of use, with interventions to improve water quality, including chlorination and safe storage ( Gundry et al., 2004 ), and provision of treated and clean water ( Khan et al., 2013 ). Secondly, in order to reduce the impact of water pollution on skin diseases, countries should conduct epidemiological studies on their own in order to formulate health-friendly bathing water quality standards suitable for their specific conditions ( Cheung et al., 1990 ). Thirdly, in order to reduce the cancer caused by water pollution, the whole-process supervision of water quality should be strengthened, that is, the purity of water sources, the scientific nature of water treatment and the effectiveness of drinking water monitoring. Fourthly, each society should prevent and control source pollution from production, consumption, and transportation ( Landrigan et al., 2018 ). Fifthly, health education is widely carried out. Introduce environmental education, educate residents on sanitary water through newspapers, magazines, television, Internet and other media, and enhance public health awareness. Train farmers to avoid overuse of agricultural chemicals that contaminate drinking water.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, XX|; methodology, LL; data curation, HY; writing and editing, LL; project administration, XX|.

This article is a phased achievement of The National Social Science Fund of China: Research on the blocking mechanism of the critical poor households returning to poverty due to illness, No: 20BJY057.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: water pollution, human health, disease heterogeneity, water intervention, health cost

Citation: Lin L, Yang H and Xu X (2022) Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease Heterogeneity: A Review. Front. Environ. Sci. 10:880246. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2022.880246

Received: 21 February 2022; Accepted: 09 June 2022; Published: 30 June 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Lin, Yang and Xu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Xiaocang Xu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volume 35, 2010, review article, global water pollution and human health.

• René P. Schwarzenbach 1 , Thomas Egli 1,2 , Thomas B. Hofstetter 1,2 , Urs von Gunten 1,2 , and Bernhard Wehrli 1,2
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics (IBP), ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland; email: [email protected] 2 Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
• Vol. 35:109-136 (Volume publication date November 2010) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-100809-125342
• First published as a Review in Advance on August 16, 2010
• © Annual Reviews

Water quality issues are a major challenge that humanity is facing in the twenty-first century. Here, we review the main groups of aquatic contaminants, their effects on human health, and approaches to mitigate pollution of freshwater resources. Emphasis is placed on chemical pollution, particularly on inorganic and organic micropollutants including toxic metals and metalloids as well as a large variety of synthetic organic chemicals. Some aspects of waterborne diseases and the urgent need for improved sanitation in developing countries are also discussed. The review addresses current scientific advances to cope with the great diversity of pollutants. It is organized along the different temporal and spatial scales of global water pollution. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have affected water systems on a global scale for more than five decades; during that time geogenic pollutants, mining operations, and hazardous waste sites have been the most relevant sources of long-term regional and local water pollution. Agricultural chemicals and waste-water sources exert shorter-term effects on regional to local scales.

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Water pollution Its causes and effects

Suaad Hadi Hassan Al-Taai 1

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , Volume 790 , First International Virtual Conference on Environment & Natural Resources 24-25 March 2021, College of Science, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq Citation Suaad Hadi Hassan Al-Taai 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 790 012026 DOI 10.1088/1755-1315/790/1/012026

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The topic of water contamination is one of the significant studies that, because of its great effect on the lives of humans, animals and plants alike, has attracted the attention of researchers and those interested in the environment. It is not less harmful than contamination of the air and soil, but more closely linked to them. The research centered on the study of the notion of pollution in general, then the notion of water pollution and its sources. In addition to groundwater contamination, there have been many pollution processes, the most important of which are biological, physical, and by dumping solid and liquid waste into waters of rivers, lakes and seas.

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Home > Books > Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World

Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact

Submitted: 04 April 2017 Reviewed: 27 October 2017 Published: 21 March 2018

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72018

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Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World

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The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.

• chemical pollutants
• microbial pollutants
• sustainable development
• climate change

Author Information

Inyinbor adejumoke a. *.

• Department of Physical Sciences, Landmark University, Nigeria

Adebesin Babatunde O.

Oluyori abimbola p., adelani-akande tabitha a..

• Department of Biological Sciences, Landmark University, Nigeria

Dada Adewumi O.

Oreofe toyin a..

• Department of Chemical Engineering, Landmark University, Nigeria

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Industrialization, in any society, is a major initiator of development and urbanization. Although the merits of industrialization are innumerable, it has been identified as a major threat to the environment as it releases various toxic chemicals, gases, solid wastes as well as microbes of various kinds into our immediate environment—land, air, and water. Of particular interest is water pollution, which has become a global challenge, developing nations being highly affected due to their drive for development [ 1 , 2 ].

Pollution of our water bodies poses a great threat to humans and the aquatic ecosystem while marked population increase catalyzes climatic changes [ 3 ]. For instance, various human activities as well as the release of greenhouse gases by industries greatly contributes to global warming, planet temperature enhancement, and lowering of atmospheric air quality.

The drive for sustainable development must bring along water pollution prevention techniques. Effective wastewater treatment before their eventual discharge is one way to driving water pollution prevention. Some remediate climate change mitigation measures against water pollution can also be explored.

This chapter is aimed at critically discussing water pollution effects viz-a-viz global challenges, threat, and climatic impacts while also focusing on various possible preventive measures.

2. Water pollution

2.1. promoting environmental sustainability.

Sustainable development in any society is an access to initiate a good standard of living for the populace. It aims at providing solutions to the economic, environmental, and societal challenges without posing a threat to human and environmental future development, that is, we must consider the future as we make present decisions. Also, these include social progress and equality, environmental protection, conservation of natural resources, and stable economic growth [ 4 ].

There are numerous instances where urbanization has destroyed the environment and threatened its survival chances. Sustainable development put into consideration how we survive in the natural world protecting it from destruction and damages. One of the major challenges of urbanization is sustainability, as most developed or developing society now revitalizes a lot of natural resources daily. Most of these resources meet the needs of man but they are also limited. Sustainable development tends to balance the competing needs of the society.

In achieving this, many science bodies and institutions have seen the requisite of sustainable development and have set goals and targets to meet it. This also has pushed such institutions to have a role in measuring and monitoring the impact of these goals on the society. However, the contribution of scientist in sustainable development should not only focus on the environment. It should also take into consideration the health of the populace in ensuring that no area of life suffers [ 5 ].

While sustainable development may mean different things to different people, environmental sustainability is all encompassing. It is directly concerned with the future of humanity, and it defines how we should protect and handle the sustainability of resources, air quality, water quality, and ecosystems. It also helps to prevent the environment from impending damage from technological advancement. One way to achieving environmental sustainability is via effective wastewater treatment.

Various conventional wastewater treatment methods are available; their characteristics vary from complexities of operations through sludge generations among other things to various inadequacies. Their economic disadvantages are widely related to expensive equipment, complexities of operations and skilful manpower requirement. Many industries avoid the conventional wastewater treatment methods due to their economic disadvantages, hence discharging untreated or fairly treated wastewater into the water bodies. A simple and cheap wastewater treatment method will therefore facilitate effective wastewater treatment and protect the water environment from pollution.

2.2. Effects and challenges

Water is an essential and general need of life with an undeniable effect directly or indirectly. All industrial, environmental, and metabolic processes are water dependent. In living organisms, water plays a number of roles such as solvent, temperature buffer, metabolite, living environment, and lubricants [ 6 ]. Water, however, is said to be polluted when some of the water quality parameters have been hampered by unguided and irregularities from several anthropogenic activities, thus rendering water unfit for intended use.

Water pollution may pose serious threat to the environment as well as lives. Pollutant effects may vary depending on their types and source. For instance, while heavy metals, dyes, and some other organic pollutants have been identified as carcinogens, hormones, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics and personal care product wastes are known as endocrine disruptive chemicals [ 7 ]. These pollutants, which enter into the water body through various channel but predominantly anthropogenic, have become a great concern to environmentalists due to various hazard they pose on the environment.

2.2.1. Heavy metal pollution

Heavy metals top the list of inorganic pollutant with wide range of negative effects on aquatic organisms, plants, and human. Heavy metals are released into the environment via different routes such as industries, mining activities, agricultural activities etc. [ 8 ]. Bioavailable metals present in the soil may be absorbed by plants resulting in serious plant metabolism dysfunctioning [ 9 ]. High heavy metal ion concentrations are also known to damage the cell membrane, affect enzyme involved in chlorophyll production, thus reducing photosynthetic rate as well as affect plant reproduction via decrease in pollen and seed viability [ 10 ].

Humans and animals can be exposed to heavy metal toxicity through the food web, direct consumption of water containing metal or via inhalation [ 11 ]. Heavy metals readily bioaccumulates in vegetables and enters into man and animal through food chain. Effects of heavy metal toxicity on human ranges from mild eye, nose and skin irritations through severe headache, stomach ache, diarrhea, hematemesis, vomiting, dizziness to organ dysfunctioning such as cirrhosis, necrosis, low blood pressure, hypertension, and gastrointestinal distress [ 12 ]. While some heavy metals also called essential elements (cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, vanadium, and zinc) are required in minute amount in the body for various biochemical processes; others such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury are of serious threat and considered foreign in the body. Looking at specifics, human ingestion of water polluted with arsenic can cause cancer of the lungs, liver, and bladder. Kidney and lungs damage as well as bone fragility may result when cadmium containing water is ingested. Exposure to lead can severely damage the brain and kidneys. In children, lead exposure even at very low concentration may hamper learning, cause memory loss, affect attention and response functions, and generally make children aggressive [ 13 , 14 ]. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage, whereas in men, it can damage the organs responsible for sperm production. Mercury is unique amidst other heavy metals; it has the capacity to travel a wide range of distance, thus have been classified as a global pollutants. The chemical form of mercury in the environment is also important in analyzing their toxicity. The organic form of mercury, that is, methyl mercury (MeHg) and dimethyl mercury (DMeHg), is known to be more toxic than inorganic mercury [ 15 , 16 ]. While inhaled mercury goes into the blood stream, their elimination from the body is either through the urine or faeces. Mercury has the ability to exist in the urine for about 2 months, hence their renal dysfunctioning characteristic [ 16 ].

Many physiological disorders may accompany crustaceans’ exposure to metals, and instant metabolic activities’ alterations. Exposure of crustaceans to heavy metals may also result in loss of appetite for food and subsequently body weight loss. Continuous exposure may reduce reproduction in adults as well as hamper the growth larvae [ 17 ].

2.2.2. Organic pollutants

Organic pollutants are very wide in variety with a huge range of toxicity. Among the list of organic pollutants that has been of great threat to aquatic organisms, plants, and humans are dyes, plant and animal pharmaceuticals, personal care products wastes as well as petroleum organic pollutants. A group of chemicals referred to as endocrine disruptive chemicals (EDCs) also belongs to the organic pollutants group, which are classed as emerging contaminants. EDCs are described as external agents that interfere with hormonal activities, thus affecting the normal homeostatic reproduction, development or behavior [ 18 ].

Dyes are water soluble giant chemical that is greatly used in many industries viz; textile, leather and tanning, food, paper, etc. to impact color on products. Aquatic organisms, plants, and humans are greatly affected by dyes’ presence in water. They impede sunlight penetration into water bodies and reduce dissolved oxygen, thus leading to death of photosynthetic organism and other lives within the aquatic environment [ 1 ]. Humans may be exposed to dye toxicity via consumption of vegetables and fish which bioaccumulate dyes. The use of colored paper towels used in drying hands and in food preparation is another route of exposure to human [ 19 ]. Dyes are considered as carcinogenic and mutagenic, thus their removal from wastewater before disposal is ultimately important.

Human and veterinary pharmaceuticals, which are members of EDCs, are chemicals used as curative or preventive of various diseases. Veterinary pharmaceutical may also serve the purpose of increasing efficiency of food production. Pharmaceuticals are used widely and unavoidably, thus they enter into the environment through one of these routes indiscriminate disposal of hospital and household waste, landfill leaching, drainage water and sewage. Although pharmaceuticals have been found to exist in various environmental samples at the ng/l to μg/l levels, it is considered a great threat to both aquatic lives and humans [ 20 ]. The presence of pharmaceuticals in water is known to pose both acute and chronic toxicity on aquatic organisms [ 21 , 22 ]. EDCs as their name implies causes abnormal endocrine activities and increase cancer risk in human. Their effects on aquatic lives may range from endocrine system disruption through the reduction in eggs and sperm cells production to feminization of female aquatics [ 23 – 25 ].

2.3. Salvaging the aquatic environment: demands and expectations

Water is one important part of our day to day activities and their preservation can never be overemphasized. Three quarter of the fluid in man is made of water and it forms the essential medium in which the biochemical reactions take place in human body. Water moves blood from one place to the other in the body and helps in digestion; electrically charged ions, which generate nerve signals that make the human brain possible, are also held and transported by water. Water is a good solvent and it is usually referred to as universal solvent; all the major components in cells, that is, protein, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and polysaccharides are all soluble in water. Pure water is tasteless, odorless, and transparent and thus provides a habitat for aquatic plants and organisms because sunlight can reach them within the water. Though clean water is a vital commodity for the well-being of human but unfortunately, the availability of fresh water is unevenly distributed and greatly threatened where available due to problems associated with climate change, inefficient water management and pollution. Recent report says very high percentage of the world population still lacks water for human well-being and ecosystem conservation [ 26 ]. The world is faced with the dilemma of achieving balance between economic development and sustainable natural environment.

Effective wastewater treatment has been earlier identified a way of protecting the water environment with detailed discussion on effective, cheap, and accessible method of wastewater treatment [ 27 ]. Various other methods of water purification such as forward and/or reverse osmosis [ 28 – 31 ], precipitations [ 32 , 33 ], coagulation [ 34 – 36 ], filtrations [ 37 – 39 ] modular anaerobic system [ 40 ], microbial fuel cell [ 41 ], and advanced oxidation process [ 42 ] with their attendant challenges have been reported in literature.

Various environmental policies stipulating discharge protocols exists. These policies are however not effectively executed as the industries consider them as damaging to business. The ability of industries to run with the various environmental discharge policies will sustain our natural environment.

Policy integration, that is, factoring environmental issues of concern into the core of economic development, is highly important to facilitate policy performance. The main actors in environmental issues, that is, the industries, agro firms, and populace, show very little understanding of the impact of their activities on the present and future environment. While organized periodical training concerning environmental sustainability should form part of environmental policy objectives, ensuring that these objectives are integrated into sectors plains and policies is important.

3. Microbial perspective of water pollution and remediation

Drinking water supplied to our communities is usually sourced from rivers, springs, and underground sources. Usually, some form of treatment is carried out to ensure the water is fit for drinking although some sources are somewhat free from contaminating microorganism and can be clean, for example deep well. In many developing countries, one source of water can serve many uses such as drinking, washing, swimming, bathing, etc. In the same vein, sewage can be channeled into water bodies. Sewage can be defined as used water draining out of homes and industries that contain a wide range of debris, chemicals, and microorganisms. Such water is regarded as potential health hazard to consumers or the users of other sort. A major kind of hazard is the presence of pathogenic organisms in such water. This is why water is usually treated in three phases [ 43 , 44 ].

The first is to separate large matter in the water source and the second stage focuses on removing more toxic substances and other matter. The tertiary phase involves total purification of water commonly by chemical disinfection. More recently, membrane bioreactors are being used and have been found to be very efficient in removing contaminants. These are combinations of communities and high-efficiency membranes that are much more effective at removing contaminants. The role of microbes is obvious in the second stage where microorganisms actively carry out biodegradation of organic matter in the aqueous portion produced after the first stage. Biodegradation of materials, such as paper and petroleum, are by bacteria, algae, and protozoa. When water is exposed to air, soil as well as effluents, it gains saprobic microorganisms; it can also pick up pathogens such as Cryptosporidium , Campylobacter , Salmonella , Shigella , etc.

To monitor water for each of these pathogens may not be possible but detection of fecal contamination is an easier way of spotting contamination. In such case, when the fecal contamination is high, pathogens are believed to be present and the water is unsafe for drinking. Hence, indicator organisms are used as tools to detect fecal contamination of water. They usually inhabit the intestine of mammals and birds and can be easily identified using common laboratory procedures. To achieve water protection, it will be almost impossible to search for the pathogens themselves. Hence, certain organisms with specified criteria are used as ‘indicators’ of the presence of enteric pathogens in a water sample. An indicator bacterium should be applicable for analysis of all types of water; it should be found anytime enteric pathogens are present and it should thrive in the wastewater longer than the toughest enteric pathogen. In addition, such organism should not reproduce in the contaminated water because this will give exaggerated values and it should not be harmful to human begins. Other criteria are that the level of contamination should be directly proportional to the level of fecal contamination; assay procedure for the indicator organism should be highly specific and the test procedure should be easily performed.

The following are commonly used as indicators of fecal contamination in water: total coliforms, Escherichia coli , fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci/enterococci, coliphage, and Clostridium perfringens . Coliforms are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae (they include E. coli ). They are facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, nonsporing, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35°C [ 45 ].

Microbial contamination of water can be detected by checking for certain organisms including heterotrophic bacteria, coliforms, and Escherichia coli in such samples. The work by Kora et al . [ 46 ] showed that heterotrophic bacteria were in abundance in the lake water sampled. They also reported that contamination by E. coli and coliforms were beyond the allowable limit; indiscriminate disposal of sewage into water as well as release of human excreta was implicated in the high level of indicator organisms.

Control of pathogens in water is important to prevent waterborne diseases; this can be effectively done using multiple barrier approach. Microbial treatment methods goes further than traditional municipal wastewater treatment, because it takes into consideration the removal of nutrients (e.g., nitrate and phosphate) and easily degradable organic compounds as well as the possible presence of toxic compounds and variations in pH of the wastewater. A more advanced design is required in the bioreactor to be used. Some parameters to be considered in designing a treatment system are biomass yield, nutrient addition, the supply of oxygen or other electron donor, pH control as well as kinetics, that is, biological reaction rates (biotransformation). It is important to note at high concentration many compounds of interest are toxic to bacteria being used for treatment. Also some dissolved organic and inorganic compounds may constitute inhibitors to biodegradation by the organism. Biological treatment processes may not consist of the following—lagoon treatment, activated sludge as well as fixed film bioreactors.

The lagoon treatment is long-detention time basins; but unlike activated sludge processes, they do not use solid recycle. Such treatment scheme may be in three categories: anaerobic lagoon treatment, which makes use of highly loaded lakes creating anaerobic conditions. It has been used successfully for the pretreatment of meat and poultry processing wastewater reducing the biochemical oxygen demand considerably [ 47 ].

In the case of facultative ponds, there is an aerobic surface and an anaerobic bottom. The top aerobic layer facilitates treatment of dissolved organic compounds as well as odourous compounds. This has found application in pulp and paper industries. With regards to aerated lagoons, oxygen is provided by mechanical means or diffused aeration and the solids are continuously mixed and in suspension. Biological oxygen demand (BOD 5 ) removal may range up to 95% [ 48 ].

Another biological treatment process of interest is the activated sludge. It is made up of an aeration basin where aeration equipment provides both oxygen and adequate mixing of wastewater to maintain a uniformly mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). The aeration basin is followed by a liquid–solid separation usually in a clarifier by gravity and finally the settled biomass is returned again to the activated sludge basin. Examples of aeration basin configurations are – plug-flow systems, single completely mixed basins, and basins in series. The solid retention time (SRT) is important in this treatment process. The solid retention time is the average time biomass is maintained in a biological treatment process reaction. Generally, SRT control is temperature dependent and for a warmer climate (15–25°C), SRT should be between 4 and 9 days [ 49 ]. The clarifier is very important in the performance of activated sludge processes. It ensures that efficient clarification and thickening of mixed liquor occurs. When the readily degradable soluble biochemical oxygen demand is high in wastewaters, growth of filamentous bacteria is encouraged leading to poor sludge settlement. The use of powdered activated carbon (PAC) has been discovered to enhance the efficiency of activated sludge processes. The PAC functions by adsorbing inhibitory chemicals or adsorbing chemicals that buffer variable loads. The application between 10 and 50 mg/liter of wastewater has been proven to remove organic inhibitors of the process as well as improve nitrification since it absorbs organic compounds that can prevent this process (ammonia-nitrite/nitrate conversion) in autotrophic bacteria [ 50 ].

Apart from the aforementioned, anaerobic bioreactors are also beneficial for the industrial wastewater treatment. This is because it is cost effective and can be used for industrial wastewater with high strength. The processes in the anaerobic bioreactor lead to the production of mainly methane as well as other gases. However, there is a need to strike a balance between fermentation bacterial activity and methanogenic bacteria activity as the latter is slow growing. Advantages of anaerobic treatment include low sludge formation, production of useful product, low nutrient requirement, and more importantly less energy requirements since aeration is not necessary. In addition to the energy production, advantages of anaerobic wastewater treatment, high organic matter removal efficiency, low excess sludge production, and stable operation are characteristics of this wastewater treatment technique [ 51 ].

A most recent advancement in the biological treatment of wastewater is the use of membranes in bioreactors. In such cases, the membrane can serve three major purposes. Firstly, membranes can be used as a surface for the attachment for growth of organisms and to permit oxygen to permeate into the biofilm. An example of this is the hollow-fiber gas-permeable membranes in wastewater treatment. Such membrane is produced from microporous, hydrophobic polypropylene and allows almost 100% oxygen transfer while ensuring high biomass density within the space. The second way membranes can be used as selective barriers. Such membranes permit organic compounds in wastewater to permeate but do not transport ions into the bioreactor. Thus, it allows for the selection of biodegradable organic compounds. An example of a material used for such membrane is silicone rubber. Finally, membranes can be for biomass separation. This third category requires that the membrane be used instead of a clarifier after activated sludge treatment. When such membranes are used, the effluent produced is of high quality and less sludge. In addition, automated processing can be easily employed. The disadvantage however is the financial enormity of the investment for initial start-up as well as maintenance [ 50 , 52 , 53 ].

3.1. Monitoring water distribution systems

Since coliform bacteria are often detected in drinking water and often, the source of contamination is not known, it is important to put in place control measures. The water distribution systems must be considered because water quality deterioration (i.e., negative quality changes that occur from the point of distribution to the point of detection) may occur. This can be as a result of reduced maintenance of the distribution system or from insufficient treatment and may lead to undue microbial growth, which the consumer may not notice. Water distribution systems should be periodically flushed to remove sediments, deposits as well as the growth of microorganisms within the pipe. For areas where the flow rate is low and possibly of the water becoming stale is high, a secondary disinfection using monochloramine and proper maintenance should be carried out in such as to prevent nitrification. Another point is to avoid a break in the distribution system especially during construction, repairs or installations, and cross connections. The officers should also ensure that the level of treatment a water sample is given is in conformity with the quality of the source of water. Also, the sampling for laboratory analysis must also be taken into consideration and monitored thoroughly when aseptic techniques are compromised, detection of coliforms may occur.

Even though reports of water diseases have been low and less serious in most developed countries, it is still a major concern in some underdeveloped countries especially war-ravaged countries. It is however important to operate a multibarrier approach, which will ensure protection of the water source, and also certify adequate treatment and distribution of water. It is however important that every occurrence of coliforms in drinking water be properly investigated so that if the contamination is as a result of operational deficiency, this can be addressed and future occurrence is prevented, thus safe guarding the health of the public [ 54 ].

3.2. Herbal disinfection of water

Several modern methods of water purification have been well embraced in our society today. However, some rural dwellers who may not be able to afford these modern treatment methods still have water pollution as a major challenge [ 55 ]. Furthermore, the disinfection by-products which remain after treatment is another reason why herbal attempts in water treatment should be encouraged.

It is important to note that not many researchers apply their antimicrobial extract or fractions directly in water treatment. Many groups stop at establishing the antimicrobial potential of their study plant, whereas others go further to apply the extracts in water treatment. For instance, a reported work used alcoholic, aqueous, and fresh juice extracts of Ocimum sanctum (tulsi) and Azadirachta indica (neem) and applied them in vitro against salmonella, which was chosen as an indicator organism. The alcoholic extract gave the best result for well water, whereas the aqueous extract was best for lake water [ 56 ]. Similarly, inspired by the fact that tulsi, neem, and amla are used to treat microbial infection without any side effect, another researcher compared the effectiveness of these three herbs in water purification, using percentage of E. coli removal to measure the effectiveness of each herb. A notable observation is the fact that a mixture of 1% concentration of each herb is not as efficient as the synergistic combination of the three [ 57 ].

An indirect application of herbs in water purification is their use in the synthesis of nanoparticles, which are afterwards applied to remove contaminants from water [ 58 ]. These extracts influence the surface properties of the nanoparticles, thus dictating their unique properties Owing to the obvious advantages of natural disinfection, there is a need for more research into natural products for water purification. This will in no small way help rural dwellers to cheaply assess cheap clean water and so live a healthier lifestyle.

4. Water pollution and impact on climate

All organisms, including man need water for their survival. Water resource managers had strongly depended on wastewater treatment in ensuring that the quality of water is sustained, preserved, and maintained for optimal use. By 2025, an estimated around 5 billion people out of a total population of around 8 billion will be living in areas of water stress [ 59 ]. One of the major environmental issues affecting humanity is the increasing worldwide contamination of freshwater systems as a consequence of industrial and chemical compound materials being emptied into their pathways/runways, majorly in form of micro-pollutants. According to Schwarzenbach et al. [ 60 ], most of these pollutants are present at low concentrations, many of them however can raise significant toxicological concerns, more importantly when such compounds are present as constituents of composite blends. Numerous micro-pollutants had been identified in literatures [ 61 – 64 ], which are not vulnerable to current treatment and are subsequently transported to the aquatic environment. Some of these include steroid hormones, pesticides, industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and many other emerging materials. This consequently endangers both the aquatic and human life. It is therefore not surprising that freshwater pollution is a strong public menace, which requires global concern. The next quotation properly situates the environmental risk humans are exposed to:

“It is in the interest of all the world that climatic changes are understood and that the risks of irreversible damage to natural systems, and the threats to the very survival of man, be evaluated and allayed with the greatest urgency” [ 65 ]

The above quotation were the statements of the President of the Republic of the Maldives, His Excellency Maumoon Abdul, Gayoom, during the United Nations General Assembly held in 1987 in the United States of America, as adapted from the (World Health Organization Geneva Report) [ 66 ]. The meeting was centered on Issues of Environment and Development. Due to climate change effect, both the thermal and hydrological phases of rivers are expected to vary. Owning to these, it is necessary to briefly discuss what climate change is as climate change has the potential of imposing additional pressures in some regions of the world.

4.1. What climate change is

In other to get a good grasp of what climate change is, it may be better to first define climate. Climate is usually narrowly defined as the average weather, or broadly, as the statistical description in terms of the average and variability of relevant parameters or quantities of interest over a period of time, ranging from days to millions of years. Most often, the parameters often used are temperature, precipitation, wind, etc. Climate can therefore be generally described as a state, including statistical description, of the climate system.

Climate change, on the other hand, often referred to as global warming, is the rise in the average temperature on the Earth’s surface. It is well believed that the climate change event is as a consequence of human use of fossil fuels, which consequently releases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other greenhouse gases into the air. These gases trap heat within the earth’s atmosphere and can have a variety of effects ranging from rising sea levels to severe weather events. Green et al. [ 67 ] had submitted that global climate change can include natural and anthropogenic influences on terrestrial climate and the hydrologic cycle. Most notable international scientific community had actualized the reality of climate change. Some of these include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ), and the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) of the United States, to mention a few. These agencies further reiterated that climate change is a menace created from human activity to affect human. Figure 1 adapted from World Health Organization Geneva Report [ 66 ] revealed that all the major activities of global climatic changes eventually bore its consequence on human in general and on human health in particular.

Inter-relationship between various kinds of environmental change. Adapted from WHO Geneva Report [ 66 ].

However, pressures and anxiety on the Earth’s climatic system are having impacts on the surface of the Earth. Apart from the rising surface temperatures, the activities of increasing and frequent flooding and droughts and the changes in our natural water ecosystem are other areas of great concern in the continuous existence of man on Earth. According to WHO Geneva Report [ 66 ], climatic situation and activities affect human well-being both directly and indirectly. The direct influence is through the physical effects of climatic extremes, whereas the indirect means include the influence on the intensities or level of pollution in the air, on the marine and freshwater systems that provide food and water, as well as the pathogens that cause infectious diseases. For the purpose of this section, we concentrate on the climatic activities with respect to water pollution. This will lead us to the next sub-section.

4.2. Probable link between water pollution and climatic impact

“Observational records and climate projections provide abundant evidence that freshwater resources are vulnerable and have the potential to be strongly impacted by climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for human societies and ecosystems”

- Excerpt from the executive summary of the technical paper of the IPCC edited by Bates et al. [ 68 ]

Human activity affects weather, climate, and the environment. While some of human activities are harmless, others damage the environment. While the environment can absorb some abuse without long-term effects, much harmful human activity exceeds the environment’s capacity to recover. Water pollution is one of the inevitable human-induced climate change issues that called for urgent remedial measures. Water pollution will in no small measure affect or alter the basic water quality parameters comprising the micro-pollutants, physiochemical, and biological parameters [ 69 ]. Probable and incessant changes in both rainfall and air temperature has the capacity to affect river flow thereby inducing chemical reaction kinetics as well as drop in the freshwater ecological quality. Associated with such process are dilution of contaminants and water sediment loads, which when ran into lakes will alter its natural features and affect its inhabitants. This form of water pollution or through man-made toxic chemical or/and by-products addition may therefore generate some toxic and greenhouse gases, which may subsequently contribute to global warming activities or more severe environmental threats.

The greenhouse gases are the gaseous constituents of the atmosphere (both natural and anthropogenic), which can absorb and emit radiation at certain wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the earth’s surface, the atmosphere itself, and the clouds. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere include carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ), nitrous oxide ( N 2 O ), water vapor ( H 2 O ), methane ( CH 4 ), and ozone ( O 3 ). The other ones identified from the Kyoto Protocol include hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ), perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ). Some of these environmental threats include earth’s temperature enhancement (as earlier stated), lowering of atmospheric air quality, and killing of aquatic animals. Consequently, given the legacy of historic greenhouse gas emissions and the prospect of inevitable climate change, one cannot but commit significant financial and technical resources to remediating the effect through rigorous research efforts and sensitization activities [ 70 ], more importantly to water pollution and water-related issues. Thus, water resources managers are continuously and increasingly looking for information on the possible changes in hydrological regimes, which may arise in the next few decades for likeable adaptation measure plan [ 68 ].

An interesting challenge is that while incessant water pollution may bring about a change in climatic conditions through greenhouse effect and activities, the climate too will in turn take its toll effect on the water system and environment (hydrological cycles). This is because the higher temperature generated from the greenhouse effect will eventually turn some part of the snowfall into rainfall, causing an earlier snowmelt season [ 71 ]. These effects will consequently alter the timing and volume of spring flood appreciably. The rise in sea level during this time will then cause saline water intrusion into groundwater aquifers close to the coast thereby reducing the available groundwater resources. This process will in no small measure affect humans as almost about 50% of the world population depends on groundwater for their various activities [ 72 ]. Mitchelle et al. [ 73 ] using physically hydrological and water temperature modeling framework had reported an increase in the seasonality of river discharge for about 35% of the global (consisting of all continents) land coverage for the projected and modeled data for years 2071–2100 when compared with the years spanning 1971–2000. They also projected a rise in temperature—revealing a projected global change into the future. Other effects of climate change on the hydrological cycle include increasing atmospheric water vapor content, changes in soil moisture and runoff, and changing precipitation patterns [ 74 ]. Furthermore, higher temperatures of freshwater and changes in extremes, including floods and droughts can also intensify many forms of water pollution. The authors also showed that water fluctuation in quantity and quality has the potential of affecting food stability and availability—leading to a reduction in food security to vulnerable poor farmers.

4.3. Water pollution remediates measures against climate change

Almost 20% of the entire population of the Earth do not have adequate access to safe water, while about 40% suffer the effects of deplorable sanitary situations [ 75 ]. Schwarzenbach et al. [ 60 ] had submitted that the increase in surface/groundwater pollution will go a long way in affecting both the human and aquatic life systems. According to Schwarzenbach et al. [ 60 ], about 35% of the Earth’s available and renewable freshwater are used for industrial, domestic, and agricultural purposes. However, if this activities are not well managed, water pollution may be inevitable with different kinds of pollutants. Some of the water pollutants according to the authors include industrial chemicals (e.g., solvents and petrochemicals), biocides (e.g., pesticides and nonagricultural biocides), natural chemicals (e.g., heavy metals and cyanotoxins), industrial products (e.g., additives and lubricants), as well as consumer products (e.g., detergents and personal care products). Industrial manufactured nanomaterials had also been found to be a major water pollutant whose effects is on the increase in affecting aquatic ecosystem [ 76 ]. According to Lapworth et al. [ 77 ], groundwater pollution mainly results from landfill leachate, infiltration of contaminated water from agricultural land, groundwater-surface water reaction, as well as seepage of sewer systems. While some of these pollutants, like heavy metals, are not degraded at all, some others disintegrated very slowly and can be transported to hundreds of kilometers away from the source. The effects of their waterborne pollution however ranges from contamination of drinking water causing drinking water quality problems to emission of greenhouse gases, resulting in climatic change challenges.

Some remediate climate change mitigation measures against water pollution can however be taken. Some of these include carbon dioxide capture and storage, planting of bio-energy crops, proper solid waste disposition, afforestation or reforestation, cropland management–both for water and reduced tillage [ 74 ] among other measures. Scientific researches involving water pollution should be geared more toward ascertaining the physical underlying molecular mechanisms and factors rather than just the usual empirical comparison approach that is commonly used. The mechanisms involved if well understood will go a long way in properly situating ways of combating the water pollution challenges. This according to Metz and Ingold [ 62 ] may be achieved by developing a structure that addresses both the problem dimension (causes and effects) and sustainability dimension (long term and cross-sectoral) of assessing best instruments that regulate water pollution. A sustainable working policy on water pollution should not only be designed and enacted but also rigorously followed, more importantly in the developing and underdeveloped countries where the menace of water pollution has not been effectively managed. Bemelmans-Videc [ 78 ] had presented a classification for effectively managing water pollution. These are (i) regulation (i.e., substance ban and authorization restriction) (ii) economic instruments (i.e., product or substance charge—in which case a charge is levied on substances that contains hazardous compounds with the aim of reducing its use), and (iii) information (e.g., disposal requirements and information campaign). These Bemelmans-Videc [ 78 ] classifications according to Metz [ 63 ] would help in differentiating source-directed measures from end-of-pipe measures in water quality regulation. While the source-directed measures help in avoiding pollution before toxic and injurious chemical materials enter into waters, the end-of-pipe measures concentrate on filtering pollution after its input into wastewater.

Furthermore, usage and disposal approaches should be in place with the aim of minimizing the addition of critical pollutants into aquatic environment. In addition, such system-specific properties and reactivities (like adsorption to solid phases and abiotic/biological transformations) should be well understood and quantified. This kind of processes will yield a significant framework for reliable coverage and evaluation of chemical compounds in complex macroscopic ecosystems [ 66 ]. Other alternative methods for removing pollutants from waters include ozonation and advanced oxidation process (AOPs), coagulation-flocculation, membrane bioreactor, PAC , and attached growth treatment processes. Refer to the work of [ 61 ] for comprehensive reading on the methodology and activity of each process. It can therefore be concluded that whatever form of measure taken in inhibiting both surface and groundwater will not only advance our aquatic ecosystem, but will also help man from further endangering his environment from the menace of climate change.

5. Conclusion

Since water forms a core of the existence of human and other living things, its preservation and sustainable availability cannot be overemphasized. The availability of clean water is greatly threatened by various human activities and of interest is pollution which in turn affects the ecosystem and causes various climatic changes. While various wastewater treatment methods are being explored by industries and various treatment plants, untreated wastewater is still being discharged into the water bodies by some industries. Thus, effective environmental protection policies compliance drive will be of immense benefit to the environment and by extension to human. Factoring these environmental protection policies into the goals and objectives of various actors involved in environmental deterioration will help policies performance. This will serve as a step forward in the direction of ameliorating water pollution.

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Water Pollution and its Sources, Effects & Management: A Case Study of Delhi

Shahid Ahmed and Saba Ismail (2018) 'Water Pollution and its Sources, Effects & Management: A Case Study of Delhi', International Journal of Current Advanced Research, 07(2), pp. 10436-10442

7 Pages Posted: 31 Mar 2018

Shahid Ahmed

Jamia Millia Islamia - Economics

Saba Ismail

Jamia Millia Islamia

Date Written: 2018

Water pollution is a national and global issue. Humans and all living species in the world are facing worst results of polluted water. The present study investigates the level of awareness about water pollution in Delhi, its causes, its health effects and solutions among the youth in Delhi. The paper has used primary data collected through a schedule from university/college students in Delhi. The study concludes that the majority of educated youth (94%) perceives water pollution as environmental challenge and 52% respondents ranked it (1-3) as most important threat. The study identified dumping of waste as one of the most important causes of water pollution; untreated sewage as the second most important cause of water pollution and industrial discharge as the third most important cause of water pollution. The study identified Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dengue, Cholera, Jaundice, Malaria, Chikungunya, etc are associated with water pollution on the basis of survey. The study suggests awareness campaign involving citizens and strict enforcement of environmental laws by concerned agencies as the appropriate solution to control environment degradation. It is recommended that there should be proper waste disposal system and waste should be treated before entering in to river and water bodies.

Keywords: Environment Sustainability, Water Pollution, Health Effects

JEL Classification: Q50, Q53, I12

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Shahid Ahmed (Contact Author)

Jamia millia islamia - economics ( email ).

Jamia Nagar New Delhi, 110025 India

HOME PAGE: http://jmi.ac.in/economics/faculty-members/Prof_Shahid_Ahmed-1783

Jamia Millia Islamia ( email )

Jamia Nagar, New Delhi Delhi, 110025 India

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• Table Of Contents

What is water pollution?

Water pollution is the release of substances into bodies of water that makes water unsafe for human use and disrupts aquatic ecosystems. Water pollution can be caused by a plethora of different contaminants, including toxic waste , petroleum , and disease-causing microorganisms .

What human activities cause water pollution?

Human activities that generate domestic sewage and toxic waste cause water pollution by contaminating water with disease-causing microorganisms and poisonous substances. Oil spills are another source of water pollution that have devastating impacts on surrounding ecosystems.

Sewage can promote algae growth, which can eventually result in eutrophic “dead zones” where aquatic life cannot survive because of a lack of oxygen. Microplastics are often found in marine wildlife and can become concentrated in humans who consume seafood because of biomagnification . Oil spills, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, strand and kill many different marine species.

While some studies point to human activity as a catalyst for red tide, scientists are unsure about its cause. Red tide is a common term for harmful algal blooms that often poison or kill wildlife and humans who consume contaminated seafood. Red tides can severely impact ecosystems and local economies.

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water pollution , the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes , streams, rivers , estuaries , and oceans to the point that the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems . In addition to the release of substances, such as chemicals , trash, or microorganisms, water pollution may include the release of energy , in the form of radioactivity or heat , into bodies of water.

Types and sources of water pollutants

Water bodies can be polluted by a wide variety of substances, including pathogenic microorganisms, putrescible organic waste, fertilizers and plant nutrients , toxic chemicals, sediments, heat , petroleum (oil), and radioactive substances . Several types of water pollutants are considered below. (For a discussion of the handling of sewage and other forms of waste produced by human activities, see waste disposal and solid-waste management .)

Water pollutants come from either point sources or dispersed sources. A point source is a pipe or channel, such as those used for discharge from an industrial facility or a city sewerage system . A dispersed (or nonpoint) source is a very broad unconfined area from which a variety of pollutants enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural area. Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources, because the contaminated water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where it can be treated. Pollution from dispersed sources is difficult to control, and, despite much progress in the building of modern sewage-treatment plants, dispersed sources continue to cause a large fraction of water pollution problems.

Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens ( disease -causing microorganisms) and putrescible organic substances. Because pathogens are excreted in feces , all sewage from cities and towns is likely to contain pathogens of some type, potentially presenting a direct threat to public health . Putrescible organic matter presents a different sort of threat to water quality. As organics are decomposed naturally in the sewage by bacteria and other microorganisms, the dissolved oxygen content of the water is depleted. This endangers the quality of lakes and streams, where high levels of oxygen are required for fish and other aquatic organisms to survive. In addition, domestic sewage commonly contains active pharmaceutical ingredients, which can harm aquatic organisms and may facilitate antibiotic resistance . Sewage-treatment processes reduce the levels of pathogens and organics in wastewater, but they do not eliminate them completely ( see also wastewater treatment ).

Domestic sewage is also a major source of plant nutrients , mainly nitrates and phosphates . Excess nitrates and phosphates in water promote the growth of algae , sometimes causing unusually dense and rapid growths known as algal blooms . When the algae die, oxygen dissolved in the water declines because microorganisms use oxygen to digest algae during the process of decomposition ( see also biochemical oxygen demand ). Anaerobic organisms (organisms that do not require oxygen to live) then metabolize the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide , which are harmful to the aerobic (oxygen-requiring) forms of life. The process by which a lake changes from a clean, clear condition—with a relatively low concentration of dissolved nutrients and a balanced aquatic community —to a nutrient-rich, algae-filled state and thence to an oxygen-deficient, waste-filled condition is called eutrophication . Eutrophication is a naturally occurring, slow, and inevitable process. However, when it is accelerated by human activity and water pollution (a phenomenon called cultural eutrophication ), it can lead to the premature aging and death of a body of water.

The improper disposal of solid waste is a major source of water pollution. Solid waste includes garbage, rubbish, electronic waste , trash, and construction and demolition waste, all of which are generated by individual, residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. The problem is especially acute in developing countries that may lack infrastructure to properly dispose of solid waste or that may have inadequate resources or regulation to limit improper disposal. In some places solid waste is intentionally dumped into bodies of water. Land pollution can also become water pollution if the trash or other debris is carried by animals, wind, or rainfall to bodies of water. Significant amounts of solid waste pollution in inland bodies of water can also eventually make their way to the ocean. Solid waste pollution is unsightly and damaging to the health of aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife directly. Many solid wastes, such as plastics and electronic waste, break down and leach harmful chemicals into the water, making them a source of toxic or hazardous waste.

Of growing concern for aquatic environments is plastic pollution . Since the ocean is downstream from nearly every terrestrial location, it is the receiving body for much of the plastic waste generated on land. Several million tons of debris end up in the world’s oceans every year, and much of it is improperly discarded plastic litter. Plastic pollution can be broken down by waves and ultraviolet radiation into smaller pieces known as microplastics , which are less than 5 mm (0.2 inch) in length and are not biodegradable. Primary microplastics, such as microbeads in personal care products and plastic fibers in synthetic textiles (e.g., nylon ), also enter the environment directly, through any of various channels—for example, from wastewater treatment systems , from household laundry, or from unintentional spills during manufacturing or transport. Alarmingly, a number of studies of both freshwater and marine locations have found microplastics in every aquatic organism tested. These tiny plastics are suspected of working their way up the marine food chains , from zooplankton and small fish to large marine predators, and have been found in seafood. Microplastics have also been detected in drinking water. Their health effects are unknown.

Waste is considered toxic if it is poisonous , radioactive , explosive , carcinogenic (causing cancer ), mutagenic (causing damage to chromosomes ), teratogenic (causing birth defects), or bioaccumulative (that is, increasing in concentration at the higher ends of food chains). Sources of toxic chemicals include improperly disposed wastewater from industrial plants and chemical process facilities ( lead , mercury , chromium ) as well as surface runoff containing pesticides used on agricultural areas and suburban lawns ( chlordane , dieldrin , heptachlor). (For a more-detailed treatment of toxic chemicals, see poison and toxic waste .)

Sediment (e.g., silt ) resulting from soil erosion or construction activity can be carried into water bodies by surface runoff . Suspended sediment interferes with the penetration of sunlight and upsets the ecological balance of a body of water. Also, it can disrupt the reproductive cycles of fish and other forms of life , and when it settles out of suspension it can smother bottom-dwelling organisms.

Heat is considered to be a water pollutant because it decreases the capacity of water to hold dissolved oxygen in solution, and it increases the rate of metabolism of fish. Valuable species of game fish (e.g., trout ) cannot survive in water with very low levels of dissolved oxygen . A major source of heat is the practice of discharging cooling water from power plants into rivers; the discharged water may be as much as 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than the naturally occurring water. The rise in water temperatures because of global warming can also be considered a form of thermal pollution.

Petroleum ( oil ) pollution occurs when oil from roads and parking lots is carried in surface runoff into water bodies. Accidental oil spills are also a source of oil pollution—as in the devastating spills from the tanker Exxon Valdez (which released more than 260,000 barrels in Alaska’s Prince William Sound in 1989) and from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig (which released more than 4 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico in 2010). Oil slicks eventually move toward shore, harming aquatic life and damaging recreation areas.

Groundwater —water contained in underground geologic formations called aquifers —is a source of drinking water for many people. For example, about half the people in the United States depend on groundwater for their domestic water supply . Although groundwater may appear crystal clear (due to the natural filtration that occurs as it flows slowly through layers of soil ), it may still be polluted by dissolved chemicals and by bacteria and viruses . Sources of chemical contaminants include poorly designed or poorly maintained subsurface sewage-disposal systems (e.g., septic tanks ), industrial wastes disposed of in improperly lined or unlined landfills or lagoons , leachates from unlined municipal refuse landfills, mining and petroleum production, and leaking underground storage tanks below gasoline service stations. In coastal areas, increasing withdrawal of groundwater (due to urbanization and industrialization) can cause saltwater intrusion: as the water table drops, seawater is drawn into wells.

Although estuaries and oceans contain vast volumes of water, their natural capacity to absorb pollutants is limited. Contamination from sewage outfall pipes, from dumping of sludge or other wastes, and from oil spills can harm marine life, especially microscopic phytoplankton that serve as food for larger aquatic organisms. Sometimes, unsightly and dangerous waste materials can be washed back to shore, littering beaches with hazardous debris. In oceans alone, annual pollution from all types of plastics was estimated to be between 4.8 million and 12.7 million tonnes (between 5.3 million and 14 million tons) in the early 21st century, and floating plastic waste had accumulated in Earth’s five subtropical gyres, which cover 40 percent of the world’s oceans.

Another ocean pollution problem is the seasonal formation of “ dead zones” (i.e., hypoxic areas, where dissolved oxygen levels drop so low that most higher forms of aquatic life vanish) in certain coastal areas. The cause is nutrient enrichment from dispersed agricultural runoff and concomitant algal blooms. Dead zones occur worldwide; one of the largest of these (sometimes as large as 22,730 square km [8,776 square miles]) forms annually in the Gulf of Mexico , beginning at the Mississippi River delta.

Although pure water is rarely found in nature (because of the strong tendency of water to dissolve other substances), the characterization of water quality (i.e., clean or polluted) is a function of the intended use of the water. For example, water that is clean enough for swimming and fishing may not be clean enough for drinking and cooking. Water quality standards (limits on the amount of impurities allowed in water intended for a particular use) provide a legal framework for the prevention of water pollution of all types.

There are several types of water quality standards. Stream standards are those that classify streams, rivers , and lakes on the basis of their maximum beneficial use; they set allowable levels of specific substances or qualities (e.g., dissolved oxygen , turbidity, pH) allowed in those bodies of water, based on their given classification. Effluent (water outflow) standards set specific limits on the levels of contaminants (e.g., biochemical oxygen demand , suspended solids, nitrogen ) allowed in the final discharges from wastewater-treatment plants. Drinking-water standards include limits on the levels of specific contaminants allowed in potable water delivered to homes for domestic use. In the United States , the Clean Water Act and its amendments regulate water quality and set minimum standards for waste discharges for each industry as well as regulations for specific problems such as toxic chemicals and oil spills . In the European Union , water quality is governed by the Water Framework Directive, the Drinking Water Directive, and other laws . ( See also wastewater treatment .)

Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know

Our rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and seas are drowning in chemicals, waste, plastic, and other pollutants. Here’s why—and what you can do to help.

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What is water pollution?

What are the causes of water pollution, categories of water pollution, what are the effects of water pollution, what can you do to prevent water pollution.

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances—often chemicals or microorganisms—contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.

This widespread problem of water pollution is jeopardizing our health. Unsafe water kills more people each year than war and all other forms of violence combined. Meanwhile, our drinkable water sources are finite: Less than 1 percent of the earth’s freshwater is actually accessible to us. Without action, the challenges will only increase by 2050, when global demand for freshwater is expected to be one-third greater than it is now.

Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution. Known as a “universal solvent,” water is able to dissolve more substances than any other liquid on earth. It’s the reason we have Kool-Aid and brilliant blue waterfalls. It’s also why water is so easily polluted. Toxic substances from farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it, causing water pollution.

Here are some of the major sources of water pollution worldwide:

Agricultural

Toxic green algae in Copco Reservoir, northern California

Aurora Photos/Alamy

Not only is the agricultural sector the biggest consumer of global freshwater resources, with farming and livestock production using about 70 percent of the earth’s surface water supplies , but it’s also a serious water polluter. Around the world, agriculture is the leading cause of water degradation. In the United States, agricultural pollution is the top source of contamination in rivers and streams, the second-biggest source in wetlands, and the third main source in lakes. It’s also a major contributor of contamination to estuaries and groundwater. Every time it rains, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste from farms and livestock operations wash nutrients and pathogens—such bacteria and viruses—into our waterways. Nutrient pollution , caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water or air, is the number-one threat to water quality worldwide and can cause algal blooms , a toxic soup of blue-green algae that can be harmful to people and wildlife.

Sewage and wastewater

Used water is wastewater. It comes from our sinks, showers, and toilets (think sewage) and from commercial, industrial, and agricultural activities (think metals, solvents, and toxic sludge). The term also includes stormwater runoff , which occurs when rainfall carries road salts, oil, grease, chemicals, and debris from impermeable surfaces into our waterways

More than 80 percent of the world’s wastewater flows back into the environment without being treated or reused, according to the United Nations; in some least-developed countries, the figure tops 95 percent. In the United States, wastewater treatment facilities process about 34 billion gallons of wastewater per day . These facilities reduce the amount of pollutants such as pathogens, phosphorus, and nitrogen in sewage, as well as heavy metals and toxic chemicals in industrial waste, before discharging the treated waters back into waterways. That’s when all goes well. But according to EPA estimates, our nation’s aging and easily overwhelmed sewage treatment systems also release more than 850 billion gallons of untreated wastewater each year.

Oil pollution

Big spills may dominate headlines, but consumers account for the vast majority of oil pollution in our seas, including oil and gasoline that drips from millions of cars and trucks every day. Moreover, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil that makes its way into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from land-based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. At sea, tanker spills account for about 10 percent of the oil in waters around the world, while regular operations of the shipping industry—through both legal and illegal discharges—contribute about one-third. Oil is also naturally released from under the ocean floor through fractures known as seeps.

Radioactive substances

Radioactive waste is any pollution that emits radiation beyond what is naturally released by the environment. It’s generated by uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and the production and testing of military weapons, as well as by universities and hospitals that use radioactive materials for research and medicine. Radioactive waste can persist in the environment for thousands of years, making disposal a major challenge. Consider the decommissioned Hanford nuclear weapons production site in Washington, where the cleanup of 56 million gallons of radioactive waste is expected to cost more than $100 billion and last through 2060. Accidentally released or improperly disposed of contaminants threaten groundwater, surface water, and marine resources.

To address pollution and protect water we need to understand where the pollution is coming from (point source or nonpoint source) and the type of water body its impacting (groundwater, surface water, or ocean water).

Where is the pollution coming from?

Point source pollution.

When contamination originates from a single source, it’s called point source pollution. Examples include wastewater (also called effluent) discharged legally or illegally by a manufacturer, oil refinery, or wastewater treatment facility, as well as contamination from leaking septic systems, chemical and oil spills, and illegal dumping. The EPA regulates point source pollution by establishing limits on what can be discharged by a facility directly into a body of water. While point source pollution originates from a specific place, it can affect miles of waterways and ocean.

Nonpoint source

Nonpoint source pollution is contamination derived from diffuse sources. These may include agricultural or stormwater runoff or debris blown into waterways from land. Nonpoint source pollution is the leading cause of water pollution in U.S. waters, but it’s difficult to regulate, since there’s no single, identifiable culprit.

Transboundary

It goes without saying that water pollution can’t be contained by a line on a map. Transboundary pollution is the result of contaminated water from one country spilling into the waters of another. Contamination can result from a disaster—like an oil spill—or the slow, downriver creep of industrial, agricultural, or municipal discharge.

What type of water is being impacted?

Groundwater pollution.

When rain falls and seeps deep into the earth, filling the cracks, crevices, and porous spaces of an aquifer (basically an underground storehouse of water), it becomes groundwater—one of our least visible but most important natural resources. Nearly 40 percent of Americans rely on groundwater, pumped to the earth’s surface, for drinking water. For some folks in rural areas, it’s their only freshwater source. Groundwater gets polluted when contaminants—from pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached from landfills and septic systems—make their way into an aquifer, rendering it unsafe for human use. Ridding groundwater of contaminants can be difficult to impossible, as well as costly. Once polluted, an aquifer may be unusable for decades, or even thousands of years. Groundwater can also spread contamination far from the original polluting source as it seeps into streams, lakes, and oceans.

Surface water pollution

Covering about 70 percent of the earth, surface water is what fills our oceans, lakes, rivers, and all those other blue bits on the world map. Surface water from freshwater sources (that is, from sources other than the ocean) accounts for more than 60 percent of the water delivered to American homes. But a significant pool of that water is in peril. According to the most recent surveys on national water quality from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nearly half of our rivers and streams and more than one-third of our lakes are polluted and unfit for swimming, fishing, and drinking. Nutrient pollution, which includes nitrates and phosphates, is the leading type of contamination in these freshwater sources. While plants and animals need these nutrients to grow, they have become a major pollutant due to farm waste and fertilizer runoff. Municipal and industrial waste discharges contribute their fair share of toxins as well. There’s also all the random junk that industry and individuals dump directly into waterways.

Ocean water pollution

Eighty percent of ocean pollution (also called marine pollution) originates on land—whether along the coast or far inland. Contaminants such as chemicals, nutrients, and heavy metals are carried from farms, factories, and cities by streams and rivers into our bays and estuaries; from there they travel out to sea. Meanwhile, marine debris— particularly plastic —is blown in by the wind or washed in via storm drains and sewers. Our seas are also sometimes spoiled by oil spills and leaks—big and small—and are consistently soaking up carbon pollution from the air. The ocean absorbs as much as a quarter of man-made carbon emissions .

On human health

To put it bluntly: Water pollution kills. In fact, it caused 1.8 million deaths in 2015, according to a study published in The Lancet . Contaminated water can also make you ill. Every year, unsafe water sickens about 1 billion people. And low-income communities are disproportionately at risk because their homes are often closest to the most polluting industries.

Waterborne pathogens, in the form of disease-causing bacteria and viruses from human and animal waste, are a major cause of illness from contaminated drinking water . Diseases spread by unsafe water include cholera, giardia, and typhoid. Even in wealthy nations, accidental or illegal releases from sewage treatment facilities, as well as runoff from farms and urban areas, contribute harmful pathogens to waterways. Thousands of people across the United States are sickened every year by Legionnaires’ disease (a severe form of pneumonia contracted from water sources like cooling towers and piped water), with cases cropping up from California’s Disneyland to Manhattan’s Upper East Side.

A woman using bottled water to wash her three-week-old son at their home in Flint, Michigan

Todd McInturf/The Detroit News/AP

Meanwhile, the plight of residents in Flint, Michigan —where cost-cutting measures and aging water infrastructure created a lead contamination crisis—offers a stark look at how dangerous chemical and other industrial pollutants in our water can be. The problem goes far beyond Flint and involves much more than lead, as a wide range of chemical pollutants—from heavy metals such as arsenic and mercury to pesticides and nitrate fertilizers —are getting into our water supplies. Once they’re ingested, these toxins can cause a host of health issues, from cancer to hormone disruption to altered brain function. Children and pregnant women are particularly at risk.

Even swimming can pose a risk. Every year, 3.5 million Americans contract health issues such as skin rashes, pinkeye, respiratory infections, and hepatitis from sewage-laden coastal waters, according to EPA estimates.

On the environment

In order to thrive, healthy ecosystems rely on a complex web of animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi—all of which interact, directly or indirectly, with each other. Harm to any of these organisms can create a chain effect, imperiling entire aquatic environments.

When water pollution causes an algal bloom in a lake or marine environment, the proliferation of newly introduced nutrients stimulates plant and algae growth, which in turn reduces oxygen levels in the water. This dearth of oxygen, known as eutrophication , suffocates plants and animals and can create “dead zones,” where waters are essentially devoid of life. In certain cases, these harmful algal blooms can also produce neurotoxins that affect wildlife, from whales to sea turtles.

Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate waterways as well. These contaminants are toxic to aquatic life—most often reducing an organism’s life span and ability to reproduce—and make their way up the food chain as predator eats prey. That’s how tuna and other big fish accumulate high quantities of toxins, such as mercury.

Marine ecosystems are also threatened by marine debris , which can strangle, suffocate, and starve animals. Much of this solid debris, such as plastic bags and soda cans, gets swept into sewers and storm drains and eventually out to sea, turning our oceans into trash soup and sometimes consolidating to form floating garbage patches. Discarded fishing gear and other types of debris are responsible for harming more than 200 different species of marine life.

Meanwhile, ocean acidification is making it tougher for shellfish and coral to survive. Though they absorb about a quarter of the carbon pollution created each year by burning fossil fuels, oceans are becoming more acidic. This process makes it harder for shellfish and other species to build shells and may impact the nervous systems of sharks, clownfish, and other marine life.

With your actions

We’re all accountable to some degree for today’s water pollution problem. Fortunately, there are some simple ways you can prevent water contamination or at least limit your contribution to it:

• Learn about the unique qualities of water where you live . Where does your water come from? Is the wastewater from your home treated? Where does stormwater flow to? Is your area in a drought? Start building a picture of the situation so you can discover where your actions will have the most impact—and see if your neighbors would be interested in joining in!
• Reduce your plastic consumption and reuse or recycle plastic when you can.
• Properly dispose of chemical cleaners, oils, and nonbiodegradable items to keep them from going down the drain.
• Maintain your car so it doesn’t leak oil, antifreeze, or coolant.
• If you have a yard, consider landscaping that reduces runoff and avoid applying pesticides and herbicides .
• Don’t flush your old medications! Dispose of them in the trash to prevent them from entering local waterways.
• Be mindful of anything you pour into storm sewers, since that waste often won’t be treated before being released into local waterways. If you notice a storm sewer blocked by litter, clean it up to keep that trash out of the water. (You’ll also help prevent troublesome street floods in a heavy storm.)
• If you have a pup, be sure to pick up its poop .

With your voice

One of the most effective ways to stand up for our waters is to speak out in support of the Clean Water Act, which has helped hold polluters accountable for five decades—despite attempts by destructive industries to gut its authority. But we also need regulations that keep pace with modern-day challenges, including microplastics, PFAS , pharmaceuticals, and other contaminants our wastewater treatment plants weren’t built to handle, not to mention polluted water that’s dumped untreated.

Tell the federal government, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and your local elected officials that you support water protections and investments in infrastructure, like wastewater treatment, lead-pipe removal programs, and stormwater-abating green infrastructure. Also, learn how you and those around you can get involved in the policymaking process . Our public waterways serve every one of us. We should all have a say in how they’re protected.

This story was originally published on May 14, 2018, and has been updated with new information and links.

This NRDC.org story is available for online republication by news media outlets or nonprofits under these conditions: The writer(s) must be credited with a byline; you must note prominently that the story was originally published by NRDC.org and link to the original; the story cannot be edited (beyond simple things such as grammar); you can’t resell the story in any form or grant republishing rights to other outlets; you can’t republish our material wholesale or automatically—you need to select stories individually; you can’t republish the photos or graphics on our site without specific permission; you should drop us a note to let us know when you’ve used one of our stories.

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Discharge from a Chinese fertilizer factory winds its way toward the Yellow River. Like many of the world's rivers, pollution remains an ongoing problem.

Water pollution is a rising global crisis. Here’s what you need to know.

The world's freshwater sources receive contaminants from a wide range of sectors, threatening human and wildlife health.

From big pieces of garbage to invisible chemicals, a wide range of pollutants ends up in our planet's lakes, rivers, streams, groundwater, and eventually the oceans. Water pollution—along with drought, inefficiency, and an exploding population—has contributed to a freshwater crisis , threatening the sources we rely on for drinking water and other critical needs.

Research has revealed that one pollutant in particular is more common in our tap water than anyone had previously thought: PFAS, short for poly and perfluoroalkyl substances. PFAS is used to make everyday items resistant to moisture, heat, and stains; some of these chemicals have such long half-lives that they are known as "the forever chemical."

Safeguarding water supplies is important because even though nearly 70 percent of the world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. And just one percent of freshwater is easily accessible, with much of it trapped in remote glaciers and snowfields.

Water pollution causes

Water pollution can come from a variety of sources. Pollution can enter water directly, through both legal and illegal discharges from factories, for example, or imperfect water treatment plants. Spills and leaks from oil pipelines or hydraulic fracturing (fracking) operations can degrade water supplies. Wind, storms, and littering—especially of plastic waste —can also send debris into waterways.

Thanks largely to decades of regulation and legal action against big polluters, the main cause of U.S. water quality problems is now " nonpoint source pollution ," when pollutants are carried across or through the ground by rain or melted snow. Such runoff can contain fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides from farms and homes; oil and toxic chemicals from roads and industry; sediment; bacteria from livestock; pet waste; and other pollutants .

Finally, drinking water pollution can happen via the pipes themselves if the water is not properly treated, as happened in the case of lead contamination in Flint, Michigan , and other towns. Another drinking water contaminant, arsenic , can come from naturally occurring deposits but also from industrial waste.

Freshwater pollution effects

Water pollution can result in human health problems, poisoned wildlife, and long-term ecosystem damage. When agricultural and industrial runoff floods waterways with excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, these nutrients often fuel algae blooms that then create dead zones , or low-oxygen areas where fish and other aquatic life can no longer thrive.

Algae blooms can create health and economic effects for humans, causing rashes and other ailments, while eroding tourism revenue for popular lake destinations thanks to their unpleasant looks and odors. High levels of nitrates in water from nutrient pollution can also be particularly harmful to infants , interfering with their ability to deliver oxygen to tissues and potentially causing " blue baby syndrome ." The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that 38 percent of the European Union's water bodies are under pressure from agricultural pollution.

Globally, unsanitary water supplies also exact a health toll in the form of disease. At least 2 billion people drink water from sources contaminated by feces, according to the World Health Organization , and that water may transmit dangerous diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

Freshwater pollution solutions

In many countries, regulations have restricted industry and agricultural operations from pouring pollutants into lakes, streams, and rivers, while treatment plants make our drinking water safe to consume. Researchers are working on a variety of other ways to prevent and clean up pollution. National Geographic grantee Africa Flores , for example, has created an artificial intelligence algorithm to better predict when algae blooms will happen. A number of scientists are looking at ways to reduce and cleanup plastic pollution .

There have been setbacks, however. Regulation of pollutants is subject to changing political winds, as has been the case in the United States with the loosening of environmental protections that prevented landowners from polluting the country’s waterways.

Anyone can help protect watersheds by disposing of motor oil, paints, and other toxic products properly , keeping them off pavement and out of the drain. Be careful about what you flush or pour down the sink, as it may find its way into the water. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommends using phosphate-free detergents and washing your car at a commercial car wash, which is required to properly dispose of wastewater. Green roofs and rain gardens can be another way for people in built environments to help restore some of the natural filtering that forests and plants usually provide.

Related Topics

• WATER POLLUTION
• ENVIRONMENT AND CONSERVATION
• FRESH WATER
• GROUNDWATER
• WATER QUALITY
• WATER RESOURCES

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Term Paper on Environmental Pollution: Top 5 Papers | Biology

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Here is a term paper on ‘Environmental Pollution’. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on ‘Environmental Pollution’ especially written for school and college students.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution

Term Paper Contents:

• Term Paper on the Noise Pollution

Human beings interact with their environment constantly for its resources. As the human population is increasing at a very fast pace so the amount of this interaction is also increasing. Human beings started exploiting the nature for their needs. This damaged and destroyed the nature.

As the human demands increase the Use of natural resources also increases and along with this the addition of undesirable substances in nature also increases. This addition of undesirable substances which alters the composition of environment is called pollution.

Pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of our environment, i.e. air, water and soil caused by excessive accumulation of pollutants that may directly or indirectly affect human beings and other species.

Pollutant is a substance present in the environment in con­centrations that are harmful to the environment and to the living beings. This can be under­stood with the help of an example — Nitrogen and Phosphorus are used as fertilisers by plants, but as they are in excess in lakes they cause death of plants and animals.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution # 1. Air Pollution :

This is defined as the occurrence of any foreign matter or gas into the atmosphere which may be harmful to living organisms.

Air pollution can result from both human and natural actions. The natural events that pollute the air include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, evaporation of organic compounds and natural radioactivity. Pollution from natural occurrences are not very often. The man-made sources are burning fuels, industrial emission, vegetable oils, and pesticide residues in air.

Sources of Air Pollution:

1. Industrial Pollutants:

Pollutants added by industrial smoke in air are CO 2 , SO 2 , H 2 S, CO and hydrocarbons. The metallurgical processes discharge pollutants like lead, nickel, chromium, etc. Chemical industries release zinc, lead, arsenic and HCl.

2. Burning of Fuel:

Burning of fossil fuel increases CO and CO 2 . It also releases methane, soot, SO 2 and ash.

3. Mobile Combustion:

These days this has become the major source of air pollution. This not only includes automobiles but also aircrafts. It is estimated that around 2000 million tons of pollutants are pumped into the atmosphere every day in Delhi. The reason for introducing lead free petrol was the emission of lead in atmosphere by the vehicles. This can lead to lead poisoning.

4. Agricultural Activity:

Burning of biomass produces a large amount of methane. Burning of forests also emits CO 2 Spraying of weedicides and pesticides adds pollutants like chlorinated hydrocarbons, arsenic, etc.

5. Radiation:

Radiations emitted from the radioactive ex­plosion and tests also add the ionised radiation to the atmosphere.

6. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM):

Dust generated from refineries and power plants, silica and cement generated from stone crushers, addition of dust due to vehicular movement increase the SPM of atmosphere.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution # 2. Water Pollution:

Water is life for all the living beings and activities such as agriculture, domestic and industrial uses on earth. But still the clean and safe drinking water is a commodity, today. Water is being polluted through many factors.

Water pollution can be defined as:

“Any change in the physical or chemical properties of water, due to presence of any foreign substance is known as water pollution.”

Two-third of the world is water. Pollution of water bodies not only affect terrestrial but also aquatic flora and fauna.

Sources of water pollution can be classified into point and non-point source.

1. Point Source:

In this source of pollution is close to water source. Pollutants are directly discharged into the water body and it is possible to treat the pollutant before it enters the water body. Examples are sewage outlet of municipal area, underground coal mines and oil wells.

2. Non-Point Source:

Pollution source is scattered away from water source; pollutants are discharged at various places and it is difficult to monitor, regulate and treat the pollutants. Examples are water from roads, streets, lawns, gardens, runoff from fields, etc.

Types of Pollutants:

There can be physical, chemical and biological pollutants. Physical pollutants can be oil spills and hot water from thermal and electrical power plants. Chemical pollutants can be pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals and inorganic chemicals. Biological pollutants can be pathogens like bacteria, protozoa, helminthes, algae, etc.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution # 3. Soil Pollution :

Soil pollution means addition of unwanted substances which reduce the soil fertility.

Types of Soil Pollutants:

a. Throwing of kitchen garbage and domestic waste.

b. Industries involved in the manufacture of chemicals, rubber, paper, textile, etc. dis­charge their waste like metal scrapes, dyes, plastics, etc.

c. Use of biocides leads to soil pollution.

d. Acid rain changes the soil pH and makes the soil infertile.

e. Discharging human excreta adds pathogens to soil.

Prevention of Soil Pollution:

Following are the methods that can be adapted to avoid or reduce soil pollution:

a. Afforestation and plantation of grasses.

b. Improving agricultural practices.

c. Disposal of domestic waste should be done in proper manner.

d. Whatever possible should be recycled like glass, plastic, metals, etc.

e. Reuse of material and items should be encouraged.

f. Proper laws should be made and enforced and stringent action should be taken against defaulters.

g. Public awareness should be generated.

h. Work on fully biodegradable plastic is being carried on in the National Research Development Corporation (NRDC).

i. It may be possible to prevent soil erosion of Jaisalmir desert by proper irrigation through Indira Gandhi Canal.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution # 4. Radioactive Pollution :

Property of certain elements to emit particles and rays like proton, electron and gamma rays by disintegration is called as radioactivity and elements are known as radioactive elements. These radiations cause pollution in air, water and soil.

Kinds of Radioactive Pollution:

a. Natural Source:

These include cosmic rays coming from space and terrestrial radiation from radioactive disintegration (photons, electrons).

b. Anthropogenic Source:

Mining and refining of plutonium and thorium, explosion of nuclear weapons, nuclear power plants and making of radioactive isotopes are also the sources of radiations.

Effects of Radioactive Pollution:

Higher doses of radiation cause death. In lower doses it affects all organs seriously.

In the treatment of cancer long exposure to radiation is used that leads to mutation. These mutated genes persist in the organisms and may be transmitted to future generation.

Control of Radioactive Pollution:

It is necessary to take safety measures while handling radioactive substances. It is also necessary that radioactive waste should be disposed very carefully. Frequent sampling and quantitative analysis in the risk area should be done regularly. Safety measures are to be taken against occupational exposure.

Term Paper on Environmental Pollution # 5. Noise Pollution :

Noise pollution is defined as the production of unwanted ‘high pitch sound. Sound is an inseparable part of human life, but higher pitch can do more harm than good. It not only causes physiological damage but also psychological damage. Unit in which sound is measured is called decibel (dB).

Silence is when sound is at 25 dB, during ordinary conversation it is between 30 and 60 dB. Threshold of hearing is the quietest sound which human ear can perceive. Critical level for ear damage is 85 dB. Jet airplane creates a sound of more than 120 dB at take-off and this is the threshold of pain. This sound can damage the ear and give physical discomfort and headache.

Sources of Noise Pollution:

a. Transport vehicles create noise beyond critical level for ear damage.

b. Industrial machines like engineering establishments, defense equipment, etc.

c. Modern domestic gadgets.

d. Aircrafts.

e. Loud speakers.

Effects of Noise Pollution:

a. Impairment of hearing.

b. Headache and hypertension.

c. Unwanted noise increases heartbeat, dilation of pupil, constriction of blood vessels.

d. Too much of noise affects the nervous system.

e. Physiological as well as psychological disorders.

Control of Noise Pollution:

It can be controlled by using proper lubricants so that the noise of machines can be reduced. People working in industries should use ear covers. Airports and industries should be away from residential areas. Laws should be made and strictly enforced.

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Rainfall Prediction Model Based on CEEMDAN-VMD-BiLSTM Network

• Published: 02 July 2024
• Volume 235 , article number  482 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Sen Hou 1 ,
• Qikang Geng 1 ,
• Yaru Huang 2 &
• Zhen Bian   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-6933-1697 1  

Rainfall prediction, based on meteorological data and models, forecasts the possible rainfall conditions for a period in the future. It is one of the important issues in meteorology and hydrology, and holds significant scientific and social value for enhancing human society's adaptive capacity, reducing the risk of natural disasters, promoting sustainable development, and protecting the environment. This study proposes a rainfall prediction model based on CEEMDAN-VMD-BiLSTM, which couples CEEMDAN (Complete Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition with Adaptive Noise), VMD (Variational Mode Decomposition), and BiLSTM (Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory). The model first employs CEEMDAN and VMD, two decomposition algorithms, for a secondary decomposition of the original data, followed by prediction using the BiLSTM network. The study integrates the characteristics of CEEMDAN, which include adaptability, completeness, denoising capability, and high precision, the characteristic of VMD in extracting trend information, and the ability of the BiLSTM model to better capture contextual information in sequence data and solve long-term dependency issues, thereby increasing the accuracy of rainfall prediction. The research selected Zhongwei City in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region as the study object and used 20 years of monthly rainfall data from 2001 to 2020 as the research data. The model was compared with standalone BiLSTM models, CEEMDAN-BiLSTM coupled models, and VMD-BiLSTM coupled models. The model was validated using four indicators: RMSE, MARE, MAE, and NSE. The results showed that the maximum relative error of the CEEMDAN-VMD-BiLSTM neural network rainfall prediction coupled model was 7.22%, and the minimum relative error was -7.03%. The prediction qualification rate was 100%. The overall NSE value of the model ranged from 0.63 to 0.97, with most values between 0.86 and 0.97. The excellent rate was about 84.6%, and the good and above rate was 92.3%. In the rainfall prediction for Zhongwei City, the prediction accuracy of this coupled model was better than the other three models. In summary, the CEEMDAN-VMD-BiLSTM rainfall prediction model proposed in this paper combines the advantages of various methods and has shown good predictive effects in experiments, providing an effective prediction method for rainfall.

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Data and materials are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Hou, S., Geng, Q., Huang, Y. et al. Rainfall Prediction Model Based on CEEMDAN-VMD-BiLSTM Network. Water Air Soil Pollut 235 , 482 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07299-8

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Clean Water Act leaves about 55% of water flowing out of rivers vulnerable to pollution, study suggests

by University of Massachusetts Amherst

The Supreme Court ruled in 2023 that rivers that only flow in response to weather events—called ephemeral streams—do not fall under the protection of the Clean Water Act. Research published in the journal Science , led by University of Massachusetts Amherst recent doctoral graduate Craig Brinkerhoff and co-authored by colleagues at Yale University, suggests that this now leaves many U.S. waterways vulnerable to pollution.

Consider the Connecticut River, says Colin Gleason, Armstrong Professor of civil and environmental engineering at UMass Amherst and an author on the paper.

The Connecticut has rules regulating where and what kinds of sediments, nutrients and pollutants can be dumped into the river, "and if you now just go up into the hills and dump it in a dry gully… there's every chance it ends up in the main stem of the Connecticut that you've worked so hard to protect once it rains," he explains.

While perennial streams flow continually, an ephemeral stream does not contain groundwater, so these non-perennial streams only run when they fill up with rain.

The researchers set out to determine just how much water these sometimes-dry river beds contribute to a river system's total output.

They found that, on average, ephemeral streams contribute 55% of the water that comes out of the mouth of regional river systems across the United States, but there is a strong east-west divide.

River basins west of the Mississippi are more influenced by ephemeral streams than eastern rivers. For instance, 94% of the water coming out of the river systems in Black Rock Desert, Nevada, and Humboldt County, California, comes from ephemeral streams.

This makes sense, says Brinkerhoff. "Normally, when we think about ephemeral streams, we think of dry riverbeds in the desert," he explains. "The groundwater table is always way below the land surface."

But the researchers were surprised to discover just how influential these ephemeral streams were on the East Coast as well: "Even on the East Coast, even in a humid place where there's a ton of groundwater, ephemeral streams are still exerting a big influence," Brinkerhoff continues.

Gleason points to his home watershed to illustrate this point. "On a day in which every stream in the Connecticut River is flowing with its average annual condition, 59% of the water entering Long Island Sound was sourced from these ephemeral streams—a.k.a., dry gullies in the woods," he says.

However, these ephemeral streams are no longer regulated by the Clean Water Act (CWA). Last summer, in the case of "Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency," a majority of the Supreme Court defined the bodies of water that fall under CWA protection as "only those relatively permanent, standing or continuously flowing bodies of water forming geographical features that are described in ordinary parlance as streams, oceans, rivers, and lakes."

"The Clean Water Act regulates where and how much we can dump into water bodies—water bodies being rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs, etc.," says Brinkerhoff. And the implications of this new research for water pollution are clear.

"[Ephemeral streams are] not flowing most of the time, but then you get a big enough rainstorm and all of a sudden you're pushing the stuff that's been accumulating in those rivers downstream. In theory, pollution in those ephemeral streams will ultimately influence water many kilometers away that is, at least nominally, still regulated by the Clean Water Act," he says.

Doug Kysar, Joseph M. Field Professor of Law at Yale Law School, and one of the study's authors, says that this work helps provide a constitutional basis to include ephemeral streams in the CWA.

"Water pollution is a transboundary issue that clearly implicates interstate commerce, such that Congress could regulate ephemeral streams even if they are not the kind of 'navigable waters' that Congress has historically exerted federal authority over."

However, he also says that it's more likely that this responsibility will fall to state and local governments. "The irony is that the federal Clean Water Act was adopted precisely because state and local governments were thought to be doing a poor job of protecting the nation's waterways," he adds.

"Our research helps to explain why that would be the case, as it shows just how far downstream from an ephemeral waterway the ultimate impacts of pollution can be felt. States don't necessarily have incentives to adopt costly water protections when the benefits will be felt by ecosystems out of state."

Using hydrology models, theory and field data, the researchers built a model that identifies every ephemeral stream in the contiguous U.S. and determines the percentage of a river's flow (for its annual average condition) that came from these ephemeral streams.

One thing the researchers emphasize is that the size of the river basin used for their modeling does influence the results. The 55% figure is only true when you divide river basins into a certain size—if they had used smaller basins, the ephemeral influence would be larger, and if they used bigger basins, the influence would be less.

But even using the scale they did—which is the second-largest river basin scale defined by the U.S. Geological Survey—ephemeral streams still influenced more than half of rivers' total water output. In other words, 55% is a quite surprising finding for rivers so large, the researchers say. Previous thinking was that ephemeral streams only influence their immediate areas.

"Our study provides more concrete evidence that all of these things are connected," says Brinkerhoff. "We can't regulate water bodies ad hoc."

Journal information: Science

Provided by University of Massachusetts Amherst

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