phenomenology research

What is phenomenology in qualitative research?

Last updated

7 February 2023

Reviewed by

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Take a closer look at this type of qualitative research along with characteristics, examples, uses, and potential disadvantages.

Analyze your phenomenological research

Use purpose-built tools to surface insights faster

• What is phenomenological qualitative research?

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that builds on the assumption that the universal essence of anything ultimately depends on how its audience experiences it .

Phenomenological researchers record and analyze the beliefs, feelings, and perceptions of the audience they’re looking to study in relation to the thing being studied. Only the audience’s views matter—the people who have experienced the phenomenon. The researcher’s personal assumptions and perceptions about the phenomenon should be irrelevant.

Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research as it requires an in-depth understanding of the audience’s thoughts and perceptions of the phenomenon you’re researching. It goes deep rather than broad, unlike quantitative research . Finding the lived experience of the phenomenon in question depends on your interpretation and analysis.

• What is the purpose of phenomenological research?

The primary aim of phenomenological research is to gain insight into the experiences and feelings of a specific audience in relation to the phenomenon you’re studying. These narratives are the reality in the audience’s eyes. They allow you to draw conclusions about the phenomenon that may add to or even contradict what you thought you knew about it from an internal perspective.

• How is phenomenology research design used?

Phenomenological research design is especially useful for topics in which the researcher needs to go deep into the audience’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

It’s a valuable tool to gain audience insights, generate awareness about the item being studied, and develop new theories about audience experience in a specific, controlled situation.

• Examples of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research is common in sociology, where researchers aim to better understand the audiences they study.

An example would be a study of the thoughts and experiences of family members waiting for a loved one who is undergoing major surgery. This could provide insights into the nature of the event from the broader family perspective.

However, phenomenological research is also common and beneficial in business situations. For example, the technique is commonly used in branding research. Here, audience perceptions of the brand matter more than the business’s perception of itself.

In branding-related market research, researchers look at how the audience experiences the brand and its products to gain insights into how they feel about them. The resulting information can be used to adjust messaging and business strategy to evoke more positive or stronger feelings about the brand in the future.

Free AI content analysis generator

Make sense of your research by automatically summarizing key takeaways through our free content analysis tool.

• The 4 characteristics of phenomenological research design

The exact nature of phenomenological research depends on the subject to be studied. However, every research design should include the following four main tenets to ensure insightful and actionable outcomes:

A focus on the audience’s interpretation of something . The focus is always on what an experience or event means to a strictly defined audience and how they interpret its meaning.

A lack of researcher bias or prior influence . The researcher has to set aside all prior prejudices and assumptions. They should focus only on how the audience interprets and experiences the event.

Connecting objectivity with lived experiences . Researchers need to describe their observations of how the audience experienced the event as well as how the audience interpreted their experience themselves.

• Types of phenomenological research design

Each type of phenomenological research shares the characteristics described above. Social scientists distinguish the following three types:

Existential phenomenology —focuses on understanding the audience’s experiences through their perspective. 

Hermeneutic phenomenology —focuses on creating meaning from experiences through the audience’s perspective.

Transcendental phenomenology —focuses on how the phenomenon appears in one consciousness on a broader, scientific scale.

Existential phenomenology is the most common type used in a business context. It’s most valuable to help you better understand your audience.

You can use hermeneutic phenomenology to gain a deeper understanding of how your audience perceives experiences related to your business.

Transcendental phenomenology is largely reserved for non-business scientific applications.

• Data collection methods in phenomenological research

Phenomenological research draws from many of the most common qualitative research techniques to understand the audience’s perspective.

Here are some of the most common tools to collect data in this type of research study:

Observing participants as they experience the phenomenon

Interviewing participants before, during, and after the experience

Focus groups where participants experience the phenomenon and discuss it afterward

Recording conversations between participants related to the phenomenon

Analyzing personal texts and observations from participants related to the phenomenon

You might not use these methods in isolation. Most phenomenological research includes multiple data collection methods. This ensures enough overlap to draw satisfactory conclusions from the audience and the phenomenon studied.

Get started collecting, analyzing, and understanding qualitative data with help from quickstart research templates.

• Limitations of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research can be beneficial for many reasons, but its downsides are just as important to discuss.

This type of research is not a solve-all tool to gain audience insights. You should keep the following limitations in mind before you design your research study and during the design process:

These audience studies are typically very small. This results in a small data set that can make it difficult for you to draw complete conclusions about the phenomenon.

Researcher bias is difficult to avoid, even if you try to remove your own experiences and prejudices from the equation. Bias can contaminate the entire outcome.

Phenomenology relies on audience experiences, so its accuracy depends entirely on how well the audience can express those experiences and feelings.

The results of a phenomenological study can be difficult to summarize and present due to its qualitative nature. Conclusions typically need to include qualifiers and cautions.

This type of study can be time-consuming. Interpreting the data can take days and weeks.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 22 August 2024

Last updated: 5 February 2023

Last updated: 16 August 2024

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 4 July 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

• Privacy Policy

Home » Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Phenomenology

Definition:

Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the study of subjective experience and consciousness. It is based on the idea that the essence of things can only be understood through the way they appear to us in experience, rather than by analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Phenomenology is often associated with the work of philosopher Edmund Husserl, who developed a method of phenomenological inquiry that involves suspending one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world and focusing on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves to us. This involves bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, and instead attending closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Phenomenology has been influential not only in philosophy but also in other fields such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology, where it has been used to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

History of Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement that began in the early 20th century, primarily in Germany. It was founded by Edmund Husserl, a German philosopher who is often considered the father of phenomenology.

Husserl’s work was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, particularly his emphasis on the importance of subjective experience. However, Husserl sought to go beyond Kant’s transcendental idealism by developing a rigorous method of inquiry that would allow him to examine the structures of consciousness and the nature of experience in a systematic way.

Husserl’s first major work, Logical Investigations (1900-1901), laid the groundwork for phenomenology by introducing the idea of intentional consciousness, or the notion that all consciousness is directed towards objects in the world. He went on to develop a method of “bracketing” or “epoche,” which involved setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves.

Other philosophers, such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, built on Husserl’s work and developed their own versions of phenomenology. Heidegger, in particular, emphasized the importance of language and the role it plays in shaping our understanding of the world, while Sartre focused on the relationship between consciousness and freedom.

Today, phenomenology continues to be an active area of philosophical inquiry, with many contemporary philosophers drawing on its insights to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

Types of Phenomenology

There are several types of phenomenology that have emerged over time, each with its own focus and approach. Here are some of the most prominent types of phenomenology:

Transcendental Phenomenology

This is the type of phenomenology developed by Edmund Husserl, which aims to investigate the structures of consciousness and experience in a systematic way by using the method of epoche or bracketing.

Existential Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, focuses on the subjective experience of individual existence, emphasizing the role of freedom, authenticity, and the search for meaning in human life.

Hermeneutic Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur, emphasizes the role of interpretation and understanding in human experience, particularly in the context of language and culture.

Phenomenology of Perception

This type of phenomenology, developed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, emphasizes the embodied and lived nature of perception, arguing that perception is not simply a matter of passive reception but is instead an active and dynamic process of engagement with the world.

Phenomenology of Sociality

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Alfred Schutz and Emmanuel Levinas, focuses on the social dimension of human experience, exploring how we relate to others and how our understanding of the world is shaped by our interactions with others.

Methods of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key methods that phenomenologists use to investigate human experience:

Epoche (Bracketing)

This is a key method in phenomenology, which involves setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves. By bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, one can attend more closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Introspection

Phenomenologists often rely on introspection, or a careful examination of one’s own mental states and experiences, as a way of gaining insight into the nature of consciousness and subjective experience.

Descriptive Analysis

Phenomenology also involves a careful description and analysis of subjective experiences, paying close attention to the way things appear to us in experience, rather than analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Another method used in phenomenology is the variation technique, in which one systematically varies different aspects of an experience in order to gain a deeper understanding of its structure and meaning.

Phenomenological Reduction

This method involves reducing a phenomenon to its essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of its nature and significance.

Epoché Variations

This method involves examining different aspects of an experience through the process of epoché or bracketing, to gain a more nuanced understanding of its subjective qualities and significance.

Applications of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, and healthcare. Here are some of the key applications of phenomenology:

• Philosophy : Phenomenology is primarily a philosophical approach, and has been used to explore a wide range of philosophical issues related to consciousness, perception, identity, and the nature of reality.
• Psychology : Phenomenology has been used in psychology to study human experience and consciousness, particularly in the areas of perception, emotion, and cognition. It has also been used to develop new forms of psychotherapy, such as existential and humanistic psychotherapy.
• Sociology : Phenomenology has been used in sociology to study the subjective experience of individuals within social contexts, particularly in the areas of culture, identity, and social change.
• Education : Phenomenology has been used in education to explore the subjective experience of students and teachers, and to develop new approaches to teaching and learning that take into account the individual experiences of learners.
• Healthcare : Phenomenology has been used in healthcare to explore the subjective experience of patients and healthcare providers, and to develop new approaches to patient care that are more patient-centered and focused on the individual’s experience of illness.
• Design : Phenomenology has been used in design to better understand the subjective experience of users and to create more user-centered products and experiences.
• Business : Phenomenology has been used in business to better understand the subjective experience of consumers and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences.

Purpose of Phenomenology

The purpose of phenomenology is to understand the subjective experience of human beings. Phenomenology is concerned with the way things appear to us in experience, rather than their objective properties or functions. The goal of phenomenology is to describe and analyze the essential features of subjective experience, and to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.

Phenomenology is particularly concerned with the ways in which subjective experience is structured, and with the underlying meanings and significance of these structures. Phenomenologists seek to identify the essential features of subjective experience, such as intentionality, embodiment, and lived time, and to explore the ways in which these features give rise to meaning and significance in human life.

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, healthcare, and design. In each of these fields, phenomenology is used to gain a deeper understanding of human experience, and to develop new approaches and strategies that are more focused on the subjective experiences of individuals.

Overall, the purpose of phenomenology is to deepen our understanding of human experience and to provide insights into the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence. Phenomenology offers a unique perspective on the subjective aspects of human life, and its insights have the potential to transform our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

Examples of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has many real-life examples across different fields. Here are some examples of phenomenology in action:

• Psychology : In psychology, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of individuals with mental health conditions. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of anxiety in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, or the experience of depression in individuals with major depressive disorder.
• Healthcare : In healthcare, phenomenology is used to explore the subjective experience of patients and to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of chronic pain in patients, in order to develop more effective pain management strategies that are based on the patient’s individual experience of pain.
• Education : In education, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of learning in students, in order to develop teaching methods that are more focused on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• Business : In business, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of consumers, and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular product or service, in order to identify areas for improvement and to create a more user-centered experience.
• Design : In design, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of users, and to create more user-centered products and experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular app or website, in order to identify ways to improve the user interface and user experience.

When to use Phenomenological Research

Here are some situations where phenomenological research might be appropriate:

• When you want to explore the meaning and significance of an experience : Phenomenological research is particularly useful when you want to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of individuals and the meanings and significance that they attach to their experiences. For example, if you want to understand the experience of being a first-time parent, phenomenological research can help you explore the various emotions, challenges, and joys that are associated with this experience.
• When you want to develop more patient-centered healthcare: Phenomenological research can be useful in healthcare settings where there is a need to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, if you want to improve pain management strategies for patients with chronic pain, phenomenological research can help you gain a better understanding of the individual experiences of pain and the different ways in which patients cope with this experience.
• When you want to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies : Phenomenological research can be used in education settings to explore the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies that are based on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• When you want to improve the user experience of a product or service: Phenomenological research can be used in design settings to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of users and to develop more user-centered products and experiences.

Characteristics of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key characteristics of phenomenology:

• Focus on subjective experience: Phenomenology is concerned with the subjective experience of individuals, rather than objective facts or data. Phenomenologists seek to understand how individuals experience and interpret the world around them.
• Emphasis on lived experience: Phenomenology emphasizes the importance of lived experience, or the way in which individuals experience the world through their own unique perspectives and histories.
• Reduction to essence: Phenomenology seeks to reduce the complexities of subjective experience to their essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.
• Emphasis on description: Phenomenology is primarily concerned with describing the features and structures of subjective experience, rather than explaining them in terms of underlying causes or mechanisms.
• Bracketing of preconceptions: Phenomenology involves bracketing or suspending preconceptions and assumptions about the world, in order to approach subjective experience with an open and unbiased perspective.
• Methodological approach: Phenomenology is both a philosophical and methodological approach, which involves a specific set of techniques and procedures for studying subjective experience.
• Multiple approaches: Phenomenology encompasses a wide range of approaches and variations, including transcendental phenomenology, hermeneutic phenomenology, and existential phenomenology, among others.

Advantages of Phenomenology

Phenomenology offers several advantages as a research approach, including:

• Provides rich, in-depth insights: Phenomenology is focused on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals in a particular context, which allows for a rich and in-depth exploration of their experiences, emotions, and perceptions.
• Allows for participant-centered research: Phenomenological research prioritizes the experiences and perspectives of the participants, which makes it a participant-centered approach. This can help to ensure that the research is relevant and meaningful to the participants.
• Provides a flexible approach: Phenomenological research offers a flexible approach that can be adapted to different research questions and contexts. This makes it suitable for use in a wide range of fields and research areas.
• Can uncover new insights : Phenomenological research can uncover new insights into subjective experience and can challenge existing assumptions and beliefs about a particular phenomenon or experience.
• Can inform practice and policy: Phenomenological research can provide insights that can be used to inform practice and policy decisions in fields such as healthcare, education, and design.
• Can be used in combination with other research approaches : Phenomenological research can be used in combination with other research approaches, such as quantitative methods, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon or experience.

Limitations of Phenomenology

Despite the many advantages of phenomenology, there are also several limitations that should be taken into account, including:

• Subjective nature: Phenomenology is focused on subjective experience, which means that it can be difficult to generalize findings to a larger population or to other contexts.
• Limited external validity: Because phenomenological research is focused on a specific context or experience, the findings may have limited external validity or generalizability.
• Potential for researcher bias: Phenomenological research relies heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and analyses of the data, which can introduce potential for bias and subjectivity.
• Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Phenomenological research is often time-consuming and resource-intensive, as it involves in-depth data collection and analysis.
• Difficulty with data analysis: Phenomenological research involves a complex process of data analysis, which can be difficult and time-consuming.
• Lack of standardized procedures: Phenomenology encompasses a range of approaches and variations, which can make it difficult to compare findings across studies or to establish standardized procedures.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) –...

Observational Research – Methods and Guide

Triangulation in Research – Types, Methods and...

Content Analysis – Methods, Types and Examples

Questionnaire – Definition, Types, and Examples

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• Write for Us
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 21, Issue 4
• Phenomenology as a healthcare research method
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• Alison Rodriguez ,
• Joanna Smith
• School of Healthcare , School of Healthcare, University of Leeds , Leeds , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Joanna Smith, School of Healthcare, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9UT, UK; j.e.smith1{at}leeds.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2018-102990

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

Qualitative research methodologies focus on meaning and although use similar methods have differing epistemological and ontological underpinnings, with each approach offering a different lens to explore, interpret or explain phenomena in real-world contexts and settings. In this article, we provide a brief overview of phenomenology and outline the main phenomenological approaches relevant for undertaking healthcare research.

What is phenomenology?

Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), a philosopher, established the discipline of phenomenology. In Husserl’s approach to phenomenology, now labelled descriptive phenomenology , experiences are described and researcher perceptions are set aside or ‘bracketed’ in order to enter into the life world of the research participant without any presuppositions. 1 Experience is recognised to involve perception, thought, memory, imagination and emotion, each involving ‘intentionality’, as the individual focuses their gaze on a specific ‘thing’ or event. 1 Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), a student of Husserl, rejected the theory of knowledge or ‘epistemology’ that influenced Husserl’s work, and instead adopted ‘ontology’, the science of being. In relation to research, ‘epistemology’ is concerned with what constitutes valid knowledge, and how knowledge is gained with a distinction between justified belief and opinion, while ‘ontology’ ‘is more concerned with the nature of reality and now we understand what exists and is experienced.

• View inline

Key differences between Husserl’s and Heidegger’s approaches to phenomenology

What is phenomenological research?

The philosophy of phenomenology resides within the naturalistic paradigm; phenomenological research asks: ‘ What is this experience like? ’, ‘ What does this experience mean? ’, and ‘ How does the lived world present itself to the participant or to me as the researcher? ’ Not all health research questions that seek to describe patient or professional experiences will be best met by a phenomenological approach; for example, service evaluations may be more suited to a descriptive qualitative design, where highly structured questions aim to find out participant’s views, rather than their lived experience.

Building on the work of Husserl and Heidegger, different approaches and applications of phenomenological to research have been developed. Table 2 , adapted from Rodriguez, 2 highlights the differences between the main traditions of phenomenology.

Comparison of the main phenomenological traditions

Is phenomenology an appropriate approach to undertaking healthcare research?

We will use a study that explored the lived experience of parenting a child with a life-limiting condition to outline the application of van Manen’s approach to phenomenology, 3 and the relevance of the findings to health professionals. The life expectancy of children with life-limiting conditions has increased because of medical and technical advances, with care primarily delivered at home by parents. Evidence suggests that caregiving demands can have a significant impact on parents’ physical, emotional and social well-being. 4 While both qualitative and quantitative research designs can be useful to explore the quality of life for parents living with a child with a life-limiting conditions, a phenomenological approach offers a way to begin to understand the range of factors that can effect parents, from their perspective and experience, revealing meanings that can be ‘hidden’, rather than making inferences. van Manen’s approach was chosen because the associated methods do not ‘break down’ the experience being studied into disconnected parts, but provides rich narrative descriptions and interpretations that describe what it means to be a person in their particular life-world. The phenomenological aim was to develop a ‘pathic’ understanding; the researcher was therefore committed to understanding the experience of the phenomena as a whole, rather than parts of that experience. In addition, van Manen’s approach was chosen because it offers a flexibility to data collection, where there is more of an emphasis on the facilitation of participants to share their views in a non-coercive way and the production of meaning between the researcher and researched compared to other phenomenological approaches ( table 2 ).

Central to data analysis is how the researcher develops a dialogue with the text, rather than using a structured coding approach. Phenomenological themes are derived but are also understood as the structures of experience that contribute to the whole experience. van Manen’s approach draws on a dynamic interplay of six activities, that assist in gaining a deeper understanding of the nature of meaning of everyday experience:

Turning to a phenomenon, a commitment by the researcher to understanding that world.

Investigating experience as we live it rather than as we conceptualise it.

Reflecting on the essential themes, which characterise the phenomenon.

Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and rewriting.

Maintaining a strong and oriented relation to the phenomenon.

Balancing the research context by considering the parts and the whole. 8

These activities guide the researcher, alongside drawing on the four-life world existentials ( table 2 ), as lenses to explore the data and unveil meanings.

Ten parents of children with life-limiting conditions were interviewed with the aim of gathering lived experiences and generating thick descriptions of what it is like to be a parent of a child with a life-limiting condition. The essential meaning of the phenomenon ‘the lived experience of parenting a child with a life limiting condition’ can be understood as a full-time emotional struggle involving six continuous constituents, presented in figure 1 . Health professional supporting families where a child has a life limiting condition need to be aware of the isolation faced by parents and the strain of constant care demands. Parents innate parental love and commitment to their child can make it challenging to admit they are struggling; support and the way care and services are delivered should be considerate of the holistic needs of these families ( figure 1 ). 

• Download figure
• Open in new tab
• Download powerpoint

Lived experience of parenting a child with a life-limiting condition. 

In summary, in Husserlian (or descriptive)derived approaches, the researcher from the outset has a concrete ‘example’ of the phenomenon being investigated, presuppositions are bracketed and the researcher imaginatively explores the phenomena; a ‘pure’ description of the phenomena’s essential features as it is experienced can then be unveiled. While in Heideggerian, hermeneutic (or interpretive) approaches, the researcher’s perspectives, experiences and interpretations of the data are interwoven, allowing the phenomenologist to provide an ‘interpretation’ rather than just a description of the phenomena as it is experienced. In all phenomenological approaches, the researcher’s role in self-reflection and the co-creativity (between researcher and researched) is required to produce detailed descriptions and interpretations of a participant’s lived experience and are acknowledged throughout the researcher’s journey and the research process. These reflections are deliberated to a greater degree in heuristic and relational approaches, as the self and relational dialogue are considered crucial to the generated understanding of the phenomena being explored.

We will provide more specific details of interpretative phenomenological analysis in the next Research Made Simple series.

• Rodriguez A
• Rodriguez A ,
• Cheater F ,
• Moustakas C
• van Manen M
• Flowers P ,
• Larkin M , et al
• Langridge D

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent Not required.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

Qualitative Research Methods

• Gumberg Library and CIQR
• Qualitative Methods Overview

Phenomenology

• Case Studies
• Grounded Theory
• Narrative Inquiry
• Oral History
• Feminist Approaches
• Action Research
• Finding Books
• Getting Help

Phenomenology helps us to understand the meaning of people's lived experience.  A phenomenological study explores what people experienced and focuses on their experience of a phenomenon.  As phenomenology has a strong foundation in philosophy, it is recommended that you explore the writings of key thinkers such as Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty before embarking on your research. Duquesne's Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center maintains a collection of resources connected to phenomenology as well as hosting lectures, and is a good place to start your exploration.

• Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center
• Husserl, Edmund, 1859–1938
• Heidegger, Martin, 1889–1976
• Sartre, Jean Paul, 1905–1980
• Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 1908–1961

Books and eBooks

Online Resources

• Phenomenology Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry.

• << Previous: Qualitative Methods Overview
• Next: Case Studies >>
• Last Updated: Aug 18, 2023 11:56 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.duq.edu/qualitative_research

Phenomenological Research: Methods And Examples

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program…

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program to improve his understanding of research. As a part of his assignment, he was asked to work with a phenomenological research design. To execute good practices in his work, Ravi studied examples of phenomenological research. This let him understand what approaches he needed and areas he could apply the phenomenological method.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Phenomenological research method, examples of phenomenological research.

A qualitative research approach that helps in describing the lived experiences of an individual is known as phenomenological research. The phenomenological method focuses on studying the phenomena that have impacted an individual. This approach highlights the specifics and identifies a phenomenon as perceived by an individual in a situation. It can also be used to study the commonality in the behaviors of a group of people.  

Phenomenological research has its roots in psychology, education and philosophy. Its aim is to extract the purest data that hasn’t been attained before. Sometimes researchers record personal notes about what they learn from the subjects. This adds to the credibility of data, allowing researchers to remove these influences to produce unbiased narratives. Through this method, researchers attempt to answer two major questions:

• What are the subject’s experiences related to the phenomenon?
• What factors have influenced the experience of the phenomenon?

A researcher may also use observations, art and documents to construct a universal meaning of experiences as they establish an understanding of the phenomenon. The richness of the data obtained in phenomenological research opens up opportunities for further inquiry.

Now that we know what is phenomenological research , let’s look at some methods and examples.

Phenomenological research can be based on single case studies or a pool of samples. Single case studies identify system failures and discrepancies. Data from multiple samples highlights many possible situations. In either case, these are the methods a researcher can use:

• The researcher can observe the subject or access written records, such as texts, journals, poetry, music or diaries
• They can conduct conversations and interviews with open-ended questions, which allow researchers to make subjects comfortable enough to open up
• Action research and focus workshops are great ways to put at ease candidates who have psychological barriers

To mine deep information, a researcher must show empathy and establish a friendly rapport with participants. These kinds of phenomenological research methods require researchers to focus on the subject and avoid getting influenced.

Phenomenological research is a way to understand individual situations in detail. The theories are developed transparently, with the evidence available for a reader to access. We can use this methodology in situations such as:

• The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique. Research can illuminate their mental states and survival strategies in a new world.
• Losing family members to Covid-19 hasn’t been easy. A detailed study of survivors and people who’ve lost loved ones can help understand coping mechanisms and long-term traumas.
• What’s it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? The conflict of birth and death can’t be generalized, but research can record emotions and experiences.

Phenomenological research is a powerful way to understand personal experiences. It provides insights into individual actions and motivations by examining long-held assumptions. New theories, policies and responses can be developed on this basis. But, the phenomenological research design will be ineffective if subjects are unable to communicate due to language, age, cognition or other barriers. Managers must be alert to such limitations and sharp to interpret results without bias.

Harappa’s Thinking Critically program prepares professionals to think like leaders. Make decisions after careful consideration, engage with opposing views and weigh every possible outcome. Our stellar faculty will help you learn how to back the right strategies. Get the techniques and tools to build an analytical mindset. Effective thinking will improve communication. This in turn can break down barriers and open new avenues for success. Take a step forward with Harappa today!

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as What Are The Objectives Of Research , Fallacy Meaning , Kolb Learning Styles and How to Learn Unlearn And Relearn to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

Reskilling Programs

L&D leaders need to look for reskilling programs that meet organizational goals and employee aspirations. The first step to doing this is to understand the skills gaps and identify what’s necessary. An effective reskilling program will be one that is scalable and measurable. Companies need to understand their immediate goals and prepare for future requirements when considering which employees to reskill.

Are you still uncertain about the kind of reskilling program you should opt for?  Speak to our expert   to understand what will work best for your organization and employees.

Qualitative study design: Phenomenology

• Qualitative study design

Phenomenology

• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

Used to describe the lived experience of individuals.

• Now called Descriptive Phenomenology, this study design is one of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative research within the social and health sciences.
• Used to describe how human beings experience a certain phenomenon. The researcher asks, “What is this experience like?’, ‘What does this experience mean?’ or ‘How does this ‘lived experience’ present itself to the participant?’
• Attempts to set aside biases and preconceived assumptions about human experiences, feelings, and responses to a particular situation.
• Experience may involve perception, thought, memory, imagination, and emotion or feeling.
• Usually (but not always) involves a small sample of participants (approx. 10-15).
• Analysis includes an attempt to identify themes or, if possible, make generalizations in relation to how a particular phenomenon is perceived or experienced.

Methods used include:

• participant observation
• in-depth interviews with open-ended questions
• conversations and focus workshops. 

Researchers may also examine written records of experiences such as diaries, journals, art, poetry and music.

Descriptive phenomenology is a powerful way to understand subjective experience and to gain insights around people’s actions and motivations, cutting through long-held assumptions and challenging conventional wisdom.  It may contribute to the development of new theories, changes in policies, or changes in responses.

Limitations

• Does not suit all health research questions.  For example, an evaluation of a health service may be better carried out by means of a descriptive qualitative design, where highly structured questions aim to garner participant’s views, rather than their lived experience.
• Participants may not be able to express themselves articulately enough due to language barriers, cognition, age, or other factors.
• Gathering data and data analysis may be time consuming and laborious.
• Results require interpretation without researcher bias.
• Does not produce easily generalisable data.

Example questions

• How do cancer patients cope with a terminal diagnosis?
• What is it like to survive a plane crash?
• What are the experiences of long-term carers of family members with a serious illness or disability?
• What is it like to be trapped in a natural disaster, such as a flood or earthquake? 

Example studies

• The patient-body relationship and the "lived experience" of a facial burn injury: a phenomenological inquiry of early psychosocial adjustment . Individual interviews were carried out for this study.
• The use of group descriptive phenomenology within a mixed methods study to understand the experience of music therapy for women with breast cancer . Example of a study in which focus group interviews were carried out.
• Understanding the experience of midlife women taking part in a work-life balance career coaching programme: An interpretative phenomenological analysis . Example of a study using action research.
• Holloway, I. & Galvin, K. (2017). Qualitative research in nursing and healthcare (Fourth ed.): John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Rodriguez, A., & Smith, J. (2018). Phenomenology as a healthcare research method . Journal of Evidence Based Nursing , 21(4), 96-98. doi: 10.1136/eb-2018-102990
• << Previous: Methodologies
• Next: Grounded theory >>
• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:46 AM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Phenomenology In Qualitative Research

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is phenomenology?

Phenomenology in qualitative research is characterized by a focus on understanding the meaning of lived experience from the perspective of the individual.

Instead of testing hypotheses or seeking to generalize findings to a larger population, phenomenological research aims to illuminate the specific and to challenge structural or normative assumptions by revealing the subjective experiences and perceptions of individuals.

This approach is particularly valuable for gaining insights into people’s motivations and actions, and for cutting through taken-for-granted assumptions and conventional wisdom.

Aim of Phenomenological Research

The aim of phenomenological research is to arrive at phenomenal understandings and insights into the meaning of lived experience.

These insights should be “impressively unique” and “primordially meaningful”, illuminating the specific experience being studied.

Phenomenological research attempts to uncover the meaning in lived experiences that are often overlooked in daily life. In other words, phenomenology asks the basic question: “What is this (primal) experience like?

To do this, phenomenological research examines experience as it appears to consciousness, seeking to avoid any preconceptions or assumptions.

Rather than simply describing what participants say, phenomenological research seeks to go deeper, to uncover implicit meanings and reveal the participant’s lifeworld.

This is not a matter of making generalized statements, but of understanding the experience from the individual’s perspective.

The aim is not to provide causal explanations or to theorize about the experience, but to “restore to each experience the ontological cipher which marks it internally.

Characteristics of Phenomenology

Phenomenology is best understood as a radical, anti-traditional style of philosophising that emphasizes describing phenomena as they appear to consciousness. It is not a set of dogmas or a system, but rather a practice of doing philosophy.

Here are some key characteristics of phenomenology:

• Focus on Experience: Phenomenology is concerned with the “phenomena,” which refers to anything that appears in the way that it appears to consciousness. This includes experiences, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and meanings.
• First-Person Perspective: Phenomenology emphasizes the importance of the first-person, subjective experience. It seeks to understand the world as it is lived and experienced by individuals.
• Intentionality: A central concept in phenomenology is intentionality, which refers to the directedness of consciousness toward an object. This means that consciousness is always consciousness of something, and this directedness shapes how we experience the world.
• Bracketing (Epoche): Phenomenological research often involves “bracketing” or setting aside preconceived notions and assumptions about the world. This allows researchers to approach phenomena with an open mind and focus on how they appear in experience.
• Descriptive Emphasis: Phenomenology prioritizes description over explanation or interpretation. The aim is to provide a rich and nuanced account of experience as it is lived, without imposing theoretical frameworks or seeking to explain it in terms of external factors.
• Search for Essences: Phenomenology is interested in uncovering the essential structures and meanings of experience. This involves going beyond the particularities of individual experiences to grasp the shared features that make them what they are.
• Holistic Approach: Phenomenology seeks to understand experience in a holistic way , recognizing the interconnectedness of mind, body, and world. It rejects reductionist approaches that attempt to explain experience solely in terms of its parts.
• Use of Examples: Phenomenological researchers often use concrete examples to illustrate and explore the meaning of experience. These examples can be drawn from personal narratives, literature, or other sources that provide rich descriptions of lived experience.

Is phenomenology an epistemology or ontology?

Phenomenology straddles or undermines the traditional distinction between epistemology and ontology. Traditionally, epistemology is understood as the study of how we come to understand and have knowledge of the world, while ontology is the study of the nature of reality itself.

• Phenomenology investigates both how we understand the world and the nature of reality through its focus on phenomena . By examining how things appear to us, phenomenology analyzes our way of experiencing and understanding the world, simultaneously addressing questions about the objects themselves and their modes of appearance.
• Heidegger suggests that ontology is only possible through phenomenology . According to this view, analyzing our being-in-the-world is key to understanding the nature of reality itself.

Instead of separating subject and object, or the knower and the known, phenomenology highlights their interrelation, arguing that the mind is essentially open to the world, and reality is essentially capable of manifesting itself to us.

Exploring Phenomenology: Three Key Perspectives

1. husserl’s transcendental phenomenology.

Edmund Husserl viewed phenomenology as the “science of the essence of consciousness”, emphasizing the intentional structure of conscious acts. Central for phenomenological psychology was phenomenological philosopher Husserl’s understanding of “intentionality,” the idea that whenever we are conscious we are conscious of something, making the job of the researcher to better understand people’s experiences of things “in their appearing” (Langdridge, 2007, p. 13).

• Intentionality: This key concept describes consciousness’s directedness towards objects—our experiences are always about something. This “aboutness” isn’t limited to physical objects and encompasses mental acts like remembering, imagining, or even fearing.
• Essence over Existence: Husserl’s phenomenology focuses on uncovering the invariant structures of consciousness, aiming to reveal the essence of experiences like perception, thought, or emotion. It is not concerned with whether the object of an experience actually exists in the world.
• Transcendental Reduction: To grasp these essences, Husserl introduces the “epoché,” a methodological tool to bracket our natural attitude towards the world. This doesn’t mean denying the world’s existence; it’s about shifting focus from the objects themselves to how they appear in our consciousness.
• Example: When perceiving a table, we experience it through different profiles or perspectives. We can’t see all sides simultaneously, yet we grasp the table as a unified object. Transcendental phenomenology investigates the structures of consciousness that enable this constitution of objects from a multitude of appearances.

2. Heidegger’s Hermeneutical Phenomenology:

Martin Heidegger, while influenced by Husserl, diverged by emphasizing the importance of hermeneutics—the art of interpretation—in phenomenological inquiry.

• Being-in-the-World: Unlike Husserl’s focus on pure consciousness, Heidegger grounds his phenomenology in the concrete existence of Dasein—a term he uses to describe human existence’s inherent being-in-the-world.
• Facticity and Historicity: Heidegger recognizes that our understanding of the world is shaped by our historical and cultural contexts. We don’t encounter the world as a neutral observer, but through a lens of pre-existing interpretations and practices.
• Self-Concealing Nature of Phenomena: Heidegger contends that things don’t always reveal themselves fully. Our understanding is often clouded by biases, assumptions, or simply the inherent ambiguity of existence. Phenomenology, therefore, becomes a process of uncovering hidden meanings and questioning taken-for-granted assumptions.
• Example: Consider the act of using a hammer. For Heidegger, this isn’t just a neutral interaction with an object. It reveals a whole network of meanings related to our practical engagement with the world, our understanding of “for-the-sake-of-which” (building something), and our shared cultural practices.

3. Merleau-Ponty’s Idea of Perception

Maurice Merleau-Ponty further developed phenomenology by emphasizing the centrality of embodiment in our experience of the world.

• The Primacy of Perception: Merleau-Ponty challenges the traditional view of perception as a passive reception of sensory data. He argues that perception is an active and embodied engagement with the world.
• Body-Subject: Merleau-Ponty rejects the Cartesian mind-body dualism. For him, our body is not just an object in the world, but the very medium through which we experience and understand the world. The body is the “vehicle of being-in-the-world”.
• Perception as Foundation: Merleau-Ponty places perception at the heart of his phenomenology. He sees it as the foundation for all other cognitive activities, including thought, language, and intersubjectivity.
• Example: Consider the experience of touching a piece of velvet. It’s not simply that we receive tactile sensations. Our hand actively explores the fabric, and the perceived texture emerges from the dynamic interplay between our moving hand and the resistant surface. This experience can’t be reduced to purely mental representations or objective properties of the velvet; it arises from the embodied engagement between the perceiving subject and the world.

Data Collection in Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research focuses on understanding lived experience, and therefore relies on qualitative data that can illuminate the subjective experiences of individuals.

Because phenomenology aims to examine experience on its own terms, it is wary of imposing pre-defined categories or structures on the data.

Many phenomenological philosophers and researchers avoid using the term “method” in favor of talking about the phenomenological “approach.”

Interviews are a common method for collecting data in phenomenological research.

Researchers typically use semi-structured or unstructured interviews, which prioritize open-ended questions and allow participants to describe their experiences in their own words.

These interviews aim to elicit detailed, concrete descriptions of specific experiences rather than abstract generalizations.

For instance, instead of asking “What does friendship mean to you?”, a researcher might ask: “Can you describe a time you felt particularly connected to a friend?”.

This shift from the abstract to the concrete helps researchers access the pre-reflective, lived experience of the phenomenon, revealing its texture and nuanc

Researchers may also use follow-up questions to clarify or gain a deeper understanding of participants’ responses.

Phenomenological interviews often explore experiences across multiple dimensions:

• Bodily sensations:  The interviewer might ask: “What was happening in your body during that experience?” or “How did that situation make you feel physically?” These questions help uncover the embodied aspects of experience often overlooked in more cognitively-focused approaches.
• Thoughts and cognitions:  Questions like “What sense did you make of that experience?” or “What thoughts went through your head?” help explore the cognitive interpretations participants make about their experiences.
• Emotional responses:  The interviewer may ask: “What feelings were present during that time?” or “How did that situation make you feel emotionally?” Allowing participants to articulate their feelings without judgment or interpretation is crucial.
• Relational dynamics:  When exploring interpersonal experiences, interviewers might ask: “What was it like to be with that person during that event?” or “How did your relationship with that person shape your experience?” Recognizing that experiences are not confined to the individual but are shaped by social and relational contexts is central to phenomenological inquiry

Beyond interviews, phenomenological research may draw upon a variety of other methods, including :

• Discussions: Open-ended discussions among participants who share an experience can shed light on commonalities and differences in how the phenomenon is lived.
• Participant observation: This method involves the researcher immersing themselves in a particular setting or community to gain firsthand experience of the phenomenon being studied.
• Analysis of personal texts: Participants’ diaries, letters, or other written accounts of their experiences can provide valuable insights into their subjective lifeworlds.
• Creative media: Researchers may use art, dance, literature, photography, or other creative media to encourage participants to express their experiences in non-verbal ways.

“Examples” are particularly important in phenomenological research. Rather than treating individual experiences as mere illustrations of general concepts, phenomenology understands examples as offering a unique window into the essence of a phenomenon.

Researchers carefully select and analyze examples to uncover and articulate the essential features of a lived experience.

Number of Participants in Phenomenological Studies

There is no prescribed number of participants required for a phenomenological study. Some researchers may choose to include a larger number of participants.

Phenomenological research emphasizes in-depth understanding of lived experiences rather than statistical generalization.

Therefore, sample size is less important than the richness and depth of the data obtained from the participants.

However, phenomenological studies that include more than a handful of participants risk being superficial and may miss the spirit of phenomenology.

Here are some examples of approaches to the number of participants in a phenomenological study:

• Three to six participants are considered to give sufficient variation.
• One participant can be used for a case study.
• Researchers can also use autobiographical reflection .
• Single-case studies can identify issues that illustrate discrepancies and system failures and illuminate or draw attention to “different” situations, but positive inferences are less easy to make without a small sample of participants.
• The strength of inference increases rapidly once factors start to recur with more than one participant .

Analyzing Data in Phenomenological Research

There are a variety of approaches to conducting phenomenological research and analyzing data.

The variety of approaches within phenomenological research can make it challenging for students to navigate, as there are no fixed rules or procedures

The specific analytic strategies used in a phenomenological study depend on the researcher’s chosen approach and the nature of the phenomenon being investigated.

Some researchers advocate for a more orthodox approach to phenomenological research that prioritizes rigorous description and aims to uncover essential structures of experience.

Descriptive Phenomenology

This approach, exemplified by the work of Giorgi and Wertz, emphasizes a rigorous, descriptive approach to capturing the essential structures of experience. It involves bracketing assumptions, focusing on pre-reflective experience, and seeking generalizable insight

For example, Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method involves a multi-step procedure for analyzing descriptions of lived experience:

• Read the entire description to gain a holistic understanding.
• Divide the description into smaller units of meaning.
• Explicate the psychological significance of each meaning unit.

Hermeneutic Phenomenology

Other researchers, while still grounding their work in phenomenological philosophy, emphasize the importance of interpretation in understanding the unique, lived experience of individuals.

This approach, embraced by researchers like van Manen, prioritizes interpretation and dialogue in understanding the unique, lived experience of individuals.

For example, van Manen’s hermeneutic phenomenology emphasizes the role of interpretation and reflection in uncovering meaning in lived experience.

It acknowledges the researcher’s role in shaping interpretations and emphasizes the transition from pre-reflective experience to conceptual understanding.

Van Manen suggests that researchers should explicate their own assumptions and biases in order to better understand how they might be shaping their interpretations of the data.

His approach also highlights the importance of understanding the transition from pre-reflective experience to conceptual understanding.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

If you are learning phenomenology, struggling with the material is expected.

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) has become popular because it offers novice researchers a concrete structure, but its set structures may cause researchers to get caught up in method and lose the essence of the phenomenon being studied.

Developed by Jonathan Smith, IPA is a qualitative research method designed to gain an in-depth understanding of how individuals experience and make sense of specific situations.

It focuses on individual experiences and interpretations rather than aiming to uncover universal essences. IPA draws on a broader range of phenomenological thinkers than just Husserl.

It differs from descriptive phenomenology by incorporating an interpretive component, acknowledging that individuals are inherently engaged in meaning-making processes.

Critical Phenomenology

Critical phenomenology expands upon traditional phenomenology by examining the impact of social structures on lived experiences of power and oppression.

Critical phenomenology acknowledges that societal structures like capitalism, colonialism, and patriarchy shape our lifeworlds and cannot be fully put aside

A key goal of critical phenomenology is to identify practical strategies for challenging oppressive structures and fostering liberatory ways of being in the world.

In psychology, phenomenology is linked with a critical realist epistemology; here, the real world exists, but it cannot be fully discovered because our experiences of it are always mediated (Shaw, 2019).

Regardless of the specific approach, several key principles should guide data analysis in phenomenological research:

• Focus on description : Phenomenological research aims to describe the lived experience of a phenomenon, rather than explain or theorize about it.
• Attend to pre-reflective experience : Researchers should strive to move beyond participants’ initial, surface-level descriptions to uncover the deeper, often implicit, meanings embedded in their experiences.
• Adopt a holistic perspective : A thorough analysis considers various aspects of experience, including embodiment, intersubjectivity, and the influence of social and cultural factors.

Reflexivity in Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research acknowledges that researchers are active participants who bring their own perspectives and experiences to the research process.

It’s important for researchers to practice reflexivity by setting aside their own assumptions and previous knowledge in order to see the world anew through the lens of the participants’ lived experiences.

This process, known as bracketing , is an attempt to approach the research with “fresh eyes,” free from contaminating assumptions. It involves:

• Adopting a self-critical, reflexive meta-awareness: This means questioning “common sense” and taken-for-granted assumptions to reveal more about the nature of subjectivity.
• Abstaining from judgments about the truth or reality of objects in the world: For example, if a participant mentions seeing a ghost, the researcher focuses on what the ghost means to the person and how they experienced it subjectively rather than questioning the existence of ghosts.
• Recognizing the impossibility of completely removing subjectivity: Rather than trying to eliminate subjectivity, researchers should actively recognize its impact and engage with their own (inter-)subjectivity to better understand the other.

Bracketing is an ongoing process that requires mindfulness, curiosity, compassion, and a “genuinely unknowing stance” to remain open to new understandings and avoid imposing the researcher’s own biases on the data.

This is essential for rigorous phenomenological research, as subjectivity is central to the investigation.

However, different schools of thought within phenomenology emphasize different aspects of bracketing:

• Descriptive phenomenologists focus on reflexively setting aside previous understandings to prioritize the participant’s perspective.
• Hermeneutic phenomenologists strive for transparency in their interpretations.
• Critical phenomenology acknowledges that societal structures like capitalism, colonialism, and patriarchy shape our lifeworlds and cannot be fully put aside.

By acknowledging the researcher’s role and emphasizing reflexivity, phenomenological research aims to ensure that findings remain grounded in the participants’ lived experiences, avoiding the imposition of the researcher’s own assumptions or biases.

Pitfalls of Phenomenology Research

A common pitfall of phenomenology research is failing to fully grasp the nuances of phenomenological philosophy.

For example, some studies that use Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) do not adequately acknowledge their hermeneutic foundations or the need to engage in the Epoché, which helps limit the researcher’s pre-understandings.

Without this philosophical anchoring, the research is merely thematic analysis instead of phenomenology.

Other pitfalls in phenomenology research include:

• Missing the Phenomenon: Researchers should not solely focus on what is observed or said, or merely reproduce participant statements. Instead, they must uncover implicit meanings and insights into the participant’s lifeworld, providing an idiographic or general description of the phenomenon. Focusing too heavily on analysis can obscure the phenomenon, while excessive thematic structures can result in presenting “results” rather than phenomenological description.
• Misunderstanding the Phenomenological Attitude: Husserl’s bracketing is often misinterpreted as striving for objectivity, when in reality it is a profoundly subjective act to perceive the world from a fresh perspective. The focus should not be on judging reality, but on exploring experiential appearances and uncovering taken-for-granted aspects of experience. Reproducing participants’ words without going beyond their taken-for-granted understandings can cause research to get stuck in the “natural attitude”.
• Presenting an Insufficiently Holistic Account: Phenomenological studies should not just explore one aspect of consciousness or experience without considering intersubjectivity. A study that only examines an individual’s thoughts or feelings without considering the body or social context misses the point of phenomenology. Good analysis acknowledges existential being and lifeworldly dimensions like embodiment, relationships, time, and space.
• Seeing Subjectivity as Located Within an Individual: Ascribing cognition or emotion solely within individuals perpetuates the dualisms that phenomenology aims to dismantle, such as individual/social, body/mind, self/other, and internal/external. Phenomenology emphasizes a worldly matrix of meaning formed through relationships, shared language, and cultural history, highlighting the interconnectedness of individuals and the world.
• Killing the Phenomenon in Trying to be Scientifically Rigorous: Phenomenological studies that include a large number of participants in a misguided attempt to generalize findings risk being superficial and missing the essence of phenomenology. Similarly, reports that use overly intellectualized language or a detached “scientific” voice compromise the description of the lived experience.

Convincing phenomenological research should:

• Provide a rich and evocative description of the phenomenon.
• Focus on pre-reflective experience and consciousness rather than reproducing participant statements or researcher assumptions.
• Be grounded in phenomenological philosophy.
• Engage with the layered complexity and ambiguity of embodied, intersubjective, and lifeworldly meanings.

Despite ongoing debates among scholars about the best way to apply phenomenology, they share a commitment to an approach of openness and wonder.

This requires discipline, practice, and patience throughout the research process. Phenomenology has the potential to reveal new insights into the nature of lived experience.

Further Information

• Dorfman, E. (2009). History of the lifeworld: From Husserl to Merleau-Ponty. Philosophy Today , 53 (3), 294–303.
• Hanna, R. (2014). Husserl’s crisis and our crisis. International Journal of Philosophical Studies , 22 (5), 752–770.
• Held, K. Husserl’s Phenomenology of the Life-World. In D. Welton (Ed.), The New Husserl: A Critical Reader (pp. 32–62). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Nenon, T. (2015). Husserl and Heidegger on the Social Dimensions of the Life-World. In L. Učník, I. Chvatík, & A. Williams (Eds.), The Phenomenological Critique of Mathematisation and the Question of Responsibility (pp. 175–184). Heidelberg: Springer.
• Dillon, M. C. (1997). Merleau-Ponty’s Ontology . 2nd edition. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
• Overgaard, S. (2007). Wittgenstein and Other Minds: Rethinking Subjectivity and Intersubjectivity with Wittgenstein, Levinas, and Husserl . New York and London: Routledge.
• Steinbock, A. (1995). Home and Beyond: Generative Phenomenology after Husserl . Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
• Theunissen, M. (1986). The Other: Studies in the Social Ontology of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Buber , trans. C. Macann. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1991). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge . Harmondsworth: Penguin.
• Ferguson, H. (2006). Phenomenological Sociology: Insight and Experience in Modern Society . London: SAGE Publications.
• Garfinkel, H. (1984). Studies in Ethnomethodology . Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Heritage, J. (1984). Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology . Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Schutz, A. (1972). The Problem of Social Reality: Collected Papers I . The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Broome, M. R., Harland, R., Owen, G. S., & Stringaris, A. (Eds.). (2012). The Maudsley Reader in Phenomenological Psychiatry . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Finlay, L. (2009). Debating phenomenological research methods. Phenomenology & Practice , 3 (1), 6–25.
• Gallagher, S., & Zahavi, D. (2012). The Phenomenological Mind . 2nd edition. London: Routledge.
• Katz, D. (1989). The World of Touch , trans. L.E. Krueger. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Fodor, J. (1987). Psychosemantics . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• From, F. (1953). Om oplevelsen af andres adfærd: Et bidrag til den menneskelige adfærds fænomenologi . Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag.
• Galileo, G. (1957). Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo . New York: Anchor House.
• Gadamer, H. (1991). Truth and method (J. Weinsheimer & D. Marshall, Trans.; 2nd ed.). New York: Crossroads. (Original work published 1975)
• Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery . New York: Basic Books.
• Kohut, H. (1984). How does analysis cure? (A. Goldberg & P. Stepansky, Eds.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Orange, D., Atwood, G., & Stolorow, R. (1997). Working intersubjectively: Contextualism in psychoanalytic practice . Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
• Stolorow, R., & Atwood, G. (1992). Contexts of being: The intersubjective foundations of psychological life . Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
• Connell, R. W. (1985). Teachers’ Work . Sydney, Allen & Unwin.
• Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research . Chicago, Aldine.
• Gorden, R. L. (1969). Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques and Tactics . Homewood Ill, Dorsey Press.
• Husserl, E. (1970) trans D Carr Logical investigations . New York: Humanities Press.
• Hycner, R. H. (1985). Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data. Human Studies , 8 , 279–303.
• Measor, L. (1985). Interviewing: A Strategy in Qualitative Research. In R Burgess (Ed.) Strategies of Educational Research: Qualitative Methods . Lewes, Falmer Press.
• Shaw, R. (2019). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In M. Forrester & C. Sullivan (Eds.), Doing qualitative research in psychology: A practical guide (2nd ed., pp. 185–208). SAGE.
• Landridge D. (2007). Phenomenological Psychology . Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

The power of phenomenology.

1. Introduction

interviews with active members of patient organisations and persons with intersex/dsd revealed that they mostly do not use either term themselves. Instead, they generally tend to use the condition-specific term, such as ‘men with Klinefelter syndrome’ or ‘women with x y chromosomes’. Some of those interviewed were actually found to be entirely unfamiliar with the terms intersex and dsd. ( van Lisdonk 2014, p. 25 )

2. Methodology

We come to know what it means to think when we ourselves try to think. If the attempt is to be successful, we must be ready to learn thinking. ( Heidegger 1976, p. 3 )

analysis [it] is a continuous circular and reflexive process where themes emerge, and the researcher returns to the data and starts to re-read it. ( Dibley et al. 2020, p. 127 )

3. Story Telling

For him [Heidegger] the spoken word is greatly superior to the written. ( Gray 1976, p. vi )

4. Invitation to Speak

This has been one of the challenges for me; how to express what it’s like to be me. [correspondent]

Throughout my life including my encounters with the medical world I was never asked, “How do you feel?” or “Tell me about yourself “. It seems almost too obvious to miss this critical question because our inner world is as important as our physical outer world. [correspondent]

As that sphere in which man can dwell alright and make clear to himself who he is. ( Heidegger ( 1962 ), in Gray 1976, p. vii )

5. Participant’s Engagement

No, I can’t really think of anything. I think I am good. I have covered everything. But that really is everything now. I don’t think there is anymore that I can possibly tell you but if there is I will come back to you and tell you but thank you for giving me the opportunity to come back and tell more of it. [Darcy]

Part of the reason why I am committed to doing this and doing it so fully is because I appreciate the fact that you guys want to do it for fully and you are being led by intersex people. I have never done a research study that is so led by intersex people like myself and that is why I am happy to do it. [Darcy]

6. Building Trust Leads to Understanding

Being aware of one’s population is very important; being sensitive to the concerns of others and listening to their fears, needs and desires for their own personal safety emanates from an ethical standpoint. ( Dibley et al. 2020, p. 81 )

I would probably answer by asking you the question, how does a teenager hide a variation in genital anatomy in a compulsory shower with 20 other fellas after PE? My answer to that is you could only hide by being in plain sight. There was no option of hiding. [Alan]

No, again that is before the age of the internet and before the age of, I don’t believe, I didn’t have access and no one else would have access to pictures, descriptions, diagrams, terminology etc either. That anyone else could pick it up readily. I do remember the PE teacher looking but never went as far as saying anything. So, the obvious thing for me was as quickly as possible to shower without ever drawing attention to myself. Cause there was another chap in the class like that was even more self-conscious than I was and he became a target. So the two together was the absolute proof that you do not be visible by being, the best way to be invisible to be completely visible. By showing no signs, showing nothing. [Alan]

Very good at hiding in plain sight but I spent my life hiding. [Alan]

a feeling of biographical continuity which she is able to grasp reflexively and, to a greater or lesser degree, communicate to others. That person also, through early trust relations, has established a protective cocoon which ‘filters out’, in the practical conduct of day-to-day life, many of the dangers which in principle threaten the integrity of the self. Finally, the individual is able to accept that integrity as worthwhile. ( Giddens 1991, p. 54 )

My possibility of hiding in the corner becomes the fact that the Other can surpass it towards the possibility of pulling me out of concealment, of identifying me, of arresting me. ( Sartre 1969, p. 264 )

7. Hiding Loss, Hiding Pain

It is in the reality of everyday life that the Other appears to us, and his probability refers to everyday reality. ( Sartre 1969, p. 253 )

I was 12 that is when I realised there was something different about me because like all kids went through the change of life and I stayed the same of when I was like a child. [Frankie]

And then when I was older, I kept going to the doctors to find out why I wasn’t growing, and they said, well, when you are 13 we are going to try medication because if you are on medication you should go through the changes of life. [Frankie]

I just know that I was born a mistake. [Frankie]

And he [doctor] checked me in the same way that my dad would check me or whatever and he was like ‘I can’t believe how she didn’t grow properly’ and he [father] was like ‘well what does this mean?’ And the doctor said ‘well, it is kind of like she is trans but she is not’. ‘Well can it have kids? Because that is the only thing that I want’ [father] and the doctor said ‘no, she can’t have kids’. And he [father] was like ‘well what use is she to me then?’ And he’s [doctor] like ‘she can adopt kids’, ‘and like what, she can have two people that are mentally retarded in the house? No thanks.’ [father]

Context of discourse and interaction position persons in systems of evaluation and expectations which often implicate their embodied being; the person experiences herself as looked at in certain ways, described in her physical being in certain ways, she experiences the bodily reactions of others to her, and she reacts to them. ( Young 2005, p. 17 )

To every being as such there belongs identity, the unity with itself. ( Heidegger 1969, p. 26 )

It is only through being object that we can be given a value, assigned a worth, some “thing” that can be assessed. ( Howard 2002, p. 59 )

So, I grew up thinking that everybody was supposed to hate me. [Frankie]

8. Conclusions

They had all the power, I had nothing. I had no information. I had no ground to stand on. All I could do was just react to what was being said to me. I was so much on the back foot I couldn’t catch up and that would have been a major part of the difficulty. Again, it goes back to if you don’t even know enough of your own story to be able to say it. [Alan]

Author Contributions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Bauer, Markus, Daniela Truffer, and Daniela Crocetti. 2020. Intersex Human Rights. The International Journal of Human Rights 24: 724–49. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Becker, Howard Saul. 1963. Outsiders; Studies in the Sociology of Deviance . New York: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Breen, Lauren. 2007. The Researcher ‘in the Middle’: Negotiating the Insider/Outsider Dichotomy. The Australian Community Psychologist 19: 163–74. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carpenter, Morgan. 2018a. Intersex Variations, Human Rights, and the International Classification of Diseases. Health and Human Rights 20: 205–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Carpenter, Morgan. 2018b. The ‘Normalisation’ of Intersex Bodies and ‘Othering’ of Intersex Identities. In The Legal Status of Intersex Persons . Edited by Anatol Dutta, Jens M. Scherpe and Tobias Helms. Cambridge: Intersentia, pp. 445–514. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Charlebois, Janik Bastien. 2017. Les sujets intersexes peuvent-ils (se) penser? Socio. La Nouvelle Revue des Sciences Sociales 9: 143–62. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cresti, Matteo, Elena Nave, and Roberto Lala. 2018. Intersexual Births: The Epistemology of Sex and Ethics of Sex Assignment. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 15: 557–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Crowther, Susan, Pamela M. Ironside, Elizabeth Smythe, and Deborah G. Spence. 2016. Crafting Stories in Hermeneutic Phenomenology Research: A Methodological Device. Qualitative Health Research 27: 826–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Cuff, Edward C., Wes W. Sharrock, D. W. Framcis, A. J. Dennis, and Dave W. Francis. 2006. Perspectives in Sociology , 5th ed. London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Davis, Georgiann. 2014. The Power in a Name: Diagnostic Terminology and Diverse Experiences. Psychology & Sexuality 5: 15–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Davis, Georgiann, Jodie M. Dewey, and Erin L. Murphy. 2016. Giving Sex: Deconstructing Intersex and Trans Medicalization Practices. Gender & Society 30: 490–514. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dibley, Lesley, Suzanne Dickerson, Mel Duffy, and Roxanne Vandermause. 2020. Doing Hermeneutic Phenomenological Research: A Practical Guide/Lesley Dibley, Suzanne Dickerson, Mel Duffy, Roxanne Vandermause . Los Angeles: SAGE. [ Google Scholar ]
• Draucker, Claire Burke. 1999. The Critique of Heideggerian Hermeneutical Nursing Research. Journal of Advanced Nursing 30: 360–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2015. FRA Focus Paper: The Fundamental Rights Situation of Intersex People . Vienna: (FRA) European Agency for Fundamental Rights. [ Google Scholar ]
• European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2020. A Long Way to Go for LGBTI Equality . Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 1993. The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough. The Sciences , 20–25. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fricker, Miranda. 2007. Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing . Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giddens, Anthony. 1991. Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age . Oxford: Oxford Polity Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giddens, Anthony. 1992. The Transformation of Intimacy Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies . Oxford: Oxford Polity Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Giorgi, Amedeo. 2005. The Phenomenological Movement and Research in the Human Sciences. Nursing Science Quarterly 18: 75–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Goffman, Erving. 1971. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . London: Pelican Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gorduza, Daniela B., Charmian A. Quigley, Anthony A. Caldamone, and Pierre D. E. Mouriquand. 2018. Surgery of Anomalies of Gonadal and Genital Development in the ‘Post-Truth Era’. Urologic Clinics of North America, Pediatric Urology 45: 659–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gray, J. Glenn. 1976. Introduction. In Heidegger, Martin. 1976. In What Is Called Thinking? Translated by J. Glenn Gray. New York: Harper Perennial, pp. vi–xvi. [ Google Scholar ]
• Heidegger, Martin. 1962. Being and Time . Translated by John Macquarrie, and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Incorporated. [ Google Scholar ]
• Heidegger, Martin. 1969. Identity and Difference . New York: Harper and Row Publishers Incorporated. [ Google Scholar ]
• Heidegger, Martin. 1976. What Is Called Thinking? Translated by J. Glenn Gray. New York: Harper Perennial. [ Google Scholar ]
• Howard, Peggy Ann. 2002. “The Look” in Teacher’s Performance Evaluation. In Writing in the Dark: Phenomenological Studies in Interpretive Inquiry . Edited by Max van Manen. London, ON: The Althouse Press, pp. 50–60. [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson, Mary E. 2000. Heidegger and Meaning: Implications for Phenomenological Research. Nursing Philosoph 1: 134–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kessler, Suzanne J. 1998. Lessons from the Intersexed . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee, Peter A., Christopher P. Houk, S. Faisal Ahmed, and Ieuan A. Hughes. 2006. Consensus Statement on the Management of Intersex Conditions. Pediatrics 118: e488. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• van Lisdonk, Jantine. 2014. Living with Intersex/DSD: An Exploratory Study of the Social Situation of Persons with Intersex/DSD . The Hague: The Netherlands Institute for Social Research. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lundberg, Tove, Peter Hegarty, and Katrina Roen. 2018. Making Sense of ‘Intersex’ and ‘DSD’: How Laypeople Understand and Use Terminology. Psychology & Sexuality 9: 161–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Monro, Surya, Daniela Crocetti, Tray Yeadon-Lee, Fae Garland, and Mitch Travis. 2017. Intersex, Variations of Sex Characteristics, and DSD: The Need for Change. Huddersfield, UK. Available online: http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/33535/1/Intersex%20Variations%20of%20Sex%20Characteristics%20and%20DSDreportfinal.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2023).
• Moran, Demotee. 2000. Introduction to Phenomenology . London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Preves, Sharon E. 2003. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Raz, Michal. 2024. Uncertain Knowledge: The Medicalisation of Intersex People and the Production of Ignorance. Social Sciences 13: 385. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Reinharz, Shulamit. 1992. Feminist Methods in Social Research . New York: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reis, Elizabeth. 2007. Divergence or Disorder?: The Politics of Naming Intersex. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 50: 535–43. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rose, Maddie. 2020. Is MRKH Intersex? Ask a Different Question Instead. Available online: https://interactadvocates.org/is-mrkh-intersex/ (accessed on 15 November 2023).
• Rubin, David A. 2015. Provincializing Intersex: US Intersex Activism, Human Rights, and Transnational Body Politics. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 36: 51–83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sartre, Jean-Paul. 1969. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology . Translated by Hazel E Barnes. London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Smythe, Elizabeth, Pamela M. Ironside, Sharon L. Sims, Melinda M. Swenson, and Deborah G. Spence. 2008. Doing Heideggerian Hermeneutic Research: A Discussion Paper. International Journal of Nursing Studies 45: 1389–97. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• United Nations for LGBT Equality. n.d. Fact Sheet Intersex. Available online: https://www.unfe.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/UNFE-Intersex.pdf (accessed on 15 February 2022).
• Wolin, Richard. 1993. The Heidegger Controversy—A Critical Reader . Cambridge: The MIT Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Young, Iris Marion. 2005. On Female Body Experience: “Throwing Like a Girl” and Other Essays . Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ Google Scholar ]

Share and Cite

Duffy, M.; Ní Mhuirthile, T. The Power of Phenomenology. Soc. Sci. 2024 , 13 , 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

Duffy M, Ní Mhuirthile T. The Power of Phenomenology. Social Sciences . 2024; 13(9):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

Duffy, Mel, and Tanya Ní Mhuirthile. 2024. "The Power of Phenomenology" Social Sciences 13, no. 9: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Link to facebook
• Link to linkedin
• Link to twitter
• Link to youtube
• Writing Tips

What Is Phenomenological Research?

4-minute read

• 16th August 2022

Phenomenological research (aka the study of phenomena) is qualitative research that aims to learn more about people’s lived experiences.

Qualitative research involves gathering and analyzing non-numerical data. It’s used to gain a better understanding of people’s beliefs, behaviors, attitudes, and experiences.

A phenomenon is defined as an observable fact or event. A series of extraordinary or unusual things is called phenomena (the plural of phenomenon).

When a researcher uses this method, they first have to define the phenomenon they’re studying. Then, they use their research methods to better understand how people experience the phenomenon or how it has impacted people.

Women’s experiences in maternity wards, racism in the workplace, and how families experience end-of-life care for loved ones are some examples of themes that can be studied using phenomenological research.

How Is Phenomenological Research Carried Out?

Because phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach, it involves speaking to or observing participants. Researchers can use some or all of the methods below.

●  In-depth surveys

●  Focus groups

●  Questionnaires

●  Interviews

●  Artifacts

●  Analyzing personal texts

●  Observations

●  Case studies

●  Recordings

It’s important to note that the way you carry out your phenomenological research should not lead your participants toward a particular outcome. For example, surveys and questionnaires shouldn’t include any questions that lead participants to a particular answer or idea.

To get the best results from your research, try building a good rapport with your participants. This doesn’t mean you have to become friends with them! But it does mean you should make them feel comfortable and safe so that they can share their honest experiences. This guide from Fool Proof will give you some helpful pointers.

Because it’s such a people-focused method, ethics plays a big role in phenomenological research. Researchers must consider the impact the study will have on the participants and how it will affect them as researchers.

They also need to ensure that their study is ethically sound by getting proper informed consent and making sure that the data is confidential and the participants are anonymous.

When you start your phenomenological study, we recommend thoroughly considering your research paradigm as a starting point. This is the philosophical framework on which your research is based, including ontology, epistemology, and the research framework.

Pros and Cons of Phenomenological Research

There are advantages and disadvantages to phenomenological research, but no form of research is perfect. Below, we’ve outlined some of the pros and cons.

●  It’s a versatile method that can be used across a wide range of subjects.

Find this useful?

Subscribe to our newsletter and get writing tips from our editors straight to your inbox.

●  It’s cost-effective and simple to carry out.

●  It can remove a researcher’s preconceived ideas.

●  It can help researchers get a much greater understanding of the phenomenon.

●  It can help create new and more accurate theories.

●  It can spread awareness about the phenomenon.

●  It can be challenging to interpret the data.

●  Studies can be dismissed as unreliable because it’s hard to validate people’s experiences.

●  It can be easy for phenomenological studies to become biased by the researcher.

●  Participants might struggle to get their points across because of issues like literacy, language barriers, and even age.

●  Presenting findings can be challenging.

When Should You Use Phenomenological Research?

If you’re a researcher thinking of using phenomenology in your next study, be aware that some studies lend themselves to this style of research more than others.

You can use this type of research to find out how people perceive a certain situation or fact, or you can determine how a situation or fact has impacted them. Remember that a phenomenological study is only for qualitative research.

Researchers need to deliver accurate content for their papers to have the biggest impact. This means that research paper editing and proofreading are essential. We can take that pressure off your shoulders.

Our team of experts offers a thorough proofreading and editing service for research papers. Your editors will check your paper for:

●  Spelling, grammar, and punctuation issues

●  Problems with tone

●  Clarity

●  Formatting issues

●  And more!

Want 500 words of your work proofread and edited for free ? Try it out today.

Share this article:

Post A New Comment

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

5-minute read

Free Email Newsletter Template (2024)

Promoting a brand means sharing valuable insights to connect more deeply with your audience, and...

6-minute read

How to Write a Nonprofit Grant Proposal

If you’re seeking funding to support your charitable endeavors as a nonprofit organization, you’ll need...

9-minute read

How to Use Infographics to Boost Your Presentation

Is your content getting noticed? Capturing and maintaining an audience’s attention is a challenge when...

8-minute read

Why Interactive PDFs Are Better for Engagement

Are you looking to enhance engagement and captivate your audience through your professional documents? Interactive...

7-minute read

Seven Key Strategies for Voice Search Optimization

Voice search optimization is rapidly shaping the digital landscape, requiring content professionals to adapt their...

Five Creative Ways to Showcase Your Digital Portfolio

Are you a creative freelancer looking to make a lasting impression on potential clients or...

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

Phenomenology

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 31 July 2024
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Eden Kinkaid 2 &
• Maximilian Gregor Hepach 3  

Definition/Description

Phenomenology is a diverse philosophical tradition concerned with perception, the nature of being and subjectivity, the experience of sense and meaning, and the entanglements between subjectivity, the body, world, space, and time. As a method, phenomenology seeks to ground knowledge of the world in presuppositionless descriptions of experience. These descriptions are not merely subjective; phenomenologists seek to uncover general principles governing experience, knowledge, and the structure of worlds.

Introduction

Over the last century, interest in phenomenology has waxed and waned in geography. Phenomenological thought has been brought into geography in response to various geographic debates, including those on landscape, place, and the nature of the subject. The reasons underlying and motivating geography’s turns toward phenomenology have inevitably shaped what ideas were taken up by geographers and how phenomenology came to be understood. Major points of...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Ahmed, S. (2006). Queer phenomenology . Duke University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Anderson, B. (2009). Affective atmospheres. Emotion, Space and Society, 2 (2), 77–81. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1755458609000589

Article   Google Scholar  

Anderson, B., & Wylie, J. (2009). On geography and materiality. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 41 (2), 318–335. https://doi.org/10.1068/a3940

Arendt, H. (1973). The origins of totalitarianism . Harcourt.

Google Scholar  

Ash, J. (2020). Post-phenomenology and space: A geography of comprehension, form and power. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 45 (1), 181–193. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tran.12331

Ash, J., & Simpson, P. (2016). Geography and post-phenomenology. Progress in Human Geography, 40 (1), 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132514544806

Ash, J., & Simpson, P. (2019). Postphenomenology and method: Styles for thinking the (non)human. Geo Humanities, 5 (1), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/2373566X.2018.1543553

Ash, J., Anderson, B., Gordon, R., & Langley, P. (2018). Unit, vibration, tone: A post-phenomenological method for researching digital interfaces. Cultural Geographies, 25 (1), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474474017726556

Bartky, S. L. (2015). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression . Routledge.

Billinge, M. (1977). In search of negativism: Phenomenology and historical geography. Journal of Historical Geography, 3 (1), 55–67. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030574887790144X

Boys, J. (2018). Cripping spaces? On dis/abling phenomenology in architecture. The Log, 42 , 55–66.

Buttimer, A. (1976). Grasping the dynamism of lifeworld. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 66 (2), 277–292. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1976.tb01090.x

Casey, E. S. (2009). Getting back into place: Toward a renewed understanding of the place-world . Indiana University Press.

Davis, W. M. (1899). The geographical cycle. The Geographical Journal, 14 (5), 481–504. https://doi.org/10.2307/1774538

Diedrich, L. (2001). Breaking down: A phenomenology of disability. Literature and Medicine, 20 (2), 209–230.

Entrikin, J. N. (1976). Contemporary humanism in geography. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 66 (4), 615–632. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2569260

Fanon, F. (2008). Black skin, white masks . Grove Press.

Gibas, P. (2019). Between roots and rhizomes: Towards a post-phenomenology of home. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers . https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12304

Guenther, L. (2013). Solitary confinement: Social death and its afterlives . University of Minnesota Press.

Harrison, P. (2008). Corporeal remains: Vulnerability, proximity, and living on after the end of the world. Environment and Planning A, 40 (2), 423–445.

Harrison, P. (2009). In the absence of practice. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 27 (6), 987–1009. https://doi.org/10.1068/d7907

Hepach, M. G. (2021). Entangled phenomenologies: Reassessing (post-)phenomenology’s promise for human geography. Progress in Human Geography, 45 (5), 1278–1294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132520987308

Husserl, E. ([1917] 1981). Inaugural lecture at Freiburg im Breisgau (R. W. Jordan, Trans.). In P. McCormick & F. A. Elliston (Eds.), Husserl. Shorter works (pp. 9–17). University of Notre Dame Press.

Husserl, E. ([1900/1901] 2001). Logical investigations (J. N. Findlay, Trans.). Routledge.

Ihde, D. (1995). Postphenomenology: Essays in the postmodern context . Northwestern University Press.

Kinkaid, E. (2020). Re-encountering Lefebvre: Toward a critical phenomenology of social space. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 38 (1), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775819854765

Kinkaid, E. (2021). Is post-phenomenology a critical geography? Subjectivity and difference in post-phenomenological geographies. Progress in Human Geography, 45 (2), 298–316.

Kinkaid, E. (2022). Positionality, post-phenomenology, and the politics of theory. Gender, Place & Culture, 29 (7), 923–945.

Lajoie, C., & Douglas, E. (2020). A crip queer dialogue on sickness (editors’ introduction). Journal of Critical Phenomenology, 3 (2), 1–14.

Lea, J. (2009). Post-phenomenology/post-phenomenological geographies. In R. Kitchen & N. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 373–378). Elsevier.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Lee, E. S. (2014). Living alterities: Phenomenology, embodiment, and race . SUNY Press.

Levinas, E. ([1961] 1979). Totality and infinity: An essay on exteriority (A. Lingis, Trans. 1). Martinus Nijhoff.

Magrì, E., & McQueen, P. (2022). Critical phenomenology: An introduction . John Wiley & Sons.

Mahendran, D. (2007). The facticity of blackness: A non-conceptual approach to the study of race and racism in Fanon’s and Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology. Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge, 5 (3), 18.

Malpas, J. (1999). Place and experience: A philosophical topography . Cambridge University Press.

McCormack, D. P. (2017). The circumstances of post-phenomenological life worlds. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 42 (1), 2–13. https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tran.12146

Merleau-Ponty, M. ([1945] 2012). Phenomenology of perception (D. A. Landes, Trans.). Routledge.

Miller, J. C., & Das, A. (2021). Post-phenomenology, consumption and warfare on the urban leisure path, USA. Geoforum, 126 , 394–402.

Parsons, J. J. (1969). Toward a more humane geography. Economic Geography, 45 (3), i–i. https://doi.org/10.1080/00130095.1969.11741257

Pearce, L. (2021). Finding one place in another: Post/phenomenology, memory and déjà vu. Social & Cultural Geography, 24 (2), 195–211.

Pickles, J. (1985). Phenomenology, science, and geography: Spatiality and the human sciences . Cambridge University Press.

Relph, E. (1970). An inquiry into the relations between phenomenology and geography. The Canadian Geographer, 14 (3), 193–201. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1541-0064.1970.tb01567.x

Revill, G. (2016). How is space made in sound? Spatial mediation, critical phenomenology and the political agency of sound. Progress in Human Geography, 40 (2), 240–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132515572271

Roberts, T. (2019). Resituating post-phenomenological geographies: Deleuze, relations and the limits of objects. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 44 (3), 542–554. https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tran.12280

Roe, E. J. (2009). Human-nonhuman. In R. Kitchin & N. J. Thrift (Eds.), International encyclopedia of human geography (pp. 251–257). Elsevier.

Rose, M., & Wylie, J. W. (2011). Landscape—Part II. In J. A. Agnew & J. S. Duncan (Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell companion to human geography (pp. 221–234). Wiley-Blackwell.

Rossetto, T. (2019). Repeat photography, post‐phenomenology and “being‐with” through the image (at the First World War cemeteries of Asiago, Italy). Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 44 (1), 125–140.

Rossetto, T., & Peterle, G. (2021). Buildings as non-human narrators: Between post-phenomenological and object-oriented architectural geographies. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12457

Salamon, G. (2018). The life and death of Latisha King . New York University Press.

Scheler, M. ([1973] 2017). The nature of sympathy (P. Heath, Trans.). Routledge.

Seamon, D. (2019). Whither phenomenology? Thirty years of environmental and architectural phenomenology. Environmental & Architectural Phenomenology, 30 (2), 37–48.

Seamon, D., & Larsen, T. (2020). Humanistic geography. In D. Richardson, N. Castree, M. F. Goodchild, A. Kobayashi, W. Liu, & R. A. Marston (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of geography (pp. 1–12). Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0412.pub2

Semple, E. C. (1911). Influences of geographic environment. On the basis of Ratzel’s system of Anthropo-geography.

Simonsen, K. (2013). In quest of a new humanism: Embodiment, experience and phenomenology as critical geography. Progress in Human Geography, 37 (1), 10–26.

Simonsen, K., & Koefoed, L. (2020). Geographies of embodiment . Sage.

Spinney, J. (2015). Close encounters? Mobile methods, (post)phenomenology and affect. Cultural Geographies, 22 (2), 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474474014558988

Stein, E. (1917). Zum Problem der Einfühlung . Buchdruckerei des Waisenhauses.

Thrift, N. J. (2008). Non-representational theory . Taylor & Francis.

Tuan, Y.-F. (1965). “Environment” and “World”. The Professional Geographer, 17 (5), 6–8.

Wylie, J. (2005). A single day’s walking: Narrating self and landscape on the south west coast path. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 30 (2), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.2307/3804521

Wylie, J. (2006). Depths and folds: On landscape and the gazing subject. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 24 (4), 519–535. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/d380t

Wylie, J. (2009). Landscape, absence and the geographies of love. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 34 (3), 275–289.

Young, I. M. (2005). On female body experience: “Throwing like a girl” and other essays . Oxford University Press.

Zahavi, D. (2004). Husserl’s noema and the internalism-externalism debate. Inquiry, 47 (1), 42–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00201740310004404

Zahavi, D. (2018). Phenomenology: The basics . Routledge.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Geography and Spatial Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

Eden Kinkaid

Department of Arts and Media, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Maximilian Gregor Hepach

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eden Kinkaid .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Lindley Hall 219C, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Barney Warf

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Kinkaid, E., Hepach, M.G. (2024). Phenomenology. In: Warf, B. (eds) The Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25900-5_149-1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25900-5_149-1

Received : 05 July 2023

Accepted : 19 March 2024

Published : 31 July 2024

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-25900-5

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-25900-5

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Humanities, Soc. Sciences and Law

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Phenomenology Qualitative Research Inquiry: A Review Paper

Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences

Phenomenology is the qualitative research inquiry that explores the lived experiences of the individual. This paper discusses phenomenology as a qualitative research methodology and its roots, characteristics, and steps to conduct the study. The relevant literature was searched using the database library, including PubMed, Google Scholar, PakMediNet, Medline, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature CINAHL. Literature was searched using keywords including phenomenology, qualitative inquiry, roots of phenomenology, steps of phenomenology, and characters of phenomenology. The essential essence of phenomenology is to understand the lived experiences of individuals. The participants truly share the lived experiences which they witnessed. It is concluded that phenomenology is a qualitative inquiry that addresses the real-life experiences of individuals.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• HHS Author Manuscripts

Research MethodologyOverview of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods are a robust tool for chaplaincy research questions. Similar to much of chaplaincy clinical care, qualitative research generally works with written texts, often transcriptions of individual interviews or focus group conversations and seeks to understand the meaning of experience in a study sample. This article describes three common methodologies: ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology. Issues to consider relating to the study sample, design, and analysis are discussed. Enhancing the validity of the data, as well reliability and ethical issues in qualitative research are described. Qualitative research is an accessible way for chaplains to contribute new knowledge about the sacred dimension of people's lived experience.

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research is, “the systematic collection, organization, and interpretation of textual material derived from talk or conversation. It is used in the exploration of meanings of social phenomena as experienced by individuals themselves, in their natural context” ( Malterud, 2001 , p. 483). It can be the most accessible means of entry for chaplains into the world of research because, like clinical conversations, it focuses on eliciting people's stories. The stories can actually be expressed in almost any medium: conversations (interviews or focus groups), written texts (journal, prayers, or letters), or visual forms (drawings, photographs). Qualitative research may involve presenting data collected from a single person, as in a case study ( Risk, 2013 ), or from a group of people, as in one of my studies of parents of children with cystic fibrosis (CF) ( Grossoehme et al., 2013 ). Whole books are devoted to qualitative research methodology and, indeed, to the individual methods themselves. This article is intended to present, in rather broad brushstrokes, some of the “methods of choice” and to suggest some issues to consider before embarking on a qualitative research project. Helpful texts are cited to provide resources for more complete information.

Although virtually anything may be data, spoken mediums are the most common forms of collecting data in health research, so the focus of this article will mainly be on interviews and to a lesser extent, focus groups. Interviews explore experiences of individuals, and through a series of questions and answers, the meaning individuals give to their experiences ( Tong, Sainsbury, & Craig, 2007 ). They may be “structured” interviews, in which an interview guide is used with pre-determined questions from which no deviation is permitted by the interviewer, or semi-structured interviews, in which an interview guide is used with pre-determined questions and potential follow-up questions. The latter allows the interviewer to pursue topics that arise during the interview that seem relevant ( Cohen & Crabtree, 2006 ). Writing good questions is harder than it appears! In my first unit of CPE, the supervisor returned verbatims, especially our early efforts, with “DCFQ” written in the margin, for “direct, closed, factual question.” We quickly learned to avoid DCFQs in our clinical conversations because they did not create the space for reflection on illness and the sacred the way open-ended questions did. To some extent, writing good open-ended questions that elicit stories can come more readily to chaplains, due perhaps to our training, than to investigators from other disciplines. This is not to say writing an interview guide is easy or an aspect of research that can be taken lightly, as the quality of the data you collect, and hence the quality of your study, depends on the quality of your interview questions.

Data may also be collected using focus groups. Focus groups are normally built around a specific topic. They almost always follow a semi-structured format and include open discussion of responses among participants, which may range from four to twelve people ( Tong et al., 2007 ). They provide an excellent means to gather data on an entire range of responses to a topic, or on the social interactions between participants, or to clarify a process. Once the data are collected, the analytic approach is typically similar to that of interview data.

Qualitative investigators are not disinterested outsiders who merely observe without interacting with participants, but affect and are affected by their data. The investigator's emotions as they read participants' narratives are data to be included in the study. Simply asking “research” questions can itself be a chaplaincy intervention: what we ask affects the other person and can lead them to reflect and change ( Grossoehme, 2011 ). It is important to articulate our biases and understand how they influence us when we collect and analyze data. Qualitative research is often done by a small group of researchers, especially the data coding. This minimizes the bias of an individual investigator. Inevitably, two or more people will code passages differently at times. It is important to establish at the outset how such discrepancies will be handled.

Ensuring Rigor, Validity, and Reliability

Some people do not think qualitative research is not very robust or significant. This attitude is due, in part, to the poor quality of some early efforts. Increasingly, however, qualitative studies have improved in rigor, and reviewers of qualitative manuscripts expect investigators to have addressed problematic issues from the start of the project. Two important areas are validity and reliability. Validity refers to whether or not the final product (usually referred to a “model”) truly portrays what it claims to portray. If you think of a scale on which you weigh yourself, you want a valid reading so that you know your correct weight. Reliability refers to the extent to which the results are repeatable; if someone else repeated this study, would they obtain the same result? To continue the scale analogy, a reliable scale gives the same weight every time I step on it. A scale can be reliable without being valid. The scale could reliably read 72 pounds every time I step on it, but that value is hardly correct, so the measure is not valid.

Swinton and Mowat (2006) discussed ensuring the “trustworthiness” of the data. N narrative data which are “rich” in their use of metaphor and description, and which express deeper levels of meaning and nuance compared to everyday language are likely to yield a trustworthy final model because the investigators have done a credible job of completely describing and understanding the topic that is under study. Validity is also enhanced by some methodologies, such as grounded theory, which use participants' own words to name categories and themes, instead of using labels given by the investigator. The concept of “member checking” also enhances validity. Once the analyses are complete and a final model has been developed, these findings are shown to all or some of the participants (the members) who are invited to check the findings and give feedback. Do they see themselves in the words or conceptual model that is presented? Do they offer participants a new insight, or do they nod agreement without really reengaging the findings?

Reliability

One means of demonstrating reliability is to document the research decisions made along the way, as they were made, perhaps in a research diary ( Swinton & Mowat, 2006 ). Qualitative methodologies accept that the investigator is part of what is being studied and will influence it, and that this does not devalue a study but, in fact, enhances it. Simply deciding what questions to ask or not ask, and who you ask them to (and not) reflect certain decisions that should be consciously made and documented. Another researcher should be able to understand what was done and why from reading the research diary.

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Elisa Sobo (2009) defines ethnography as the presentation of, “… a given group's conceptual world, seen and experienced from the inside” (p. 297). Ethnography answers the question, “what's it like to be this person?” One example of this kind of study comes from the work of Fore and colleagues ( Fore, Goldenhar, Margolis, & Seid, 2013 ). In order to design tools that would enable clinicians and persons with pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IDB) to work together more efficiently, an ethnographic study was undertaken to learn what it was like for a family when a child had IDB. After 36 interviews, the study team was able to create three parent-child dyad personas: archetypes of parents and children with IDB based directly on the data they gathered. These personas were used by the design team to think about how different types of parents and children adapted to the disease and to think what tools should be developed to help different types of parents and children with IDB. An ethnographic study is the method of choice when the goal is to understand a culture, and to present, or explain, its spoken and unspoken nature to people who are not part of the culture, as in the example above of IDB. Before “outsiders” could think about the needs of people with IDB, it was necessary to learn what it is like to live with this disease.

Determining the sample in ethnographic studies typically means using what is called a purposive sample ( Newfield, Sells, Smith, Newfield, & Newfield, 1996 ). Purposive samples are based on criteria that the investigator establishes at the outset, which describe participant characteristics. In the aforementioned IDB example, the criteria were: (1) being a person with IDB who was between 12 and 22 years old or the parent of such a child; (2) being or having a child whose IDB care was provided at one of a particular group of treatment centers; (3) being a pediatric gastrointestinal nurse at one of the centers; or (4) a physician/researcher at one of five treatment centers. Having a sample that is representative of the larger population, always the goal in quantitative research, is not the point in ethnographic studies. Here, the goal is to recruit participants who have the experience to respond to the questions. Out of their intimate knowledge of their culture, the investigator can build a theory, or conceptual model, which could later be tested for generalizability in an entire population.

Ethnographic study designs typically involve a combination of data collection methods. Whenever possible, observing the participants in the midst of whatever experience is the study's focus is desirable. In the process of an ethnographic project on CF, for instance, two students spent a twelve-hour period at the home of a family with a child who had CF, taking notes about what they saw and heard. Interviews with participants are frequently employed to learn more about the experience of interest. An example of this is the work of Sobo and colleagues, who interviewed parents of pediatric patients in a clinic to ask about the barriers they experienced obtaining health care for their child ( Seid, Sobo, Gelhard, & Varni, 2004 ). Diaries and journals detailing people's lived experience may also be used, alone, or in combination with other methods.

Analysis of ethnographic data is variable, depending on the study's goal. One common analytic approach is to begin analysis after the first few interviews have been completed, and to read them to get a sense of their content. The next step is to name the seemingly important words or phrases. At this point, one might begin to see how the names relate to each other; this is the beginning of theory development. This process continues until all the data are collected. At that point, the data are sorted by the names, with data from multiple participants clustered under each topic name ( Boyle, 1994 ). Similar names may be grouped together, or placed under a larger label name (i.e., category). In a sense, what happens is that each interviewer's voice is broken into individual fragments, and everyone's fragments that have the same name are put together. From individual voices speaking on multiple topics, there is now one topic with multiple voices speaking to it.

GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH

Grounded theory is “grounded” in its data; this inductive approach collects data while simultaneously analyzing it and using the emerging theory to inform data collection ( Rafuls & Moon, 1996 ). This cycle continues until the categories are said to be “saturated,” which typically means the point when no new information is being learned ( Morse, 1995 ). This methodology is generally credited to Glaser and Strauss, who wanted to create a means of developing theoretical models from empirical data ( Charmaz, 2005 ). Perhaps, more than in any other qualitative methodology, the person of the investigator is the key. The extent to which the investigator notices subtle nuances in the data and responds to them with new questions for future participants, or revises an emerging theory, is the extent to which a grounded theory research truly presents a theory capturing the fullness of the data from which it was built. It is also the extent to which the theory is capable of being used to guide future research or alter clinical practice. Grounded theory is the method of choice when there is no existing hypothesis to test. For instance, there was no published data on how parents use faith to cope after their child's diagnosis with CF. Using grounded theory allowed us to develop a theory, or a conceptual model, of how parents used faith to cope ( Grossoehme, Ragsdale, Wooldridge, Cotton, & Seid, 2010 ). An excellent discussion of this method is provided by Charmaz (2006) .

The nature of the research question should dictate the sample description, which should be defined before beginning the data collection. In some cases, the incidence of the phenomena may set some limits on the sample. For example, a study of religious coping by adults who were diagnosed with CF after age 18 years began with a low incidence: this question immediately limited the number of eligible adults in a four-state area to approximately 25 ( Grossoehme et al., 2012 ). Knowing that between 12 and 20 participants might be required in order to have sufficient data to convince ourselves that our categories were indeed saturated, limiting our sample in other ways: for example, selecting representative individuals spread across the number of years since diagnosis would not have made sense. In some studies, the goal is to learn what makes a particular subset of a larger sample special; these subsets are known as “positive deviants” ( Bradley et al., 2009 ).

Once the sample is defined and data collection begins, the analytic process begins shortly thereafter. As will be described in the following paragraphs, interviews and other forms of spoken communication are nearly always transcribed, typically verbatim. Unlike most other qualitative methods, grounded theory uses an iterative design. Sometime around the third or fourth interview has been completed and transcribed and before proceeding with further interviews, it is time to begin analyzing the transcripts. There are two aspects to this. The first is to code the data that you have. Grounded theory prefers to use the participants' own words as the code, rather than having the investigator name it. For example, in the following transcript excerpt, we coded part of the following except:

• INTERVIEWER: OK. Have your beliefs or perhaps relationship with God changed at all because of what you've gone through the last nine and 10 months with N.?
• INTERVIEWEE: Yeah, I mean, I feel that I'm stronger than I was before actually.
• INTERVIEWER: Hmm-hmm. How so? Can you put that into words? I know some of these could be hard to talk about but …
• INTERVIEWEE: I don't know, I feel like I'm putting his life more in God's hands than I ever was before.

We labeled, or coded, these data as, “I'm putting his life more in God's hands,” whereas in a different methodology we might have simply named it “Trusting God.” Focus on the action in the narrative. Although it can be difficult, you as a researcher must try very hard to set your own ideas aside. Remember you are doing this because there is no pre-existing theory about what you are studying, so you should not be guided by a theory you have in your mind. You must let the data speak for themselves.

The second point is to reflect on the codes and what they are already telling you. What questions are eliciting the narrative data you want? Which ones are not? Questions that are not leading you to the data you want probably need to be changed. Interesting, novel ideas may emerge from the data, or topics that you want to know more about that you did not anticipate and so the interviewer did not' follow up on them. What are the data not telling you that you are seeking? All of this information flows back to revising the semi-structured interview guide ( Charmaz, 2006 ). This issue raised mild concern with the IRB reviewer who had not encountered this methodology before. This concern was overcome by showing that this is an accepted method with voluminous literature behind it, and by showing that the types of item revisions were not expected to significantly alter the study's effect on the participants. From this point onward you collect data, code it, and analyze it simultaneously. As you code a new transcript and come across a statement similar to others, you can begin to put them together. If you are using qualitative analysis software such as NVivo ( “NVivo qualitative data analysis software,” 2012 ), you can make these new codes “children” of a “parent” node (the first statement you encountered on this topic). The next step is called “focused coding” and in this phase you combine what seems to you to be the most significant codes ( Charmaz, 2006 ). These may also be the most frequently occurring, or the topic with the most duplicates, but not necessarily. This is not a quantitative approach in which having large amounts of data is important. You combine codes at this stage in such a way that your new, larger, categories begin to give shape to aspects of the theory you think is going to emerge. As you collect and code more data, and revise your categories, your idea of the theory will change.

Axial coding follows, as you look at your emerging themes or categories, and begin to associate coded data that explains that category. Axial coding refers to coding the words or quotations that are around the category's “axis,” or core. For example, in a study of parental faith and coping in the first year after their child's diagnosis with CF ( Grossoehme et al., 2010 ), one of the categories which emerged was, “Our beliefs have changed.” There were five axial codes which explain aspects of this category. The axial codes were, “Unchanged,” “We've learned how fragile life is,” “Our faith has been strengthened,” “We've gotten away from our parents' viewpoints,” and “I'm better in tune with who I am.” Each of these axial codes had multiple explanatory phrases or sentences under them; together they explain the breadth and dimensions of the category, “Our beliefs have changed.”

The next step is theoretical coding, and here the categories generated during focused coding are synthesized into a theory. Some grounded theorists, notably one of the two most associated with it (Glaser), do not use axial coding but proceed directly to this step as the means of creating coherence out of the data ( Charmaz, 2006 ). As your emerging theory crystallizes, you may pause to see if it has similarities with other theoretical constructs you encountered in your literature search. Does your emerging theory remind you of anything? It would be appropriate to engage in member-checking at this point. In this phase, you show your theoretical model and its supporting categories to participants and ask for their feedback. Does your model make sense to them? Does it help them see this aspect of their experience differently ( Charmaz, 2005 ). Use their feedback to revise your theory and put it in its final form. At this point, you have generated new knowledge: a theory no one has put forth previously, and one that is ready to be tested.

PHENOMENOLOGY RESEARCH

Perhaps the most chaplain-friendly qualitative research approach is phenomenology, because it is all about the search for meaning. Its roots are in the philosophical work of Husserl, Heidegger and Ricoeur ( Boss, Dahl, & Kaplan, 1996 ; Swinton & Mowat, 2006 ). This approach is based on several assumptions: (1) meaning and knowing are social constructions, always incomplete and developing; (2) the investigator is a part of the experience being studied and the investigator's values play a role in the investigation; (3) bias is inherent in all research and should be articulated at the beginning; (4) participants and investigators share knowledge and are partners; (5) common forms of expression (e.g., words or art) are important; and (6) meanings may not be shared by everyone (Boss et al.). John Swinton and Harriet Mowat (2006) described the process of carrying out a phenomenological study of depression and spirituality in adults and reading their book is an excellent way to gain a sense of the whole process. Phenomenology may be the method of choice when you want to study what an experience means to a particular group of people. May not be the best choice when you want to be able to generalize your findings. An accurate presentation of the experience under study is more important in this approach than the ability to claim that the findings apply to across situations or people (Boss et al.). A study of the devil among predominately Hispanic horse track workers is unlikely to be generalizable to experiences of the devil among persons of Scandinavian descent living in Minnesota. Care must be taken not to overstate the findings from a study and extend the conclusions beyond what the data support.

The emphasis on accurately portraying the phenomenon means that large numbers of participants are not required. In fact, relatively small sample sizes are required compared to most quantitative, clinical studies. The goal is to gather descriptions of their lived experience which are rich in detail and imagery, as well as reflection on its theological or psychological meaning. The likelihood of achieving this goal can be enhanced by using a purposeful sample. That is, decide in the beginning approximately how large and how diverse your sample needs to be. For example, CF can be caused by over 1,000 different genetic mutations; some cause more pulmonary symptoms while others cause more gastrointestinal problems. Some people with CF have diabetes and others do not; some have a functioning pancreas and others need to take replacement enzymes before eating or drinking anything other than water. Some CF adolescents may have lung function that is over 100% of what is expected for healthy adolescents of their age and gender, whereas others, with severe pulmonary disease, may have lung function that is just 30% of what is expected for their age and gender. A study of what it is like for an adolescent to live with a life-shortening genetic disease using this approach might benefit from purposive sampling. For example, lung disease severity in CF is broadly described as mild, moderate or severe. A purposeful sample might call for 18 participants divided into 3 age groups (11–13 years; 14–16 years; and 17–19 years old) and disease severity (mild, moderate, and severe). In each of those nine groups there would be one male and one female. In actual practice, one might want to have more than 18 to allow for attrition, but this breakdown gives the basic idea of defining a purposive sample. One could reasonably expect that having the experience of both genders across the spectrum of disease severity and the developmental range of adolescence would permit an accurate, multi-dimensional understanding to emerge of what living with this life-shortening disease means to adolescents. In fact, such an accurate description is more likely to emerge with this purposeful sample of 18 adolescents than with a convenience sample of the first 18 adolescents who might agree to participate in the study during their outpatient clinic appointment. Defining the sample to be studied requires some forethought about what is likely to be needed to gain the fullest understanding of the topic.

Any research design may be used. The design will be dictated by what data are required to understand the phenomena and its meaning. Interviews are by far the most common means of gathering data, although one might also use written texts, such as prayers written in open prayer books in hospital chapels, for example ( ap Sion, 2013 ; Grossoehme, 1996 ), or drawings ( Pendleton, Cavalli, Pargament, & Nasr, 2002 ), or photographs/videos ( Olausson, Ekebergh, & Lindahl, 2012 ). Although the word “text” appears, it should be with the understanding that any form of data is implied.

The theoretical underpinnings of phenomenology, which are beyond the scope of this article, suggest to users that “a method” is unnecessary or indeed, contrary, to phenomenology. However, one phenomenological researcher did articulate a method ( Giorgi, 1985 ), which consists of the following steps. First, the research team immerses themselves in the data. They do this by reading and re-reading the transcribed interviews and listening to the recorded interviews so that they can hear the tone and timbre of the voices. The goal at this stage is to get a sense of the whole. Second, the texts are coded, in which the words, phrases or sentences that stand out as describing the experience or phenomena under study, or which express outright its meaning for the participant are extracted or highlighted. Each coded bit of data is sometimes referred to as a “meaning unit.” Third, similar meaning units are placed into categories. Fourth, for each meaning unit the meaning of the participants' own words is spelled out. For chaplains, this may mean articulating what the experience means in theological language. Other disciplines might transform the participants' words into psychological, sociological or anthropological language. Here the investigators infer the meaning behind the participants' words and articulate it. Finally, each of the transformed statements of meaning are combined into a few thematic statements that describe the experience ( Bassett, 2004 ; Boss et al., 1996 ). After this, it would be appropriate to do member-checking and a subsequent revision of the final model based on participants' responses and feedback.

PRACTICAL CONCERNS

Just as questionnaires or blood samples contain data, in qualitative research it is the recording of people's words, whether in an audio, video, or paper format which hold the data. Interviews, either in-person or by telephone should be recorded using audio, video or both. It is important to have a device with suitable audio quality and fresh batteries. Experience has shown me the benefit of using two audio recorders so that you do not lose data if one of them fails. There are several small recorders available that have USB connections that allow the audio file to be uploaded to a computer easily. To protect participants' privacy, all data should be anonymized by removing any information that could identify individuals. The Standard Operating Procedure in my research group is to replace all participants' names with an “ N .” During the transcription process, all other individuals are identified by their role in square brackets, “[parent].” Depending on the study's goal and the analytic method you have selected, you may want to include symbols for pauses before participants respond, or non-fluencies (e.g., “ummm. …”, “well … uh …”) or non-verbal gestures (if you are video recording). Decide before beginning whether it is important to capture these as data or not. There are conventional symbols which are inserted into transcriptions which capture these data for you. After the initial transcription, these need to be verified by comparing the written copy against the original recording. Verification should be done by someone other than the transcriptionist. There are several tasks at this stage. Depending on the quality of your recording, the clarity of participants' speech and other factors, some words or phrases may have been unintelligible to the transcriptionist, and this is the time to address them. In my research group our Standard Operating Procedure is to highlight unintelligible text during the transcription phase, and a “verifier” attempts three times to clarify the words on the original recording before leaving them marked “unintelligible” in the transcript. No transcriptionist is perfect and if they are unfamiliar with the topic, they may transcribe the recording inaccurately. I recently verified a transcript where a commercial medical transcriptionist changed the participant's gender from “he” to “she” when the word prior to the pronoun ended with an “s.” If this pattern had not been caught during the verification process, it would have been very difficult during the coding to know whether the pronoun referred to the participant or to their daughter.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Study design.

The issue of power and the possibility of subtle coercion is the concern here. There is an inherent power differential between a research participant and the investigator, which is exacerbated when the investigator is a chaplain. Despite our attempts to be non-threatening, the very words, "chaplain," or "clergy" connote power. For this reason, the chaplain-investigator should not approach potential participants regarding a study. Potential participants may be informed regarding their eligibility to participate by their physician or a chaplain, but the recruitment and informed consent process should be handled by someone else, perhaps a clinical research coordinator. However, as the chaplain-investigator, you will need to teach them how to talk with potential participants about your study and answer their questions. Choose a data collection method that is best-suited to the level of sensitivity of your research topic. Focus groups can provide data with multiple perspectives, and they are a poor choice when there may be pressure to provide socially correct responses, or when disclosures may be stigmatizing. In such cases, it is better to collect data using individual semi-structured interviews.

Develop a plan for assessing participants' discomfort, anxiety, or even more severe reactions during the study. For instance, what will you do when someone discloses his/her current thoughts of self-harm, or experiences a flashback to a prior traumatic event that was triggered during an interview? How will you handle this if you are collecting data in person? By telephone? You will need to be specific who must be informed and who will make decisions about responding to the risk.

Privacy and Confidentiality

In addition to maintaining privacy and confidentiality of your actual data and other study documents, consider how you will protect participants' privacy when you write the study up for publication. Make sure that people cannot be identified by their quotations that you include as you publish data. The smaller the population you are working with, the more diligently you need to work on this. If the transcriptionist is not an employee of your institution and under the same privacy and confidentiality policies, it is up to you to ensure that an external transcriptionist takes steps to protect and maintain the privacy of participants' data.

Qualitative research is an accessible way for chaplains to contribute new knowledge regarding the sacred dimension of people's lived experience. Chaplains are already sensitive to and familiar with many aspects of qualitative research methodologies. Studies need to be designed to be valid and meaningful, and are best done collaboratively. They provide an excellent opportunity to develop working relationships with physicians, medical anthropologists, nurses, psychologists, and sociologists, all of whom have rich traditions of qualitative research. This article can only provide an overview of some of the issues related to qualitative research and some of its methods. The texts cited, as well as others, provide additional information needed before designing and carrying out a qualitative study. Qualitative research is a tool that chaplains can use to develop new knowledge and contribute to professional chaplaincy's ability to facilitate the healing of brokenness and disease.

Publisher's Disclaimer: Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

• ap Sion T. Coping through prayer: An empirical study in implicit religion concerning prayers for children in hospital. Mental Health, Religion & Culture. 2013; 16 (9):936–952. doi: 10.1080/13674676.2012.756186. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bassett C. Phenomenology. In: Bassett C, editor. Qualitative research in health care. Whurr Publishers, Ltd; London, UK: 2004. pp. 154–177. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boss P, Dahl C, Kaplan L. The use of phenomenology for family therapy research. In: Sprenkle DH, Moon SM, editors. Research methods in family therapy. Guilford Press; New York, NY: 1996. pp. 83–106. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyle J. Styles of ethnography. In: Morse JM, editor. Critical issues in qualitative research methods. Sage Publications; Thousand Oaks, CA: 1994. pp. 159–185. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bradley EH, Curry LA, Ramanadhan S, Rowe L, Nembhard IM, Krumholz HM. Research in action: Using positive deviance to improve quality of health care. Implementation Science. 2009; 4 (25) doi: 10.1186/1748-5908-4-25. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Charmaz K. Grounded theory in the 21st century. In: Denzin NK, Lincoln YS, editors. The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Sage Publications; Thousand Oaks, CA: 2005. pp. 507–535. [ Google Scholar ]
• Charmaz K. Constructing grounded theory. Sage Publications; Thousand Oaks, CA: 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen D, Crabtree B. Qualitative research guidelines project. 2006 Retrieved March 11, 2014, from http://www.qualres.org/HomeSemi-3629.html .
• Fore D, Goldenhar LM, Margolis PA, Seid M. Using goal-directed design to create a novel system for improving chronic illness. JMIR Research Protocols. 2013; 2 (2):343. doi: 10.2196/resprot.2749. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Giorgi A. Phenomenology and psychological research. Dusquesne University Press; Pittsburgh, PA: 1985. [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossoehme DH. Prayer reveals belief: Images of God from hospital prayers. Journal of Pastoral Care. 1996; 50 (1):33–39. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossoehme DH. Research as a chaplaincy intervention. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy. 2011; 17 (3–4):97–99. doi: 10.1080/08854726.2011.616165. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossoehme DH, Cotton S, Ragsdale J, Quittner AL, McPhail G, Seid M. "I honestly believe God keeps me healthy so I can take care of my child": Parental use of faith related to treatment adherence. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy. 2013; 19 (2):66–78. doi: 10.1080/08854726.2013.779540. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossoehme DH, Ragsdale JR, Cotton S, Meyers MA, Clancy JP, Seid M, Joseph PM. Using spirituality after an adult CF diagnosis: Cognitive reframing and adherence motivation. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy. 2012; 18 (3–4):110–120. doi: 10.1080/08854726.2012.720544. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grossoehme DH, Ragsdale J, Wooldridge JL, Cotton S, Seid M. We can handle this: Parents' use of religion in the first year following their child's diagnosis with cystic fibrosis. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy. 2010; 16 (3–4):95–108. doi: 10.1080/08854726.2010.480833. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Malterud K. Qualitative research: Standards, challenges, and guidelines. The Lancet. 2001; 358 (9280):483–488. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Morse JM. The significance of saturation. Qualitative Health Research. 1995; 5 :147–149. [ Google Scholar ]
• Newfield N, Sells SP, Smith TE, Newfield S, Newfield F. Ethnographic research methods. In: Sprenkle DH, Moon SM, editors. Research methods in family therapy. The Guilford Press; New York, NY: 1996. pp. 25–63. [ Google Scholar ]
• NVivo qualitative data analysis software . QSR International Pty Ltd. 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Olausson S, Ekebergh M, Lindahl B. The ICU patient room: Views and meanings as experienced by the next of kin: A phenomenological hermeneutical study. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing. 2012; 28 (3):176–184. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pendleton SM, Cavalli KS, Pargament KI, Nasr SZ. Religious/spiritual coping in childhood cystic fibrosis: A qualitative study. Pediatrics. 2002; 109 (1):E8. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rafuls SE, Moon SM. Grounded theory methodology in family therapy research. In: Sprenkle DH, Moon SM, editors. Research methods in family therapy. The Guilford Press; New York, NY: 1996. [ Google Scholar ]
• Risk JL. Building a new life: A chaplain's theory based case study of chronic illness. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy. 2013; 19 :81–98. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Seid M, Sobo EJ, Gelhard LR, Varni JW. Parents' reports of barriers to care for children with special health care needs: Development and validation of the barriers to care questionnaire. Ambulatory Pediatrics. 2004; 4 (4):323–331. doi: 10.1367/A03-198R.1. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sobo EJ. Culture and meaning in health services research. Left Coast Press, Inc; Walnut Creek, CA: 2009. [ Google Scholar ]
• Swinton J, Mowat H. Practical theology and qualitative research. SCM Press; London, UK: 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tong A, Sainsbury P, Craig J. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): A 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care. 2007; 19 (6):349–357. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

• Open access
• Published: 23 August 2024

The role of emotions in academic performance of undergraduate medical students: a narrative review

• Nora Alshareef 1 , 2 ,
• Ian Fletcher 2 &
• Sabir Giga 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  907 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

180 Accesses

Metrics details

This paper is devoted to a narrative review of the literature on emotions and academic performance in medicine. The review aims to examine the role emotions play in the academic performance of undergraduate medical students.

Eight electronic databases were used to search the literature from 2013 to 2023, including Academic Search Ultimate, British Education Index, CINAHL, Education Abstract, ERIC, Medline, APA Psych Articles and APA Psych Info. Using specific keywords and terms in the databases, 3,285,208 articles were found. After applying the predefined exclusion and inclusion criteria to include only medical students and academic performance as an outcome, 45 articles remained, and two reviewers assessed the quality of the retrieved literature; 17 articles were selected for the narrative synthesis.

The findings indicate that depression and anxiety are the most frequently reported variables in the reviewed literature, and they have negative and positive impacts on the academic performance of medical students. The included literature also reported that a high number of medical students experienced test anxiety during their study, which affected their academic performance. Positive emotions lead to positive academic outcomes and vice versa. However, Feelings of shame did not have any effect on the academic performance of medical students.

The review suggests a significant relationship between emotions and academic performance among undergraduate medical students. While the evidence may not establish causation, it underscores the importance of considering emotional factors in understanding student performance. However, reliance on cross-sectional studies and self-reported data may introduce recall bias. Future research should concentrate on developing anxiety reduction strategies and enhancing mental well-being to improve academic performance.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Studying medicine is a multi-dimensional process involving acquiring medical knowledge, clinical skills, and professional attitudes. Previous research has found that emotions play a significant role in this process [ 1 , 2 ]. Different types of emotions are important in an academic context, influencing performance on assessments and evaluations, reception of feedback, exam scores, and overall satisfaction with the learning experience [ 3 ]. In particular, medical students experience a wide range of emotions due to many emotionally challenging situations, such as experiencing a heavy academic workload, being in the highly competitive field of medicine, retaining a large amount of information, keeping track of a busy schedule, taking difficult exams, and dealing with a fear of failure [ 4 , 5 , 6 ].Especially during their clinical years, medical students may experience anxiety when interacting with patients who are suffering, ill, or dying, and they must work with other healthcare professionals. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the impact of emotions on medical students to improve their academic outcomes [ 7 ].

To distinguish the emotions frequently experienced by medical students, it is essential to define them. Depression is defined by enduring emotions of sadness, despair, and a diminished capacity for enjoyment or engagement in almost all activities [ 4 ]. Negative emotions encompass unpleasant feelings such as anger, fear, sadness, and anxiety, and they frequently cause distress [ 8 ]. Anxiety is a general term that refers to a state of heightened nervousness or worry, which can be triggered by various factors. Test anxiety, on the other hand, is a specific type of anxiety that arises in the context of taking exams or assessments. Test anxiety is characterised by physiological arousal, negative self-perception, and a fear of failure, which can significantly impair a student’s ability to perform well academically [ 9 , 10 ]. Shame is a self-conscious emotion that arises from the perception of having failed to meet personal or societal standards. It can lead to feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy, severely impacting a student’s motivation and academic performance [ 11 , 12 ]. In contrast, positive emotions indicate a state of enjoyable involvement with the surroundings, encompassing feelings of happiness, appreciation, satisfaction, and love [ 8 ].

Academic performance generally refers to the outcomes of a student’s learning activities, often measured through grades, scores, and other formal assessments. Academic achievement encompasses a broader range of accomplishments, including mastery of skills, attainment of knowledge, and the application of learning in practical contexts. While academic performance is often quantifiable, academic achievement includes qualitative aspects of a student’s educational journey [ 13 ].

According to the literature, 11–40% of medical students suffer from stress, depression, and anxiety due to the intensity of medical school, and these negative emotions impact their academic achievement [ 14 , 15 ]. Severe anxiety may impair memory function, decrease concentration, lead to a state of hypervigilance, and interfere with judgment and cognitive function, further affecting academic performance [ 16 ]. However, some studies have suggested that experiencing some level of anxiety has a positive effect and serves as motivation that can improve academic performance [ 16 , 17 ].

Despite the importance of medical students’ emotions and their relation to academic performance, few studies have been conducted in this area. Most of these studies have focused on the prevalence of specific emotions without correlating with medical students’ academic performance. Few systematic reviews have addressed the emotional challenges medical students face. However, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews that discuss the role of emotions and academic outcomes. Therefore, this review aims to fill this gap by exploring the relationship between emotions and the academic performance of medical students.

Aim of the study

This review aims to examine the role emotions play in the academic performance of undergraduate medical students.

A systematic literature search examined the role of emotions in medical students’ academic performance. The search adhered to the concepts of a systematic review, following the criteria of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 18 ]. Then, narrative synthesise was done to analyse the retrieved literature and synthesise the results. A systematic literature search and narrative review provide complete coverage and flexibility to explore and understand findings. Systematic search assures rigour and reduces bias, while narrative synthesis allows for flexible integration and interpretation. This balance improves review quality and utility.

Eligibility criteria

Inclusion criteria.

The study’s scope was confined to January 2013 to December 2023, focusing exclusively on undergraduate medical students. The research encompassed articles originating within medical schools worldwide, accepting content from all countries. The criteria included only full-text articles in English published in peer-reviewed journals. Primary research was considered, embracing quantitative and mixed-method research. The selected studies had to explicitly reference academic performance, test results, or GPA as key outcomes to address the research question.

Exclusion criteria

The study excluded individuals beyond the undergraduate medical student demographic, such as students in other health fields and junior doctors. There was no imposed age limit for the student participants. The research specifically focused on articles within medical schools, excluding those from alternative settings. It solely considered full-text articles in English-language peer-reviewed journals. Letters or commentary articles were excluded, and the study did not limit itself to a particular type of research. Qualitative studies were excluded from the review because they did not have the quantitative measures required to answer the review’s aim. This review excluded articles on factors impacting academic performance, those analysing nursing students, and gender differences. The reasons and numbers for excluding articles are shown in Table  1 .

Information sources

Eight electronic databases were used to search the literature. These were the following: Academic Search Ultimate, British Education Index, CINAHL, Education Abstract, ERIC, Medline, APA Psych Articles and APA Psych Info. The databases were chosen from several fields based on relevant topics, including education, academic evaluation and assessment, medical education, psychology, mental health, and medical research. Initially, with the help of a subject librarian, the researcher used all the above databases; the databases were searched with specific keywords and terms, and the terms were divided into the following concepts emotions, academic performance and medical students. Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, and the reference list of the retrieved articles were also used to identify other relevant articles.

Search strategy

This review started with a search of the databases. Eight electronic databases were used to search the literature from 2013 to 2023. Specific keywords and terms were used to search the databases, resulting in 3,285,208 articles. After removing duplicates, letters and commentary, this number was reduced to 1,637 articles. Exclusion and inclusion criteria were then applied, resulting in 45 articles. After two assessors assessed the literature, 17 articles were selected for the review. The search terms are as follows:

Keywords: Emotion, anxiety, stress, empathy, test anxiety, exam anxiety, test stress, exam stress, depression, emotional regulation, test scores, academic performance, grades, GPA, academic achievement, academic success, test result, assessment, undergraduate medical students and undergraduate medical education.

Emotions: TI (Emotion* OR Anxiety OR Stress OR empathy) OR emotion* OR (test anxiety or exam anxiety or test stress or exam stress) OR (depression) OR AB ((Emotion* OR Anxiety OR Stress OR empathy) OR emotion* OR (test anxiety or exam anxiety or test stress or exam stress)) (MH “Emotions”) OR (MH “Emotional Regulation”) DE “EMOTIONS”.

Academic performance: TI (test scores or academic performance or grades or GPA) OR (academic achievement or academic performance or academic success) OR (test result* OR assessment*) OR AB (test scores or academic performance or grades or GPA) OR (academic achievement or academic performance or academic success) OR test result* OR assessment*.

Medical Students: TI (undergraduate medical students OR undergraduate medical education) OR AB (undergraduate medical students OR undergraduate medical education), TI “medical students” OR AB “medical students” DE “Medical Students”.

Selection process

This literature review attempts to gather only peer-reviewed journal articles published in English on undergraduate medical students’ negative and positive emotions and academic performance from January 2013 to December 2023. Their emotions, including depression, anxiety, physiological distress, shame, happiness, joy, and all emotions related to academic performance, were examined in quantitative research and mixed methods.

Moreover, to focus the search, the author specified and defined each keyword using advanced search tools, such as subject headings in the case of the Medline database. The author used ‘MeSH 2023’ as the subject heading, then entered the term ‘Emotion’ and chose all the relevant meanings. This method was applied to most of the keywords.

Studies were included based on predefined criteria related to study design, participants, exposure, outcomes, and study types. Two independent reviewers screened each record, and the report was retrieved. In the screening process, reviewers independently assessed each article against the inclusion criteria, and discrepancies were resolved through consensus during regular team meetings. In cases of persistent disagreement, a third reviewer was consulted. Endnote library program was used for the initial screening phase. This tool was used to identify duplicates, facilitated the independent screening of titles and abstracts and helped to retrieve the full-text articles. The reasons for excluding the articles are presented in Table  1 .

Data collection process

Two independent reviewers extracted data from the eligible studies, with any discrepancies resolved through discussion and consensus. If the two primary reviewers could not agree, a third reviewer served as an arbitrator. For each included study, the following information was extracted and recorded in a standardised database: first author name, publication year, study design, sample characteristics, details of the emotions exposed, outcome measures, and results.

Academic performance as an outcome for medical students was defined to include the following: Exam scores (e.g., midterm, final exams), Clinical assessments (e.g., practical exams, clinical rotations), Overall grade point average (GPA) or any other relevant indicators of academic achievement.

Data were sought for all outcomes, including all measures, time points, and analyses within each outcome domain. In cases where studies reported multiple measures or time points, all relevant data were extracted to provide a comprehensive overview of academic performance. If a study reported outcomes beyond the predefined domains, inclusion criteria were established to determine whether these additional outcomes would be included in the review. This involved assessing relevance to the primary research question and alignment with the predefined outcome domains.

Quality assessment

The quality and risk of bias in included studies were assessed using the National Institute of Health’s (NIH) critical appraisal tool. The tool evaluates studies based on the following domains: selection bias, performance bias, detection bias, attrition bias, reporting bias, and other biases. Two independent reviewers assessed the risk of bias in each included study. Reviewers worked collaboratively to reach a consensus on assessments. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. In cases of persistent disagreement, a third reviewer was consulted.

To determine the validity of eligible articles, all the included articles were critically appraised, and all reviewers assessed bias. The validity and reliability of the results were assessed by using objective measurement. Each article was scored out of 14, with 14 indicating high-quality research and 1 indicating low-quality research. High-quality research, according to the NIH (2013), includes a clear and focused research question, defines the study population, features a high participation rate, mentions inclusion and exclusion criteria, uses clear and specific measurements, reports results in detail, lists the confounding factors and lists the implications for the local community. Therefore, an article was scored 14 if it met all criteria of the critical appraisal tool. Based on scoring, each study was classified into one of three quality categories: good, fair or poor. The poorly rated articles mean their findings were unreliable, and they will not be considered, including two articles [ 16 , 19 ]. Seventeen articles were chosen after critical appraisal using the NIH appraisal tool, as shown in Table  2 .

Effect measures

For each outcome examined in the included studies, various effect measures were utilised to quantify the relationship between emotions and academic performance among undergraduate medical students. The effect measures commonly reported across the studies included prevalence rat, correlation coefficients, and mean differences. The reviewer calculated the effect size for the studies that did not report the effect. The choice of effect measure depended on the nature of the outcome variable and the statistical analysis conducted in each study. These measures were used to assess the strength and direction of the association between emotional factors and academic performance.

The synthesis method

The findings of individual studies were summarised to highlight crucial characteristics. Due to the predicted heterogeneity, the synthesis involved pooling effect estimates and using a narrative method. A narrative synthesis approach was employed in the synthesis of this review to assess and interpret the findings from the included studies qualitatively. The narrative synthesis involved a qualitative examination of the content of each study, focusing on identifying common themes. This synthesis was employed to categorise and interpret data, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the synthesis. Themes related to emotions were identified and extracted for synthesis. Control-value theory [ 20 ] was used as an overarching theory, providing a qualitative synthesis of the evidence and contributing to a deeper understanding of the research question. If the retrieved articles include populations other than medical, such as dental students or non-medical students, the synthesis will distinguish between them and summarise the findings of the medical students only, highlighting any differences or similarities.

The Control-Value Theory, formulated by Pekrun (2006), is a conceptual framework that illustrates the relationship between emotions and academic achievement through two fundamental assessments: control and value. Control pertains to the perceived ability of a learner to exert influence over their learning activities and the results they achieve. Value relates to a student’s significance to these actions and results. The theory suggests that students are prone to experiencing good feelings, such as satisfaction and pride when they possess a strong sense of control and importance towards their academic assignments. On the other hand, individuals are prone to encountering adverse emotions (such as fear and embarrassment) when they perceive a lack of control or worth in these particular occupations. These emotions subsequently impact students’ motivation, learning strategies, and, eventually, their academic achievement. The relevance of control-value theory in reviewing medical student emotions and their influence on academic performance is evident for various reasons. This theory offers a complete framework that facilitates comprehending the intricate connection between emotions and academic achievement. It considers positive and negative emotions, providing a comprehensive viewpoint on how emotions might influence learning and performance. The relevance of control and value notions is particularly significant for medical students due to their frequent exposure to high-stakes tests and difficult courses. Gaining insight into the students’ perception of their power over academic assignments and the importance they attach to their medical education might aid in identifying emotional stimuli and devising remedies. Multiple research has confirmed the theory’s assertions, showing the critical influence of control and value evaluations on students’ emotional experiences and academic achievements [ 21 , 22 ].

Data extraction

For this step, a data extraction sheet was developed using the data extraction template provided by the Cochrane Handbook. To ensure the review is evidence-based and bias-free, the Cochrane Handbook strongly suggests that more than one reviewer review the data. Therefore, the main researcher extracted the data from the included studies, and another reviewer checked the included, excluded and extracted data. Any disagreements were resolved via discussion by a third reviewer. The data extraction Table  2 identified all study features, including the author’s name, the year of publication, the method used the aim of the study, the number and description of participants, data collection tools, and study findings.

Finalisation of references and study characteristics

Prisma sheet and the summary of final studies that have been used for the review.

When the keywords and search terms related to emotions, as mentioned above, in the eight databases listed, 3,285,208 articles were retrieved. After using advanced search and subject headings, the number of articles increased to 3,352,371. Similarly, searching for the second keyword, ‘academic performance,’ using all the advanced search tools yielded 8,119,908 articles. Searching for the third keyword, ‘medical students’, yielded 145,757 articles. All terms were searched in article titles and abstracts. After that, the author combined all search terms by using ‘AND’ and applied the time limit from 2013 to 2023; the search narrowed to 2,570 articles. After duplicates, letters and commentary were excluded, the number was reduced to 1,637 articles. After reading the title and abstract to determine relevance to the topic and applying the exclusion and inclusion criteria mentioned above, 45 articles remained; after the quality of the retrieved literature was assessed by two reviewers, 17 articles were selected for the review. The PRISMA flow diagram summarising the same is presented in Fig.  1 . Additionally, One article by Ansari et al. (2018) was selected for the review; it met most inclusion and exclusion criteria except that the outcome measure is cognitive function and not academic performance. Therefore, it was excluded from the review. Figure  1 shows the Prisma flow diagram (2020) of studies identified from the databases.

Prisma flow diagram (2020)

Study characteristics

Table  2 , summarising the characteristics of the included studies, is presented below.

Findings of the study

Country of the study.

Many of the studies were conducted in developing countries, with the majority being conducted in Europe ( n  = 4), followed by Pakistan ( n  = 2), then Saudi Arabia ( n  = 2), and the United States ( n  = 2). The rest of the studies were conducted in South America ( n  = 1), Morocco ( n  = 1), Brazil ( n  = 1), Australia ( n  = 1), Iran ( n  = 1), South Korea ( n  = 1) and Bosnia and Herzegovina ( n  = 1). No included studies were conducted in the United Kingdom.

Study design

Regarding study design, most of the included articles used a quantitative methodology, including 12 cross-sectional studies. There were two randomised controlled trials, one descriptive correlation study, one cohort study, and only one mixed-method study.

Population and study setting

Regarding population and setting, most of the studies focused on all medical students studying in a medical school setting, from first-year medical students to those in their final year. One study compared medical students with non-medical students; another combined medical students with dental students.

The study aims varied across the included studies. Seven studies examined the prevalence of depression and anxiety among medical students and their relation to academic performance. Four studies examined the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance in medical education. Four studies examined the relationship between medical students’ emotions and academic achievements. One study explored the influence of shame on medical students’ learning.

Study quality

The studies were assessed for quality using tools created by the NIH (2013) and then divided into good, fair, and poor based on these results. Nine studies had a high-quality methodology, seven achieved fair ratings, and only three achieved poor ratings. The studies that were assigned the poor rating were mainly cross-sectional studies, and the areas of weakness were due to the study design, low response rate, inadequate reporting of the methodology and statistics, invalid tools, and unclear research goals.

Outcome measures

Most of the outcome measures were heterogenous and self-administered questionnaires; one study used focus groups and observation ward assessment [ 23 ]. All the studies used the medical students’ academic grades.

Results of the study

The prevalence rate of psychological distress in the retrieved articles.

Depression and anxiety are the most common forms of psychological distress examined concerning academic outcomes among medical students. Studies consistently show concerningly high rates, with prevalence estimates ranging from 7.3 to 66.4% for anxiety and 3.7–69% for depression. These findings indicate psychological distress levels characterised as moderate to high based on common cut-off thresholds have a clear detrimental impact on academic achievement [ 16 , 24 , 25 , 26 ].

The studies collectively examine the impact of psychological factors on academic performance in medical education contexts, using a range of effect sizes to quantify their findings. Aboalshamat et al. (2015) identified a small effect size ( η 2 = 0.018) for depression’s impact on academic performance, suggesting a modest influence. Mihailescu (2016) found a significant negative correlation between levels of depression/anxiety (rho=-0.14, rho=-0.19), academic performance and GPA among medical students. Burr and Beck Dallaghan (2019) reported professional efficacy explaining 31.3% of the variance in academic performance, indicating a significant effect size. However, Del-Ben (2013) et al. did not provide the significant impact of affective changes on academic achievement, suggesting trivial effect sizes for these factors.

In conclusion, anxiety and depression, both indicators of psychological discomfort, are common among medical students. There is a link between distress and poor academic performance results, implying that this relationship merits consideration. Table  3 below shows the specific value of depression and anxiety in retrieved articles.

Test anxiety

In this review, four studies examined the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance in medical education [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. The studies found high rates of test anxiety among medical students, ranging from 52% [ 27 ] to as high as 81.1% [ 29 ]. Final-year students tend to experience the highest test anxiety [ 29 ].

Test anxiety has a significant negative correlation with academic performance measures and grade point average (GPA) [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Green et al. (2016) found that test anxiety was moderately negatively correlated with USMLE score ( r = − 0.24, p  = 0.00); high test anxiety was associated with low USMLE scores in the control group, further suggesting that anxiety can adversely affect performance. The findings that a test-taking strategy course reduced anxiety without improving test scores highlight the complex nature of anxiety’s impact on performance.

Nazir et al. (2021) found that excellent female medical students reported significantly lower test anxiety than those with low academic grades, with an odds ratio of 1.47, indicating that students with higher test anxiety are more likely to have lower academic grades. Kim’s (2016) research shows moderate correlations between test anxiety and negative achievement emotions such as anxiety and boredom, but interestingly, this anxiety does not significantly affect practical exam scores (OSCE) or GPAs. However, one study found that examination stress enhanced academic performance with a large effect size (W = 0.78), with stress levels at 47.4% among their sample, suggesting that a certain stress level before exams may be beneficial [ 30 ].

Three papers explored shame’s effect on medical students’ academic achievement [ 24 , 31 , 32 ]. Hayat et al. (2018) reported that academic feelings, like shame, significantly depend on the academic year. shame was found to have a slight negative and significant correlation with the academic achievement of learners ( r =-0.15). One study found that some medical students felt shame during simulations-based education examinations because they had made incorrect decisions, which decreased their self-esteem and motivation to learn. However, others who felt shame were motivated to study harder to avoid repeating the same mistakes [ 23 ].

Hautz (2017) study examined how shame affects medical students’ learning using a randomised controlled trial where researchers divided the students into two groups: one group performed a breast examination on mannequins and the other group on actual patients. The results showed that students who performed the clinical examination on actual patients experienced significantly higher levels of shame but performed better in examinations than in the mannequin group. In the final assessments on standardised patients, both groups performed equally well. Therefore, shame decreased with more clinical practice, but shame did not have significant statistics related to learning or performance. Similarly, Burr and Dallaghan (2019) reported that the shame level of medical students was (40%) but had no association with academic performance.

Academic performance, emotions and medical students

Three articles discussed medical students’ emotions and academic performance [ 23 , 24 , 32 ]. Burr and Dallaghan (2019) examine the relationship between academic success and emotions in medical students, such as pride, hope, worry, and shame. It emphasises the links between academic accomplishment and professional efficacy, as well as hope, pride, worry, and shame. Professional efficacy was the most significant factor linked to academic performance, explaining 31.3% of the variance. The importance of emotions on understanding, processing of data, recall of memories, and cognitive burden is emphasised throughout the research. To improve academic achievement, efforts should be made to increase student self-efficacy.

Hayat et al. (2018) found that positive emotions and intrinsic motivation are highly connected with academic achievement, although emotions fluctuate between educational levels but not between genders. The correlations between negative emotions and academic achievement, ranging from − 0.15 to -0.24 for different emotions, suggest small but statistically significant adverse effects.

Behren et al.‘s (2019) mixed-method study found that students felt various emotions during the simulation, focusing on positive emotions and moderate anxiety. However, no significant relationships were found between positive emotions and the student’s performance during the simulation [ 23 ].

This review aims to investigate the role of emotions in the academic performance of undergraduate medical students. Meta-analysis cannot be used because of the heterogeneity of the data collection tools and different research designs [ 33 ]. Therefore, narrative synthesis was adopted in this paper. The studies are grouped into four categories as follows: (1) The effect of depression and anxiety on academic performance, (2) Test anxiety and academic achievement, (3) Shame and academic performance, and (4) Academic performance, emotions and medical students. The control-value theory [ 20 ], will be used to interpret the findings.

The effect of depression and anxiety on academic performance

According to the retrieved research, depression and anxiety can have both a negative and a positive impact on the academic performance of medical students. Severe anxiety may impair memory function, decrease concentration, lead to a state of hypervigilance, interfere with judgment and cognitive function, and further affect academic performance [ 4 ]. Most of the good-quality retrieved articles found that anxiety and depression were associated with low academic performance [ 16 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Moreira (2018) and Mihailescu (2016) found that higher depression levels were associated with more failed courses and a lower GPA. However, they did not find any association between anxiety level and academic performance.

By contrast, some studies have suggested that experiencing some level of anxiety reinforces students’ motivation to improve their academic performance [ 16 , 34 ]. Zalihic et al. (2017) conducted a study to investigate anxiety sensitivity about academic success and noticed a positive relationship between anxiety level and high academic scores; they justified this because when medical students feel anxious, they tend to prepare and study more, and they desire to achieve better scores and fulfil social expectations. Similarly, another study found anxiety has a negative impact on academic performance when excessive and a positive effect when manageable, in which case it encourages medical students and motivates them to achieve higher scores [ 35 ].

In the broader literature, the impact of anxiety on academic performance has contradictory research findings. While some studies suggest that having some level of anxiety can boost students’ motivation to improve their academic performance, other research has shown that anxiety has a negative impact on their academic success [ 36 , 37 ]. In the cultural context, education and anxiety attitudes differ widely across cultures. High academic pressure and societal expectations might worsen anxiety in many East Asian societies. Education is highly valued in these societies, frequently leading to significant academic stress. This pressure encompasses attaining high academic marks and outperformance in competitive examinations. The academic demands exerted on students can result in heightened levels of anxiety. The apprehension of not meeting expectations can lead to considerable psychological distress and anxiety, which can appear in their physical and mental health and academic achievement [ 38 , 39 ].

Test anxiety and academic achievement

The majority of the studies reviewed confirm that test anxiety negatively affects academic performance [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Several studies have found a significant correlation between test anxiety and academic achievement, indicating that higher levels of test anxiety are associated with lower exam scores and lower academic performance [ 40 , 41 ]. For example, Green et al. (2016) RCT study found that test anxiety has a moderately significant negative correlation with the USMLE score. They found that medical students who took the test-taking strategy course had lower levels of test anxiety than the control group, and their test anxiety scores after the exam had improved from the baseline. Although their test anxiety improved after taking the course, there was no significant difference in the exam scores between students who had and had not taken the course. Therefore, the intervention they used was not effective. According to the control-value theory, this intervention can be improved if they design an emotionally effective learning environment, have a straightforward instructional design, foster self-regulation of negative emotions, and teach students emotion-oriented regulation [ 22 ].

Additionally, according to this theory, students who perceive exams as difficult are more likely to experience test anxiety because test anxiety results from a student’s negative appraisal of the task and outcome values, leading to a reduction in their performance. This aligns with Kim’s (2016) study, which found that students who believed that the OSCE was a problematic exam experienced test anxiety more than other students [ 9 , 22 , 42 ].

In the wider literature, a meta-analysis review by von der Embse (2018) found a medium significant negative correlation ( r =-0.24) between test anxiety and test performance in undergraduate educational settings [ 43 ] . Also, they found a small significant negative correlation ( r =-0.17) between test anxiety and GPA. This indicates that higher levels of test anxiety are associated with lower test performance. Moreover, Song et al. (2021) experimental study examined the effects of test anxiety on working memory capacity and found that test anxiety negatively correlated with academic performance [ 44 ]. Therefore, the evidence from Song’s study suggests a small but significant effect of anxiety on working memory capacity. However, another cross-sectional study revealed that test anxiety in medical students had no significant effect on exam performance [ 45 ]. The complexities of this relationship necessitate additional investigation. Since the retrieved articles are from different countries, it is critical to recognise the possible impact of cultural differences on the impact of test anxiety. Cultural factors such as different educational systems, assessment tools and societal expectations may lead to variances in test anxiety experience and expression across diverse communities [ 46 , 47 ]. Culture has a substantial impact on how test anxiety is expressed and evaluated. Research suggests that the degree and manifestations of test anxiety differ among different cultural settings, emphasising the importance of using culturally validated methods to evaluate test anxiety accurately. A study conducted by Lowe (2019) with Canadian and U.S. college students demonstrated cultural variations in the factors contributing to test anxiety. Canadian students exhibited elevated levels of physiological hyperarousal, but U.S. students had more pronounced cognitive interference. These variations indicate that the cultural environment has an influence on how students perceive and respond to test anxiety, resulting in differing effects on their academic performance in different cultures. Furthermore, scholars highlight the significance of carrying out meticulous instruments to assess test anxiety, which are comparable among diverse cultural cohorts. This technique guarantees that the explanations of test scores are reliable and can be compared across different populations. Hence, it is imperative to comprehend and tackle cultural disparities in order to create efficient interventions and assistance for students who encounter test anxiety in diverse cultural environments. Therefore, there is a need for further studies to examine the level of test anxiety and cultural context.

Shame and academic performance

The review examined three studies that discuss the impact of feelings of shame on academic performance [ 23 , 24 , 48 ]. Generally, shame is considered a negative emotion which involves self-reflection and self-evaluation, and it leads to rumination and self-condemnation [ 49 ]. Intimate examinations conducted by medical students can induce feelings of shame, affecting their ability to communicate with patients and their clinical decisions. Shame can increase the avoidance of intimate physical examinations and also encourage clinical practice [ 23 , 24 , 48 ].

One study found that some medical students felt shame during simulations-based education examinations because they had made incorrect decisions, which decreased their self-esteem and motivation to learn. However, others who felt shame were motivated to study harder to avoid repeating the same mistakes [ 23 ]. Shame decreased with more clinical practice, but shame did not affect their learning or performance [ 48 ]. The literature on how shame affects medical students’ learning is inconclusive [ 31 ].

In the broader literature, shame is considered maladaptive, leading to dysfunctional behaviour, encouraging withdrawal and avoidance of events and inhibiting social interaction. However, few studies have been conducted on shame in the medical field. Therefore, more research is needed to investigate the role of shame in medical students’ academic performance [ 49 ]. In the literature, there are several solutions that can be used to tackle the problem of shame in medical education; it is necessary to establish nurturing learning settings that encourage students to openly discuss their problems and mistakes without the worry of facing severe criticism. This can be accomplished by encouraging medical students to participate in reflective practice, facilitating the processing of their emotions, and enabling them to derive valuable insights from their experiences, all while avoiding excessive self-blame [ 50 ]. Offering robust mentorship and support mechanisms can assist students in effectively managing the difficulties associated with intimate examinations. Teaching staff have the ability to demonstrate proper behaviours and provide valuable feedback and effective mentoring [ 51 ]. Training and workshops that specifically target communication skills and the handling of sensitive situations can effectively equip students to handle intimate tests, hence decreasing the chances of them avoiding such examinations due to feelings of shame [ 52 ].

The literature review focused on three studies that examined the relationship between emotions and the academic achievements of medical students [ 23 , 24 , 32 ].

Behren et al. (2019) mixed-method study on the achievement emotions of medical students during simulations found that placing students in challenging clinical cases that they can handle raises positive emotions. Students perceived these challenges as a positive drive for learning and mild anxiety was considered beneficial. However, the study also found non-significant correlations between emotions and performance during the simulation, indicating a complex relationship between emotions and academic performance. The results revealed that feelings of frustration were perceived to reduce students’ interest and motivation for studying, hampered their decision-making process, and negatively affected their self-esteem, which is consistent with the academic achievement emotions literature where negative emotions are associated with poor intrinsic motivation and reduced the ability to learn [ 3 ].

The study also emphasises that mild anxiety can have positive effects, corroborated by Gregor (2005), which posits that moderate degrees of anxiety can improve performance. The author suggests that an ideal state of arousal (which may be experienced as anxiety) enhances performance. Mild anxiety is commonly seen as a type of psychological stimulation that readies the body for upcoming challenges, frequently referred to as a “fight or flight” response. Within the realm of academic performance, this state of heightened arousal can enhance concentration and optimise cognitive functions such as memory, problem-solving skills, and overall performance. However, once the ideal point is surpassed, any additional increase in arousal can result in a decline in performance [ 53 ]. This is additionally supported by Cassady and Johnson (2002), who discovered that a specific level of anxiety can motivate students to engage in more comprehensive preparation, hence enhancing their performance.

The reviewed research reveals a positive correlation between positive emotions and academic performance and a negative correlation between negative emotions and academic performance. These findings align with the control–value theory [ 8 , 22 ], which suggests that positive emotions facilitate learning through mediating factors, including cognitive learning strategies such as strategic thinking, critical thinking and problem-solving and metacognitive learning strategies such as monitoring, regulating, and planning students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Additionally, several studies found that extrinsic motivation from the educational environment and the application of cognitive and emotional strategies improve students’ ability to learn and, consequently, their academic performance [ 23 , 24 , 32 ]. By contrast, negative emotions negatively affect academic performance. This is because negative emotions reduce students’ motivation, concentration, and ability to process information [ 23 , 24 , 32 ].

Limitations of the study

This review aims to thoroughly investigate the relationship between emotions and academic performance in undergraduate medical students, but it has inherent limitations. Overall, the methodological quality of the retrieved studies is primarily good and fair. Poor-quality research was excluded from the synthesis. The good-quality papers demonstrated strengths in sampling techniques, data analysis, collection and reporting. However, most of the retrieved articles used cross-section studies, and the drawback of this is a need for a more causal relationship, which is a limitation in the design of cross-sectional studies. Furthermore, given the reliance on self-reported data, there were concerns about potential recall bias. These methodological difficulties were noted in most of the examined research. When contemplating the implications for practice and future study, the impact of these limitations on the validity of the data should be acknowledged.

The limitation of the review process and the inclusion criteria restricted the study to articles published from January 2013 to December 2023, potentially overlooking relevant research conducted beyond this timeframe. Additionally, the exclusive focus on undergraduate medical students may constrain the applicability of findings to other health fields or educational levels.

Moreover, excluding articles in non-English language and those not published in peer-reviewed journals introduces potential language and publication biases. Reliance on electronic databases and specific keywords may inadvertently omit studies using different terms or indexing. While the search strategy is meticulous, it might not cover every relevant study due to indexing and database coverage variations. However, the two assessors’ involvement in study screening, selection, data extraction, and quality assessment improved the robustness of the review and ensured that it included all the relevant research.

In conclusion, these limitations highlight the need for careful interpretation of the study’s findings and stress the importance of future research addressing these constraints to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the nuanced relationship between emotions and academic performance in undergraduate medical education.

Conclusion and future research

The review exposes the widespread prevalence of depression, anxiety and test anxiety within the medical student population. The impact on academic performance is intricate, showcasing evidence of adverse and favourable relationships. Addressing the mental health challenges of medical students necessitates tailored interventions for enhancing mental well-being in medical education. Furthermore, it is crucial to create practical strategies considering the complex elements of overcoming test anxiety. Future research should prioritise the advancement of anxiety reduction strategies to enhance academic performance, focusing on the control-value theory’s emphasis on creating an emotionally supportive learning environment. Additionally, Test anxiety is very common among medical students, but the literature has not conclusively determined its actual effect on academic performance. Therefore, there is a clear need for a study that examines the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance. Moreover, the retrieved literature did not provide effective solutions for managing test anxiety. This gap highlights the need for practical solutions informed by Pekrun’s Control-Value Theory. Ideally, a longitudinal study measuring test anxiety and exam scores over time would be the most appropriate approach. it is also necessary to explore cultural differences to develop more effective solutions and support systems tailored to specific cultural contexts.

The impact of shame on academic performance in medical students was inconclusive. Shame is a negative emotion that has an intricate influence on learning outcomes. The inadequacy of current literature emphasises the imperative for additional research to unravel the nuanced role of shame in the academic journeys of medical students.

Overall, emotions play a crucial role in shaping students’ academic performance, and research has attempted to find solutions to improve medical students’ learning experiences; thus, it is recommended that medical schools revise their curricula and consider using simulation-based learning in their instructional designs to enhance learning and improve students’ emotions. Also, studies have suggested using academic coaching to help students achieve their goals, change their learning styles, and apply self-testing and simple rehearsal of the material. Moreover, the study recommended to improve medical students’ critical thinking and autonomy and changing teaching styles to support students better.

Data availability

all included articles are mentioned in the manuscript, The quality assessment of included articles are located in the supplementary materials file no. 1.

Weurlander M, Lonn A, Seeberger A, Hult H, Thornberg R, Wernerson A. Emotional challenges of medical students generate feelings of uncertainty. Med Educ. 2019;53(10):1037–48.

Article   Google Scholar  

Boekaerts M, Pekrun R. Emotions and emotion regulation in academic settings. Handbook of educational psychology: Routledge; 2015. pp. 90–104.

Google Scholar  

Camacho-Morles J, Slemp GR, Pekrun R, Loderer K, Hou H, Oades LG. Activity achievement emotions and academic performance: a meta-analysis. Educational Psychol Rev. 2021;33(3):1051–95.

Aboalshamat K, Hou X-Y, Strodl E. Psychological well-being status among medical and dental students in Makkah, Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional study. Med Teach. 2015;37(Suppl 1):S75–81.

Mirghni HO, Ahmed Elnour MA. The perceived stress and approach to learning effects on academic performance among Sudanese medical students. Electron Physician. 2017;9(4):4072–6.

Baessler F, Zafar A, Schweizer S, Ciprianidis A, Sander A, Preussler S, et al. Are we preparing future doctors to deal with emotionally challenging situations? Analysis of a medical curriculum. Patient Educ Couns. 2019;102(7):1304–12.

Rowe AD, Fitness J. Understanding the role of negative emotions in Adult Learning and Achievement: a Social Functional Perspective. Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(2).

Pekrun R, Frenzel AC, Goetz T, Perry RP. The control-value theory of achievement emotions: An integrative approach to emotions in education. Emotion in education: Elsevier; 2007. pp. 13–36.

Zeidner M. Test anxiety: The state of the art. 1998.

Cassady JC, Johnson RE. Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemp Educ Psychol. 2002;27(2):270–95.

Tangney JP, Dearing RL. Shame and guilt: Guilford Press; 2003.

Fang J, Brown GT, Hamilton R. Changes in Chinese students’ academic emotions after examinations: pride in success, shame in failure, and self-loathing in comparison. Br J Educ Psychol. 2023;93(1):245–61.

York TT, Gibson C, Rankin S. Defining and measuring academic success. Practical Assess Res Evaluation. 2019;20(1):5.

Abdulghani HM, Irshad M, Al Zunitan MA, Al Sulihem AA, Al Dehaim MA, Al Esefir WA, et al. Prevalence of stress in junior doctors during their internship training: a cross-sectional study of three Saudi medical colleges’ hospitals. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:1879–86.

Moreira de Sousa J, Moreira CA, Telles-Correia D, Anxiety. Depression and academic performance: a Study Amongst Portuguese Medical Students Versus non-medical students. Acta Med Port. 2018;31(9):454–62.

Junaid MA, Auf AI, Shaikh K, Khan N, Abdelrahim SA. Correlation between academic performance and anxiety in Medical students of Majmaah University - KSA. JPMA J Pakistan Med Association. 2020;70(5):865–8.

MihĂIlescu AI, Diaconescu LV, Donisan T, Ciobanu AM, THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL, DISTRESS ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN UNDERGRADUATE MEDICAL STUDENTS. Romanian J Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;4(1/2):27–40.

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372.

Hahn H, Kropp P, Kirschstein T, Rücker G, Müller-Hilke B. Test anxiety in medical school is unrelated to academic performance but correlates with an effort/reward imbalance. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(2):1–13.

Pekrun R. The control-value theory of achievement emotions: assumptions, corollaries, and Implications for Educational Research and Practice. Educational Psychol Rev. 2006;18(4):315–41.

Graesser AC. Emotions are the experiential glue of learning environments in the 21st century. Learn Instruction. 2019.

Pekrun R, Perry RP. Control-value theory of achievement emotions. International handbook of emotions in education: Routledge; 2014. pp. 120 – 41.

Behrens CC, Dolmans DH, Gormley GJ, Driessen EW. Exploring undergraduate students achievement emotions during ward round simulation: a mixed-method study. BMC Med Educ. 2019;19(1):316.

Burr J, Beck-Dallaghan GL. The relationship of emotions and Burnout to Medical Students’ academic performance. Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(5):479–86.

Zalihić A, Mešukić S, Sušac B, Knezović K, Martinac M. Anxiety sensitivity as a predictor of academic success of medical students at the University of Mostar. Psychiatria Danubina. 2017;29(Suppl 4):851–4.

Del-Ben CM, Machado VF, Madisson MM, Resende TL, Valério FP, Troncon LEDA. Relationship between academic performance and affective changes during the first year at medical school. Med Teach. 2013;35(5):404–10.

Nazir MA, Izhar F, Talal A, Sohail ZB, Majeed A, Almas K. A quantitative study of test anxiety and its influencing factors among medical and dental students. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2021;16(2):253–9.

Green M, Angoff N, Encandela J. Test anxiety and United States Medical Licensing Examination scores. Clin Teacher. 2016;13(2):142–6.

Ben Loubir D, Serhier Z, Diouny S, Battas O, Agoub M, Bennani Othmani M. Prevalence of stress in Casablanca medical students: a cross-sectional study. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;19:149.

Kausar U, Haider SI, Mughal IA, Noor MSA, Stress levels; stress levels of final year mbbs students and its effect on their academic performance. Prof Med J. 2018;25(6):932–6.

Hautz WE, Schröder T, Dannenberg KA, März M, Hölzer H, Ahlers O, et al. Shame in Medical Education: a randomized study of the Acquisition of intimate Examination skills and its effect on subsequent performance. Teach Learn Med. 2017;29(2):196–206.

Hayat AA, Salehi A, Kojuri J. Medical student’s academic performance: the role of academic emotions and motivation. J Adv Med Educ Professionalism. 2018;6(4):168–75.

Deeks JJ, Riley RD, Higgins JP. Combining Results Using Meta-Analysis. Systematic Reviews in Health Research: Meta‐Analysis in Context. 2022:159 – 84.

Aboalshamat K, Hou X-Y, Strodl E. The impact of a self-development coaching programme on medical and dental students’ psychological health and academic performance: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Med Educ. 2015;15:134.

Jamil H, Alakkari M, Al-Mahini MS, Alsayid M, Al Jandali O. The impact of anxiety and depression on academic performance: a cross-sectional study among medical students in Syria. Avicenna J Med. 2022;12(03):111–9.

Mirawdali S, Morrissey H, Ball P. Academic anxiety and its effects on academic performance. 2018.

Al-Qaisy LM. The relation of depression and anxiety in academic achievement among group of university students. Int J Psychol Couns. 2011;3(5):96–100.

Cheng DR, Poon F, Nguyen TT, Woodman RJ, Parker JD. Stigma and perception of psychological distress and depression in Australian-trained medical students: results from an inter-state medical school survey. Psychiatry Res. 2013;209(3):684–90.

Lee M, Larson R. The Korean ‘examination hell’: long hours of studying, distress, and depression. J Youth Adolesc. 2000;29(2):249–71.

Ali SK. 861 – Social phobia among medical students. Eur Psychiatry. 2013;28:1.

Bonna AS, Sarwar M, Md Nasrullah A, Bin Razzak S, Chowdhury KS, Rahman SR. Exam anxiety among medical students in Dhaka City and its Associated Factors-A cross-sectional study. Asian J Med Health. 2022;20(11):20–30.

Kim K-J. Factors associated with medical student test anxiety in objective structured clinical examinations: a preliminary study. Int J Med Educ. 2016;7:424–7.

Von der Embse N, Jester D, Roy D, Post J. Test anxiety effects, predictors, and correlates: a 30-year meta-analytic review. J Affect Disord. 2018;227:483–93.

Song J, Chang L, Zhou R. Test anxiety impairs filtering ability in visual working memory: evidence from event-related potentials. J Affect Disord. 2021;292:700–7.

Theobald M, Breitwieser J, Brod G. Test anxiety does not predict exam performance when knowledge is controlled for: strong evidence against the interference hypothesis of test anxiety. Psychol Sci. 2022;33(12):2073–83.

Lowe PA. Examination of test anxiety in samples of Australian and US Higher Education Students. High Educ Stud. 2019;9(4):33–43.

Kavanagh BE, Ziino SA, Mesagno C. A comparative investigation of test anxiety, coping strategies and perfectionism between Australian and United States students. North Am J Psychol. 2016;18(3).

Mihăilescu AI, Diaconescu LV, Ciobanu AM, Donisan T, Mihailescu C. The impact of anxiety and depression on academic performance in undergraduate medical students. Eur Psychiatry. 2016;33:S341–2.

Terrizzi JA Jr, Shook NJ. On the origin of shame: does shame emerge from an evolved disease-avoidance architecture? Front Behav Neurosci. 2020;14:19.

Epstein RM. Mindful practice. JAMA. 1999;282(9):833–9.

Hauer KE, Teherani A, Dechet A, Aagaard EM. Medical students’ perceptions of mentoring: a focus-group analysis. Med Teach. 2005;27(8):732–4.

Kalet A, Pugnaire MP, Cole-Kelly K, Janicik R, Ferrara E, Schwartz MD, et al. Teaching communication in clinical clerkships: models from the macy initiative in health communications. Acad Med. 2004;79(6):511–20.

Gregor A. Examination anxiety: live with it, control it or make it work for you? School Psychol Int. 2005;26(5):617–35.

Download references

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Lancaster university library for helping me to search the literature and to find the appropriate databases and thanks to Lancaster university to prove access to several softwares.

No funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Nora Alshareef

Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK

Nora Alshareef, Ian Fletcher & Sabir Giga

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

NA made substantial contributions throughout the systematic review process and was actively involved in writing and revising the manuscript. NA’s responsible for the design of the study, through the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data, to the drafting and substantive revision of the manuscript. NA has approved the submitted version and is personally accountable for her contributions, ensuring the accuracy and integrity of the work. IF was instrumental in screening the literature, extracting data, and conducting the quality assessment of the included studies. Additionally, IF played a crucial role in revising the results and discussion sections of the manuscript, ensuring that the interpretation of data was both accurate and insightful. IF has approved the submitted version and has agreed to be personally accountable for his contributions, particularly in terms of the accuracy and integrity of the parts of the work he was directly involved in. SG contributed significantly to the selection of papers and data extraction, demonstrating critical expertise in resolving disagreements among authors. SG’s involvement was crucial in revising the entire content of the manuscript, enhancing its coherence and alignment with the study’s objectives. SG has also approved the submitted version and is personally accountable for his contributions, committed to upholding the integrity of the entire work.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nora Alshareef .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Consent of publication was obtained from the other authors.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Alshareef, N., Fletcher, I. & Giga, S. The role of emotions in academic performance of undergraduate medical students: a narrative review. BMC Med Educ 24 , 907 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05894-1

Download citation

Received : 08 March 2024

Accepted : 12 August 2024

Published : 23 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05894-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Medical students
• Academic performance

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• General enquiries: [email protected]