critical thinking definition law enforcement

Critical Thinking and Writing Skills: Essential for Officers

By Scot DuFour   |  06/05/2024

Police work is a complex job that takes skilled, well-rounded, and intelligent people to do well. Being proficient in the skills needed to master the job of a police officer takes a unique individual, along with special skills that are too often overlooked.

Every day, officers interact with suspects, witnesses, or victims. They respond to extremely complex situations that often involve frightened or angry people.

To perform their jobs effectively in these situations requires top-notch critical thinking and writing skills, which are rarely focused on enough as part of law enforcement training. Officers who are intelligent, able to think clearly under pressure, and compassionate are going to be more effective because they are better able to make good decisions, detect suspicious behavior, and see through lies.

Consider the best cop you have ever met or worked with. Did they possess noteworthy speaking and communication abilities?

Good cops can talk to anybody in a relatable way, whether that person is a victim, suspect, or community resident. They can use force if they need to, but often don’t have to. Their reports are well written, and they often avoid time in court because their investigations are top-notch.

What Skills Make a Good Police Officer?

Compiling a list of the requisite skills of a law officer could get lengthy. Broad categories include being good at problem-solving, showing compassion, and exercising good judgment, as well as being observant, collaborative, resourceful, and assertive.

To be a good investigator, officers need to have a sound understanding of law, healthy skepticism, critical thinking skills, and the ability to control their own bias. All these skills are of paramount importance but they are  generally neglected in society , and police training does little to correct that deficiency.

Police work is not like engineering or medicine; you do not need a specific college degree or trade-specific expertise to get hired. While many more officers today have a college education than in the past – which has been shown to be beneficial – officers learn a lot on the job.

Critical Thinking and Writing Skills

When a patrol cop or a detective charges a person with a crime, they are required to gather probable cause. Probable cause means they must compile evidence that creates a reasonable belief that the offender committed the crime. Officers basically make an argument that the suspect violated a particular statute, and that argument is then submitted to further scrutiny by prosecutors, judges, and ultimately a jury.

The entire process is based on forming sound arguments. Not forming a sound argument could mean potentially imprisoning the wrong person or coming to the wrong conclusion about the situation. Officers must have well-honed critical thinking skills in order to come to a sound conclusion and make a bulletproof argument.

Critical thinking is described as a persistent and skeptical mindset that always checks for accuracy and searches for potential flaws in the argument. Because of its adherence to the scientific method, critical thinking is an area that forensic science focuses on.

But oftentimes, cops and detectives don’t get the same education. Officers have to be trained how to look for the flaws in their evidence and reasoning during an investigation and strive to avoid confirmation bias.

Critical writing skills teach people to present effective arguments in a clear and organized manner. Over time, writers learn to form arguments in a way that leads readers to a logical conclusion.

In presenting their findings, the researchers even go so far as to compare good critical thinking skills to conducting a criminal investigation. You must:

• Investigate the problem
• Prosecute and defend ideas
• Cross-examine witnesses
• Reach an informed verdict

Learning to be an effective writer teaches you to evaluate evidence and then effectively deliver an evidence-based argument for a certain conclusion. This skill needs to become a focus of police officer skill development.

Good Officers Avoid Jumping to Conclusions

In a selective observation experiment called the "Monkey Business Illusion" video, the viewer is asked to count the number of passes some students make with a basketball. A person in a gorilla suit then walks through the frame and beats its chest. Many people are so focused on counting the passes that they miss the gorilla entirely.

Cops are constantly taught to try to break tunnel vision, but the lesson here is not just about tunnel vision. When someone is trained or asked to look for one particular thing, they often miss other very important clues about a situation.

In these cases, officers may assume they know the cause of something before thoroughly analyzing the situation, a fallacy called “knowing at a glance,” as writer Maggie Jackson discusses in her essay in the book, The State of the American Mind .

Knowing at a glance has consequences that include confirmation bias. Studies show that compared to just two decades ago, people today are far worse at being able to see things from different angles, synthesize information and utilize creative solutions, according to Jackson.

This bias can be devastating to a police officer. It means potentially using deadly force when it isn’t needed or missing an important clue in an investigation.

We have to make a priority of seeing each new scenario with an open mind and not letting our mind be clouded by our assumptions. In an investigation, that means checking your facts over and over.

Consider New Learning Methods to Teach Critical Skills

Harvard Medical School and many other medical schools have started using the arts as a way to train doctors in observation and perception. Medical students are asked to observe a piece of artwork for a period of time and note how their observations change over time.

This program has shown an increase in the diagnostic skills of medical students by 10%, and a 40% increase in sophisticated and accurate notations on visual skills exams, according to Jackson.

Using the arts in medical schools was likely met with some resistance by doctors who believe there is little in common between advanced scientific knowledge and an artistic portrait, but the results speak for themselves. The value of the arts and humanities for improving critical thinking and inquiry skills cannot be understated.

How can this strategy be used in law enforcement? Officers must make life-and-death decisions and conduct investigations into criminal acts much like physicians investigate what’s ailing a patient.

Law enforcement agencies should consider innovative and surprising techniques to train officers how to hone their observation skills. Such training also doesn’t have to be lengthy – reports show that medical students benefited significantly from only eight hours of such training, says Jackson.

Every officer can benefit from enhanced skill-building aimed at improving critical thinking, writing, and observation abilities. While the vast majority of officers do not enjoy writing reports, it is central to their success and effectiveness as an officer.

Skillful writing teaches them how to form good arguments and think critically about investigations and evidence. Focusing on critical thinking and writing will enable officers to form good arguments and it will make them better, more well-rounded, and effective officers.

Criminal Justice Degrees at American Military University

For students interested in criminal justice, American Military University (AMU) offers several degrees, such as:

• An online associate of arts degree in criminal justice
• An online bachelor of science in criminal justice
• An online bachelor of arts in criminal justice  
• An online master of arts in criminal justice

The courses in these degree programs cover topics such as evidence and procedures, intercultural communication, research design and methods, criminal investigation, criminal law, and forensics. Through their coursework, students will have the chance to develop useful skills such as critical thinking and writing skills. To learn more about our degrees and certificates, visit our program page.

Scot DuFour has been a police officer since 2004 and is a field training officer with a police department in Colorado. He holds a bachelor’s degree in philosophy and a master’s degree in criminal justice, both from American Public University. Scot was previously an investigator in a domestic violence prosecutions unit for a district attorney’s office, a police officer with the Phoenix Police Department, and a task force officer with the Drug Enforcement Administration.

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Critical Thinking: A Core Task of Public Safety Employees

Posted By: publisher October 18, 2022

John G. Peters, Jr., Ph.D.

©2022. a.r.r..

Critical thinking skills enable law enforcement personnel to analyze information and process it wisely in order to help determine the value of that information and make a decision.

There are too many documented instances of a suspect telling an officer, “I can’t breathe,” only to hear the officer say, “If you’re talking, you’re breathing.” Another example is a handcuffed suspect who tells an officer, “These handcuffs are too tight,” only to be told by the officer, “They weren’t made for comfort,” or “As you wear them, they will soften.” Because these are not isolated examples, you, too, can probably think of similar phrases you have heard from colleagues. One possible explanation for these types of responses is a lack of training in critical thinking .    

College Web sites promise critical thinking will be taught to learners, yet few undergraduate programs include it. Professors claim to teach it, but few evaluate their students on it. Public safety academy and in-service instructors support its teaching, but few can give examples of where to find it in curricula or how it can be evaluated. Yet, in frustration, many administrators and/or colleagues will ask, “What was the officer thinking? Why didn’t (s)he do something? These officers can’t think today. Why won’t officers make better decisions?”

Public safety personnel are expected by the public, by their administrators and by others to engage in critical thinking when confronted with a situation. This presumption, which some people argue is indispensable for public safety personnel, reinforces it as a core task within the job description of public safety personnel. The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) held in City of Canton, Ohio v. Harris , 489 U.S. 378 (1989) that municipalities have an affirmative duty to train employees in core tasks . Municipalities and/or policymakers which fail to conduct such training may be found to be “deliberately indifferent” when it can be shown that there was an obvious need for more or different training, and the failure to train was likely to result in the violation of a person’s constitutional rights. In short, it is vital to include education and training about critical thinking in recruit and in-service training programs.

Critical Thinking Defined

There are many critical thinking definitions, all focusing on the process of evaluating spoken or written statements. Critical thinking involves active listening, reading, evaluation of behavioral cues and signs, looking for hidden agendas, and thinking through the consequences of a person’s or a document’s claim(s). In other words, officers must carefully and deliberately determine if a person’s claim(s) should be accepted, rejected or if suspension of judgment is in order before deciding a person’s claim is true or false. Officers must also identify and consider the potential outcomes and consequences of ignoring such claims. For this article, the focus is limited to an individual’s claim.

Claims Which Require Critical Thinking

Almost every day, public safety personnel engage people who may make claims about what the officer or others are doing, have done and so forth. Examples include saying, “I can’t breathe,” “I didn’t take no drugs,” “I didn’t do anything,” “I didn’t hit him,” and “Stop using excessive force.” Of course, the last claim may come in the form of a written “Citizen Complaint” which requires interviewing the officer(s) involved and performing an investigation. Internal Investigators and administrators must then use their critical thinking skills to judge if the claims are true, but that discussion is for another article.

Critical Thinking Steps

Regardless of the critical thinking definition adopted and used, there are three basic steps involved in critical thinking:

1. Evaluating the information available and/or received from the individual or others and then assessing it (e.g., “I’m having difficulty breathing”). The officer must analyze and weigh the arguments and/or evidence presented. The officer must try to separate fact from opinion.

2. Determining if the claim appears to be true (err on the side of the claim) and

3. Forming a conclusion which, based on the officer’s reasoning, most likely, the person’s claim is true or false or, if there is not enough information, suspending judgment until more information has been obtained. Officers must also be aware of any conscious and/or unconscious bias creeping into their decision-making process.

Obviously, education, training, experience, and organizational culture may impact an officer’s ability to think critically about a claim made by individuals or others. Ask yourself, “Have I been trained to think critically?” Even more legally focused, has your employer trained you to use and apply the three critical thinking steps and also evaluate you on your conclusion when given situational-based scenarios? If “no,” your employer may have failed to train you and other employees on how to objectively evaluate a claim made by an individual and then reach a conclusion about it, in addition to creating a potential failure to train liability argument.

Asking officers how they used the three critical thinking steps to evaluate claims at the end of a scenario-based training exercise is important for the trainer to fully understand how officers arrived at their conclusions. If one or more conclusions are faulty and cannot be substantiated, remedial review and instruction can be immediately given to those officers before immersing them in another situational-based scenario.

Public safety instructors must include critical thinking concepts, steps and skills in their educating and training of recruits and experienced colleagues. Incorporate into written lesson plans critical thinking definitions, concepts, evaluation steps, applications, possible consequences, and competency-based testing before instructing officers about critical thinking. Doing so will help to make recruits and officers better problem solvers, decision makers and also help to defeat plaintiff claims of failing to train officers in the core task of critical thinking.

Instruction in critical thinking must be viewed as a continuing process and not as a project . Simply providing a single lecture on the subject is not enough. Critical thinking must be reinforced daily through roll call training, by field training officers and by supervisors. Debriefing of incidents involving suspects or other claims which were evaluated and decided by officers is another excellent way to review critical thinking steps and how officers made judgments about those claims.     

Experience  

An officer’s experience may enhance or hinder his/her ability to think critically in a variety of situations. Officers with more life experience or with critical thinking training may develop better critically thinking skill sets and thus better decision-making than those officers with limited experience. Experience may include education and training. But, don’t be fooled by a colleague who boasts 20 years of “on the job” experience because, for some people, it is nothing more than one year of experience duplicated for 19 more years. Life experiences are often subjective, limited in scope and may not be good indicators of critical thinking skills. Many people can think of family members or colleagues who will not make decisions because they are afraid of making a mistake; do not want to be held accountable; or who simply cannot critically think about and evaluate the information given to them, thus prohibiting them from deciding. One must remember, however, that the failure to make a decision is a decision to not make one!

Organizational Culture

The organizational culture where officers work or are assigned may impact their critical thinking skills. Wheelen and Hunger (2006) defined organizational culture as “the collection of beliefs, expectations and values learned and shared by the [organization’s] members and transmitted from one generation of employees to another . . . and generally reflects the [leaders] and the mission of the [organization].” The organizational culture also includes the subcultures throughout the organization.

Have you ever worked for a strict, by the book supervisor, only to be promoted or transferred to another unit where the supervisor was disinterested or worse, telling everyone that, whatever you do, the supervisor will have your back? Some workshop lawyers and supervisors tell attendees or subordinates not to worry about using force because, with a consult, they can help with writing a report justifying it. Aside from being unethical, this attitude helps develop an unhealthy organizational subculture which can eliminate or dilute the importance of developing and using critical thinking skills.

Organizational subculture can be defined as the set attitudes and values which shape employee behavior. The subculture commands our attention because it is generally seen as a major obstacle to reform and, thus, a powerful force working to erode any reforms which are in fact achieved, such as education and training in critical thinking. Often within an organizational subculture, there are unwritten ground rules which produce the “actual” culture of the organization, unit and/or shift (e.g., in this unit, we do not follow policy). As previously mentioned, if officers know their supervisor will support them regardless of what they do, they may not practice critical thinking because event outcomes will not be viewed as negative by the supervisor.

Critical Thinking in Today’s Law Enforcement Environment

Every week, there are stories claiming public safety officers did not act when they should have acted (think Uvalde, Texas); acted when they should not have acted (think George Floyd); or did not critically think about their actions (think TASER ® deployment on a person drenched in gasoline). Increasingly, public safety officers are being criminally charged and civilly sued. It also appears that more officers are losing their criminal cases and being sent to jail (think Minneapolis officers who did not intervene and stop their supervisor’s force).

A growing number of states and municipalities are passing legislation which implicitly demands public safety officers critically think before acting or they may face criminal charges given a negative outcome (think death or serious injury). For example, in 2022, California Government Code Section 7286.5 changed regarding positional asphyxia. The law now requires law enforcement officers to reasonably monitor a person for signs of asphyxia. The law also prohibits agencies using or authorizing prisoner transport methods which involve a substantial risk of positional asphyxia. Obviously, training on positional asphyxia, asphyxia, asphyxiation, critical thinking, and the law must now be incorporated into the academy and in-service educational and training curricula.

Monitoring requirements for a restrained person involve an officer’s use of critical thinking skills. Should the restrained person claim breathing difficulty, the officer must decide if the claim is valid or if it is a trick to get the officer closer to them in order to attack. Similarly, officers must now critically think about how to position a prisoner for transport prior to the transport. Two Boulder County (CO) Sheriff’s Deputies were criminally convicted and are serving their jail sentences after a Boulder City officer asked them to transport a young male who was severely intoxicated. During the transport to an alcohol treatment center in a police van, the young man died.

Call to Action

Trainers, educators and administrators of public safety employees must educate and train learners, recruits and in-service personnel in the core task of critical thinking, including the steps involved in arriving at appropriate decisions, using a variety of topics with associated claims. Leadership and management must also continuously review these steps with subordinates so they remember and apply them. Examples may include using actual or hypothetical case studies, reviewing examples of poor judgment when facing claims, and so forth. Education and training on critical thinking must be an ongoing process . Employees need to be educated and trained about critical thinking concepts, and then be given the opportunity to apply the steps of critical thinking to evaluate a claim and to develop a conclusion, erring on the side of the claim, regardless of the organizational culture or subculture. Case studies and/or scenario-based training are two safe environments to evaluate critical thinking skills. Holding employees accountable without first educating and training them is unethical, unfair and morale depleting. In today’s changing society, employers, educators, trainers, leaders, and managers can no longer ignore the need for education and training about critical thinking and its application to hypothetical and to real claims, including assessing employee critical thinking skill sets, judgment and decision making.

John G. Peters, Jr., Ph.D. is a frequent contributor to Police and Security News . He serves as president of the internationally recognized training firm, Institute for the Prevention of In-Custody Deaths, Inc., and as Executive Director of The Americans for Effective Law Enforcement. An instructional designer, John has developed online programs for several universities, including a course on critical thinking. He has taught leadership, management, critical thinking, research methods, and statistics at the undergraduate and graduate levels. A judicially qualified expert witness, he has testified in international (Hong Kong), federal and state courts about use of force, arrest-related deaths, training, and policies.

Critical thinking: An essential police tool

Policies and procedures provide guidelines for dealing with a variety of situations, but what about problems not neatly gift wrapped.

Officers who deploy critical thinking will benefit themselves, their agencies and the public.

Photo/Police1

By Robert Whitson, PhD

As a police officer, have you ever asked yourself, “What the hell was I thinking?” Have you ever watched other officers, usually on the nightly news, and asked, “What the hell were they thinking?” During my 30 years as a police officer, a lot of people told me “what” to think, but nobody told me “how” to think. Nobody taught me critical thinking.

Police officers deal with problems every day. Officers are expected to demonstrate common sense, communication skills and interpersonal skills, all with an open mind free of bias. Policies and procedures provide guidelines for dealing with a variety of situations, but what about problems not neatly gift wrapped? Officers must use critical thinking for such situations. The following are five real-life examples.

1. You’re dispatched to a suicidal female who is on the phone with a crisis counselor. The female said she is alone in her apartment and has a gun.

Do you call SWAT? Do you evacuate other apartments? Do you yell for the female to come outside? Do you enter the apartment? Do you leave, which is a concept proposed in some jurisdictions?

Keep in mind, if somebody gets injured or dies, your every move will be dissected in retrospect. If you make a mistake, you may lose your job, get sued , or be prosecuted. In 2017, there were 47,173 suicides in the United States and about 1.4 million attempts. What will you do?

In this case, the officers who responded to the female’s apartment listened at the front door and didn’t hear anyone. The front door was unlocked. They quietly opened the door and heard the female talking in a bathroom. The bathroom door was open about one inch.

If they asked her to come out of the bathroom, it could turn into a barricaded subject, or suicide by cop. Realizing the female was distracted while talking to the counselor, and that most people who call a counselor for help don’t want to commit suicide, the officers knew they could take advantage of the element of surprise. One of the officers entered the bathroom and immediately grabbed the female before she could fire a gun. In this case, the plan worked, and nobody was hurt.

2. You attempt to stop a driver who may be driving under the influence. Instead of stopping, the vehicle speeds away. According to your pursuit policy, an officer must weigh the risk to life and property presented by the suspect if not immediately apprehended, compared to the risk to the public in pursuing the suspect.

An average of 355 persons were killed annually, from 1996 to 2015, during police pursuits. [1] If someone gets seriously injured or killed during your pursuit, your decision to engage in a pursuit will be second-guessed, with possible discipline, and the inevitable lawsuit will follow.

There are many variables to consider for this example. Is the driver a juvenile? Is the driver a senior citizen? What type of vehicle is involved? Variables include the volume of traffic, speed, the number of people in the suspect’s vehicle, type of area (residential, rural, city, business), type of roadway (number of lanes, highway, dirt/gravel, construction), traffic lights or signs, the weather (dry, wet, snow, ice), and time of day or night, etc.

No officer wants anyone, especially an innocent person, to be injured or killed during a pursuit. Yet it happens too often. What will you do? My recommendation is to end the pursuit or follow the suspect from a distance while considering arrest options if the suspect stops or returns home. What’s your decision?

3. You’re a detective. You obtained a search warrant for a residence to search for illegal drugs. Based on information from an informant, the suspect always keeps a gun close to him. The informant has never been inside the suspect’s home and the informant is afraid to buy drugs from the suspect. You plan to execute the search warrant at 7:00 a.m. on a Saturday when the suspect should be asleep. Just before you execute the search warrant, you learn the suspect has his wife and two young children in his residence. What will you do?

Ask yourself this question, “What will the news media report if a child is hurt during the raid?” The headlines will read “Police Murder Child in Drug Raid Gone Wrong.” I worked in the narcotics unit for six years. Drugs are not worth getting anyone killed, especially innocent children. In this case, the raid should be canceled until the children are out of the residence. You may consider using a ruse to get the suspect and/or children out of the residence, but don’t enter while they’re present.

4. You observe a person on the sidewalk in front of your police station. The person is taking videos of the police station, police employees going in and out of the building, police vehicles and personal vehicles of employees. What will you do?

YouTube is full of citizens who bait officers into violating their constitutional rights . Proceed with caution. First, do you have reasonable suspicion to believe a crime has occurred or is about to occur? If not, don’t contact this person. A person in public can legally videotape people and places in public. If you have reasonable suspicion, you can contact this person and ask for their name, but you better be sure you can justify reasonable suspicion. What if the person refuses to provide their name and/or an identification card? If you don’t have probable cause to arrest the person, walk away.

5. It’s a busy night and all officers are on calls. You’re dispatched to an apartment building about a man with a gun. Upon arrival, the victim says a resident of the apartment building appeared intoxicated, was screaming in the pool area and was carrying a rifle. The victim told the suspect to be quiet and go inside. The suspect told the victim, “Shut up or I’ll shoot you.” No shots were fired, but the suspect could be arrested for felony menacing. You go to the suspect’s apartment. No lights are on and you can’t hear any noise inside the apartment. The suspect appears to be asleep. What are the risks of trying to contact the suspect at that time, compared to the risks of contacting the suspect at a later date? What will you do?

In this case, I decided to take a wait-and-see approach. Why wake the suspect and possibly force a barricaded situation? The victim was advised to call 9-1-1 if the suspect left his apartment again. Two days later, an arrest warrant was obtained for the suspect and the suspect was arrested without incident.

Characteristics of critical thinkers

According to critical thinking experts Richard Paul and Linda Elder, “Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem – in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing it. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.”

Rosalindo Alfaro-LeFevre [2] lists the characteristics of critical thinkers, shortened and summarized for this article:

• Active thinkers: Double-check the reliability of information.
• Fair, open-minded and flexible: Aware of their perceptions, values, beliefs and biases, but willing to consider other perspectives and change priorities as needed.
• Empathetic: Put themselves in the position of other people. Understand the thoughts and feelings of others from their perspective.
• Independent thinkers: The ability to reach decisions by themselves and take responsibility for those decisions, instead of depending on others to make decisions.
• Curious, humble and honest: Constantly trying to find the truth and resolve problems. Admitting mistakes and trying to correct them. Always evaluating performance and striving to improve it.
• Proactive: Anticipating problems and acting before they occur.
• Organized and systematic: Examining information, making decisions and trying to solve problems systematically.
• Logical: Seeking facts, research, and making evidence-based decisions.
• Team player: Willing to collaborate and work toward a common goal.

When people in America call the police for help, they expect professional, educated and qualified officers to help them. And, in this era, Americans are quick to report (via the news media and social media) unprofessional, unethical and/or illegal police behavior. Officers who deploy critical thinking will benefit themselves, their agencies and the public, and in doing so, may stay off the evening news for making a mistake.

Take the active supervision challenge: Critical thinking

Critical thinking engages your brain to comprehend, assess, analyze and process information in a way that improves your decision-making

1. Reaves B. Police vehicle pursuits, 2012-2013. Retrieved from the Bureau of Justice Statistics website .

2. Alfaro-LeFevre R. Critical thinking in nursing: A practical approach. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 1999.

About the author

Robert Whitson was a police officer in Boulder, Colorado, for 30 years, working a variety of assignments. He taught criminal justice at Metropolitan State University in Denver for seven years while working on a PhD in criminal justice. He presently teaches for a private university in Florida, where he has taught criminal justice for seven years. Contact him at [email protected] .

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Improvements in Policing: It’s Not Only What We Train, but How We Train

Teresina g. robbins university of new haven.

Though concerns about police use of force did not begin with the death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, this event seems to have been the catalyst for 6 years of increasing calls for justice for the deaths of unarmed men, particularly Black men, at the hands of police. Advocates of the Black community have called for defunding or abolition of the police establishment. Others have argued that there is a need for a dramatic overhaul of police training – particularly with regard to racial bias and the use of force. The House of Representatives addressed the call for changes in policing training and passed H.R. 1280. The bill aims to reduce religious and racial profiling through various means, including police training. This policy brief reviews the research on these issues and offers several policy suggestions. I argue that moving from a paramilitary structure to a more conducive learning environment and applying a learner-centered approach to aspects of law enforcement training is a justified starting point for re-establishing police legitimacy and a reduction in misuse of force. This brief is intended for those in charge of decision-making for law enforcement training.

On April 20, 2021, a jury convicted former police officer Derek Chauvin in the murder of George Floyd. While arresting Floyd for an allegedly fraudulent twenty-dollar bill, Chauvin put Floyd in a prone position on the ground, and then put his knee on Floyd’s neck for over nine minutes. Chief Arradondo said Chauvin “should have stopped” as soon as Floyd stopped resisting, and “certainly when he was in distress…” (Griffith, 2021). The verdict culminated a historic series of Black Lives Matter protests across the country. These protests were not just for Floyd, but for what supporters argue is embedded racism in law enforcement and a lack of accountability. George Floyd was not the first unarmed Black person to die at the hands of the police. Still, his death and Chauvin’s conviction seem to have opened the floodgates for open acknowledgment of the problems plaguing policing in the United States.

Calls for change range from improved training to abolishing police altogether, with the defunding movement falling somewhere in the middle. In an Op-ed for Cosmopolitan , American Civil Liberties Union Policing Policy Advisor Paige Fernandez (2021) argued that government officials should divert funding from law enforcement budgets and invest in programs like job training and violence reduction. On the other hand, abolitionists say these are merely steps to dismantle and rebuild what society thinks is policing, in part because simple reform allows for appeasement without demonstrable change in underlying issues (McDowell & Fernandez, 2018). Expectedly, however, there is a great deal of pushback on these critical stances. Nationally, Congressional bill 1280, also known as the “George Floyd Justice in Policing Act 2020,” focuses on reform through transparency and accountability, and requires de-escalation and implicit bias training. This paper focuses on just one section of H.R. 1280, Title III: Improving Police Training and Policies, cited as the “End Racial and Religious Profiling Act 2021 (ERRPA)”.

The plans outlined in the bill are well-intentioned, though vague and superficial. The suggestions to train law enforcement personnel on data collection, racial profiling issues, and profiling prevention do have merit, but also feel like political theater. At best, progressive agencies will continue to use evidence-informed best practices, and at worst, agencies will do nothing. Therefore, this brief intends to aid police departments in making a meaningful bridge between policy and practice. I do this first by addressing the current state of police training. Specifically, I will discuss the current state of law enforcement training in the United States. Second, I summarize the research on three types of training: implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation. The summary is followed by a discussion of the different approaches to teaching recruits. I then provide three policy options addressing the advantages and disadvantages for each. Empirical research is used to support recommendations for law enforcement agencies.

Current State of Police Training

There has been a great deal of recent discussion about what we should train cops, but little on how we should prepare them. This section begins with an overview of current police training in the United States. Then I summarize the research on three types of training: implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation. Finally, I discuss the theory of andragogy and its focus on a learner-centered approach, before introducing policy options.

Police Training Today

In this section, I focus on the models under which recruits learn and the time spent on use of force training. About 81% of police recruits train under a stress model embedded in the curriculum (Reaves, 2016). Stress models are similar to military training, where the focus is on performing under periods of stress, including strict rules, exercise as punishment, and insults  (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). When it comes to the use of force, recruits spent about 71 hours on firearms training, but 21 hours on the use of force. It is essential to point out that those 21 hours may include policies, de-escalation tactics, and crisis intervention strategies.

What We Know: Training  

Recently, the Council on Criminal Justice’s (CCJ) Task Force on Policing (2021a; 2021b; 2021c) compiled a set of reports analyzing the most critical and rigorous research on training commonly cited as necessary to decreasing use of force and racial biases in police officers and departments. The following sections summarize the findings and policy implications of implicit bias, procedural justice, and de-escalation training based on the CCJ reports and other research.

Implicit Bias

Implicit bias affects how someone acts or makes decisions, often based on stereotypes, and is different from blatant racism in that it is an unconscious reaction. Given the topic of this brief, it is useful to illustrate an example with race. Implicit bias affects how an officer reacts to a Black male and a White male in the same situation. The goal of implicit bias training is to help officers slow down and acknowledge these potential biases before acting. However, researchers question the efficacy of implicit bias training (Spencer et al., 2016), particularly for long-term gains (Lai et al., 2014, 2016). Others argue that it can do more harm than good (Bagenstos, 2018). Ultimately, the CCJ suggests that procedural justice and de-escalation training might be a more effective way to reduce force, given the minimal evidence of the effectiveness of implicit bias training (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021b)

Procedural Justice

Procedural justice involves fairness, transparency, impartiality, and room for individuals to have a voice (COPS Office, n.d.), a reasonable request for police-community interactions. In general, the goal of procedural justice is for anyone with contact with police, from victims to suspects, to feel that police treated them fairly and provided the opportunity to explain their side of the story. Equity in treatment is significant given the current issues with police legitimacy in Black and Brown communities.

There is little evidence that procedural justice improves problems with racial disparity, but there is growing evidence that it increases trust, thereby increasing police legitimacy (CCJ, 2021c). The CCJ further argues that agencies should combine external procedural justice with internal procedural justice to be effective and partnered with increased de-escalation training to see improvements in misuse of force.

De-escalation

In an earlier policy brief, Geyer (2020) recommended three solutions for officer-involved shootings, with her research supporting a recommendation that agencies significantly increase de-escalation training. The CCJ (2021a) review supports Geyer’s (2020) arguments and suggests combining training with department policy reinforces the importance of reducing use of force incidents – both in number and severity. However, in a recent systematic review of de-escalation training evaluations, Engel and colleagues (2020) argue that most available research suffers from a lack of quality. Therefore, they are cautious in saying that de-escalation training works. They call for academics, practitioners, and funders to prioritize rigorously designed de-escalation studies and other training that can affect the use of force.

Summary of Training Types

Overall, procedural justice and de-escalation training are the most promising avenues for future police training and legitimacy improvements. What stands out when considering why implicit bias training has not been shown to be effective, while procedural justice and de-escalation training are more promising, are their delivery methods. Implicit bias training was primarily handled in a classroom setting, while procedural justice and de-escalation training involved more hands-on practical training (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021a, 2021c, 2021b). These student-centered methods are more akin to the adult learning theory of andragogy.

Andragogy and Learner-Centered Approaches

Traditionally, instructors taught police recruits through behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning. The behavioral approach assumes that repetition is the key to understanding. The cognitive approach is akin to a lecture style where the instructor imparts their wisdom to their (hopefully) attentive students. While this may be excellent for learning the basics, it does not allow for the advancement of critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001).

Much of the discussion on learner-centered approaches focus on community policing (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010), likely because student-centered approaches can improve critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary for community policing (Belur et al., 2019). The concepts are still relevant outside the community policing paradigm, such as mundane encounters with community members and for use in de-escalation. The behavioral and cognitive learning approaches used in many academies are appropriate for learning mechanical tasks like conducting a traffic stop, investigation, or writing a report (Birzer, 2003). They are also perfectly valid for firearms training. However, police spend most of their time on non-violent service calls where mechanical skills are unnecessary, but communication and problem-solving important (Asher & Horwitz, 2020).

Policy Options

The section above provided an overview of the current state of law enforcement training and a summary of the research on the efficacy of various training to reduce misuse of force and improve police legitimacy. I also introduced the theory of andragogy and how it can apply to policing. Given the evidence base available on effective and promising training options, and how andragogy is applied to policing, there are three policy options. Each option includes policy options on structure, learning approach, and time spent on de-escalation and procedural justice training.

Policy Option 1

• Structure : retain the paramilitary structure
• Learning approach : behavioral/cognitive only
• Curriculum : retain current curriculum

Policy Option 2

• Learning approach : behavioral/cognitive for mechanical; student-centered for critical thinking and problem solving

Policy Option 3

• Structure : Reduce paramilitary structure
• Curriculum : increase time spent on procedural justice and de-escalation

Considerations

Policy option 1  .

Policy option one retains the paramilitary structure and behavioral learning approach, but with renewed curriculum, including increased procedural justice and de-escalation hours.

Policy option two retains the paramilitary structure and behavioral learning approach for mechanical tasks, but uses a student-centered approach for critical thinking and problem-solving. This option also calls for a change in the curriculum by increasing hours in procedural justice and de-escalation.

Policy option three reduces the paramilitary structure by creating an environment that is more conducive to learning, but retains a behavioral learning approach for mechanical tasks. This option also calls for a shift to a student-centered approach for critical thinking and problem solving and a change in the curriculum by increasing procedural justice and de-escalation hours. 

Recommendation

The policy recommendations in this brief are merely a starting point for improving the state of police training and regaining legitimacy from the communities they serve. Tensions are high, and opinions are emotionally charged. The situation is systemic and more complex than presented in this brief. Still, there cannot be progress without forward momentum. Such improvement should be evidence-informed and planned. Therefore, after reviewing the current state of available literature and the potential for actual change, I recommend agencies adopt policy option three. Policy option three includes the following changes: (1) reduce the paramilitary and stress-based structure of police academies in favor of a more conducive learning environment, (2) embed andragogy and student-centered learning for critical thinking and problem-solving skill development, and (3) increase the time spent on procedural justice and de-escalation training.

Why Reduce the Paramilitary Model?

Overall the paramilitary model does not provide an opportunity for self-directed or empowered learning (Birzer, 2003). The use of the paramilitary model is counterintuitive given the discretion afforded to police officers who are entirely self-directed in the field. The strict obedience required in the academy is also counterintuitive to developing skills that translate to improved community relationships (Chappell & Lanza-Kaduce, 2010). Learning under such stress helps teach recruits how to perform in stressful situations, but not at the expense of developing other essential skills.

Why Balance Behavioral, Cognitive, and Student-Centered Approaches?

It is important to remember that these learning types are not dichotomous, nor is one necessarily better than the other (Dwyer & Laufersweiler-Dwyer, 2004). As mentioned in the background section, behavioral and cognitive approaches to learning are perfectly acceptable for mechanical tasks. At the same time, andragogy is better suited to developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Further, this may encourage recruits to take an active role in their learning (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001). Ultimately, I suggest keeping the behavioral and cognitive approach where it applies best and using student-centered learning when there is a need for critical thinking or problem-solving.

Advantages and Challenges

There will be implementation challenges. One must consider that curriculum needs to be developed, and instructors must be adequately trained (see Shipton, 2011). While the paramilitary structure is also not conducive for critical thinking, police academies have a long tradition of using this method, so resistance is expected. Finally, agencies may also be concerned with costs. Already facing economic issues coupled with calls for defunding, departments may be reluctant to invest money into making such sweeping changes. 

Despite these challenges, the advantages outweigh the costs. With proper implementation of an environment that supports effective learning (Birzer, 2003), departments can expect improved critical thinking and problem-solving(Belur et al., 2019). Properly incorporating procedural justice can help improve community relationships and police legitimacy – provided agencies also embrace internal procedural justice (CCJ, 2021c). And finally, though more research is needed, de-escalation, coupled with that procedural justice, may reduce the use and misuse of force (CCJ: Task Force on Policing, 2021a; Engel et al., 2020; Geyer, 2020).

On a final note, this policy brief is not an exhaustive discussion of the changes needed to ensure successful training of police recruits, improve police legitimacy, or reduce misuse of force. This brief focused on structure, types of training, and how we train. I do not address the necessary cultural shifts and other necessary policy changes here, which are also relevant. Instead, I chose to limit focus as a starting point. There is much more work to do.

Annotated Bibliography

Asher, J., & Horwitz, B. (2020, June 19). How do the police actually spend their time? The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/19/upshot/unrest-police-time-violent-crime.html

The article addresses the time police spend on various calls for service. Using publicly available data, the authors found that police spend more time responding to noncriminal complaints and traffic incidents than violent crime. While the authors only used data from ten agencies, the information demonstrates the importance of considering what types of activities police spend their time on when debated the best way to handle current shortcomings.

Bagenstos, S. R. (2018). Implicit bias’s failure. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law , 39 (1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3015031

Bagenstos argues that the rise of implicit bias may have made addressing discrimination more complex from a political perspective. He further asserts that implicit bias triggers a similar defensive response as accusations of blatant racism, making it challenging to address discrimination. The article is an excellent read for anyone interested in an opposing perspective of implicit bias.

Belur, J., Agnew-Pauley, W., McGinley, B., & Tompson, L. (2019). A systematic review of police recruit training programmes. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice . https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paz022

In a systematic review of the global literature on police recruit training programs, the authors suggest that student-centered learning approaches help recruits develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This review is an excellent summary of the training research and is valuable for academics and practitioners alike.

Birzer, M. L. (2003). The theory of andragogy applied to police training. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management , 26 (1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510310460288

The author explores the theory of andragogy applied to police training and argues that a student-centered approach is best suited for aspects of policing that require critical thinking and problem-solving skills. It is a must-read for those interested in making improvements in policing training.

Birzer, M. L., & Tannehill, R. (2001). A more effective training approach for contemporary policing. Police Quarterly , 4 (2), 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197815

Birzer and Tannehill focus on what police trainers can do to improve learning outcomes for recruits. They suggest student-centered learning through andragogy fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills by keeping officers engaged in the learning process. I highly recommend this article for policing instructors in academia and the police academy.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021a). De-escalation policies and training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/de-escalation_training.9f4b662e97c2.pdf

This policy assessment summarizes relevant literature on de-escalation training and evaluates its effectiveness in two areas relevant to this paper's topic: police misuse of force and strengthening community trust. The authors found that de-escalation training combined with de-escalation policies can reduce misuse of force. They further argue that a reduction in misuse in force may lead to improved community trust. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021b). Implicit bias training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/implicit_bias.9681943c82c2.pdf

The policy assessment referenced summarizes the empirical literature on implicit bias training. The authors found that there is limited evidence that implicit bias training reduces misuse of force and does not strengthen community trust on its own. However, they acknowledge that pairing implicit bias with reconciliation conversations may lead to improved community trust. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Council on Criminal Justice: Task Force on Policing. (2021c). Procedural justice training . [Policy Assessment]. Council on Criminal Justice. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-west-2/uploads-7e3kk3/41697/procedural_justice_training.234ca94dfcf5.pdf

In summarizing the empirical literature on procedural justice training, the authors found some support that procedural justice, coupled with de-escalation tactics, reduces misuse of force. They also note that the evidence suggests a strong association between community perceptions of police interactions. Given the goals of procedural justice, it would not be surprising to see improved relationships. However, they note perceptions go beyond individual encounters with police. The assessment is especially relevant for practitioners who do not have time to review a mountain of research or cannot access academic journals.

Chappell, A. T., & Lanza-Kaduce, L. (2010). Police academy socialization: Understanding the lessons learned in a paramilitary-bureaucratic organization. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography , 39 (2), 187–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241609342230

This observational study focused on the socialization of police officers in one academy that introduced a new community policing and problem-solving curriculum. The relevant findings for this brief are that the paramilitary structure of the police academy is not conducive to critical thinking and problem-solving.

Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.). Procedural justice, COPS Office . Retrieved April 23, 2021, from https://cops.usdoj.gov/prodceduraljustice

The procedural justice section on the COPS Office website offers resources on procedural justice and its connections to community policing and police legitimacy. The website is a good starting point for anyone with an interest in learning more about this topic.

Dwyer, R. G., & Laufersweiler-Dwyer, D. (2004). The need for change: A call for action in community oriented police training perspective. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin , 73 (11), 18–24.

The authors explore pedagogy and andragogy applied to police training - mainly community-oriented police training. They argue that an integrated model is preferable, given officers must learn mechanical and critical thinking skills. This article provides an excellent argument for integrated teaching methods in police training.

Engel, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Herold, T. D. (2020). Does de-escalation training work? Criminology & Public Policy , 19 (3), 721–759. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12467

In a systematic review of de-escalation training, Engel and colleagues found no adverse effects of de-escalation training. They note that many of the studies reviewed had low-quality designs, making it difficult to evaluate the training's effectiveness. This article is timely and brings to light the importance of rigorous research in policymaking.

Fernandez, P. (2021, April 13). Defunding the police isn’t radical. It’s logical . Cosmopolitan. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a32757152/defund-police-black-lives-matter/

This opinion editorial takes the perspective of critical criminology to argue the logic behind defunding police and reallocating the money to other public services. The author posits that such a broken institution cannot be improved but must be dismantled and rebuilt. I recommend reading this article regardless of where your opinion falls on this topic.

Geyer, P. (2020). Traveling at 1000 feet per second with unalterable consequences: How to decrease police officer-involved shootings. EBP Quarterly , 5 (2). https://www.ebpsociety.org/blog/quarterly/440-ebp-quarterly-2020-volume-5-number-2

In this policy brief, Geyer addresses potential policies to decreases office-involved shootings. She ultimately argues for a dramatic increase in de-escalation training. This piece would be most beneficial for law enforcement decision-makers interested in making changes to their training curriculum.

Griffith, J. (2021, April 13). Former officer testifies Derek Chauvin was “justified” in pinning down George Floyd . NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/prosecutors-rest-their-case-derek-chauvin-trial-n1263916

This NBC News article summarizes events from the trial of Derek Chauvin in the murder of George Floyd. It highlights the contradictory testimony between department personnel and expert witnesses. While the title is provocative, the article provided a good summary of the testimony of interest.

Lai, C. K., Marini, M., Lehr, S. A., Cerruti, C., Shin, J.-E. L., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Ho, A. K., Teachman, B. A., Wojcik, S. P., Koleva, S. P., Frazier, R. S., Heiphetz, L., Chen, E. E., Turner, R. N., Haidt, J., Kesebir, S., Hawkins, C. B., Schaefer, H. S., Rubichi, S., … Nosek, B. A. (2014). Reducing implicit racial preferences: A comparative investigation of 17 interventions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 143 (4), 1765–1785. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036260

The authors sought to determine which methods were effective in reducing implicit bias. Eight of seventeen interventions reduced implicit bias, while the remaining nine did not. Most important for this paper, however, is the remaining question of long-term gains. This article could benefit those trying to design implicit bias interventions in police training.

Lai, C. K., Skinner, A. L., Cooley, E., Murrar, S., Brauer, M., Devos, T., Calanchini, J., Xiao, Y. J., Pedram, C., Marshburn, C. K., Simon, S., Blanchar, J. C., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Conway, J., Redford, L., Klein, R. A., Roussos, G., Schellhaas, F. M. H., Burns, M., … Nosek, B. A. (2016). Reducing implicit racial preferences: II Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 145 (8), 1001–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000179

Researchers assessed the interventions' success at sustained reductions in bias due to earlier implicit bias intervention work. Their findings suggest there remain concerns about long-term change. As with Lai et al.'s previous work, this article would benefit those working on designing implicit bias interventions for police training.

McDowell, M. G., & Fernandez, L. A. (2018). ‘Disband, disempower, and disarm’: Amplifying the theory and practice of police abolition. Critical Criminology , 26 (3), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-018-9400-4

The authors discuss the police abolitionist movement from a critical criminology perspective. McDowell and Fernandez make a powerful argument that aims directly at dismantling police as an institution allows for movement toward meaningful change. While antagonistically worded for traditional criminologists, I recommend all policing scholars read their work.

Reaves, B. A. (2016). State and local law enforcement training academies, 2013, summary . Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/slleta13.pdf

The above is a statistical report from the Bureau of Justice Statistics that highlights various aspects of state and local law enforcement training academies. I used the information on stress versus non-stress academy models and the number of hours spent on training types to support the policy recommendations in this brief. The report is beneficial for academics, practitioners, and community members to understand the most recent snapshot of the average police training academy.

Shipton, B. (2011). Expanding police educators’ understanding of teaching, are they as learner-centered as they think? Journal of Learning Design , 4 (2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v4i2.71

In this study, the researcher sought to determine whether police educators favored learner-centered or teacher-centered approaches. Due to contradictory findings, Shipton argues that police educators need more development courses that allow them to reflect on their actual practices regarding their desire teaching approach. I recommend this piece for anyone involved in instructor development for police academies.

Spencer, K. B., Charbonneau, A. K., & Glaser, J. (2016). Implicit bias and policing. Social and Personality Psychology Compass , 10 (1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12210

The authors address the difficulty in reducing the effects of implicit bias. They argue that there are no known interventions with any efficacy. I suggest policing scholars read this article and reflect on the several promising avenues for future research to reduce implicit bias.

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Learning How to Think Critically in Public Safety

by Gordon Graham | March 17, 2021

Editor’s note: This article is part of a series. Click here for the previous article.

Gordon Graham here and hello again. Let me start this writing with the inside scoop on how this series is prepared. Every month I get an email from “Madame Editor” requesting the next piece in the series. She is kind enough to attach the last piece I wrote so there is some continuity of thought.

So five minutes ago I opened up her email to me and read the last article in this series. As I started to develop my thoughts for this article, it hit me—frankly, it hit me hard! My career with the California Highway Patrol (CHP) started 48 years ago—and my guess is that many or even most of you reading this are younger than that.

Allow me to digress. The other day I spent considerable time with my financial planner. Among the many messages I took away from that meeting was, “You started preparing for retirement early on and that was smart.” Over the years, I have done some dumb things, but as a young lawyer in the 80s doing some wills and trusts, I learned the lesson of putting aside money every month for retirement .

Some of you are very, very young and if no one has told you that “time flies by”—trust me, it does: 48 years seems like 10 years to me. Suddenly you will be “old,” and while it is never too late to start planning for your financial future , the younger you start, the better off you will be in retirement. If I were running a public safety agency, I would have a class on this topic during the initial academy training!

I will be forever grateful for my FTO’s patience with me. I was a bit of a slow learner. But the key is he never taught me how to think—he taught me how to do things!

But let’s get back to the flow of these articles and continue our discussion on decision-making. Forty-eight years ago the CHP did not provide decision-making training . They did not provide training on critical thinking in public safety. Instead, they taught me how to do things. We had a class on photography, in which they taught me how to take pictures of collision scenes. (Seriously, the camera weighed a good 5 pounds and it had a massive flashbulb that had to be replaced after every shot.)

They taught me how to write reports , how to drive in a pursuit, how to use force, how to shoot, how to lay flares, how to do CPR, how to draw a diagram. My recollection is they taught me “how to do” several hundred things CHP officers need to do.

However, they did not teach me how to think! My “break in officer” (this was long before the FTO position ) taught me how to do things. The thing I had the most difficult with—seriously—was “how to get out of a patrol car after a traffic stop.” You may laugh, but to me that was very complex. However, I do remember the steps, because he (and let’s just call him Kevin, because that was his name) had a nasty habit of pounding his fist into my right arm when I did not get it done in the correct order:

• Prior to stopping, turn front wheels all the way to the left. (There was no power steering then and you had to do it while vehicle was in motion.) Kevin explained that the tires and wheels would give you just a bit more cover in the event of shots fired.
• Turn the right side spotlight on—Kevin told me repeatedly all the reasons why.
• Take the radio microphone off the hook and put it in the right front seat for easier access.
• Turn the outside radio speaker on. (For you young kids reading this, there was a time we did not have portable radios—seriously!)
• Turn off the rear deck light (flashing yellow) unless you are blocking a lane—in which case activate the switch up and get the flashing red light on.
• Make sure the car is in “park.” Get the parking brake set.
• Get your hat on. Open the door and retrieve your “stick” from the grommets on the door.
• Turn on the high-beam headlights.

It took me a couple days to master this checklist, getting to work early so I could practice because my right arm was killing me. (Not to digress, but Kevin also told me, “If I ever call you Kevin, you will kill anyone standing near me. And if you ever call me Gordon, I will kill anyone standing near you.” I was so grateful that I never had a backup officer named Gordon—that would have been very confusing.)

I will be forever grateful for Kevin’s patience with me. I was a bit of a slow learner. But the key is he never taught me how to think—he taught me how to do things!

After I got off probation and got on a motorcycle I decided to go back to school. I spent almost two years getting a “designated subjects teaching credential” at Long Beach State College, now known as California State University, Long Beach. There I learned theories on how to teach people. Again, there was no training on how to think!

I then spent three years at University of Southern California in their Institute of Safety and Systems Management. Again, I learned a lot there, but they did not teach me how to think! In public safety, there was simply no direction on critical thinking.

In 1977, I started law school at Western State University (the largest law school in America back then, because they would take anybody) and it was early on in that four-year program where I was taught how to think. The process they gave me was called IRAC—and for four years that was how I was taught to think. IRAC went like this:

Mr. Graham, what is the legal ISSUE involved in this question? What is the RULE of law involved in this question? Please APPLY the rule of law to the issue involved. What is your logical CONCLUSION based on the facts?

IRAC, IRAC, IRAC, IRAC, IRAC was beat into my head. But it did not hurt as much as my right arm did five years earlier.

As a young lawyer, in 1982, I used IRAC every day when I was talking to clients. What is their ISSUE? What is the involved RULE of law? How do I APPLY the rule to the involved issue? What is my logical CONCLUSION based on this analysis?

This worked well for me as a young lawyer, but simultaneously I was a brand-new sergeant! For 10 years as a cop, everything I did I had done before, and I had Gary Klein’s theory of recognition-primed decision-making working for me.

As a sergeant, however, I was getting involved in things that I had not yet experienced. I wondered if this IRAC would work for me as a new sergeant. It did, but it was not perfect, so I started to customize it. And out of that came a “10 Step Decision-Making Process”—a way of capturing critical thinking in public safety—and that will be our focus in my next article.

GORDON GRAHAM is a 33-year veteran of law enforcement and the co-founder of Lexipol, where he serves on the current board of directors. Graham is a risk management expert and a practicing attorney who has presented a commonsense risk management approach to hundreds of thousands of public safety professionals around the world. Graham holds a master’s degree in Safety and Systems Management from University of Southern California and a Juris Doctorate from Western State University.

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Ethical decision-making in law enforcement: a scoping review.

1. Introduction

1.1. rationale, 1.2. objectives, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. selection of studies, 2.2. data extraction, management, and analysis, 3.1. normative ethics.

Virtual Ethics (implicit): “ Immediately upon their recruitment to the police academy, trainees are instilled with foundational values such as integrity, citizenship, justice, and pride […]. Police recruits are trained in a way that prioritizes serving and protecting civilians in the community, even at their peril.” [ 24 ] (p. 71)

Deontology (implicit): “ Despite the moral conflicts experienced in the line of duty, police officers are mandated to make decisions and fulfill their responsibilities in a way that is compatible with police values, and more broadly, with society’s values regarding morally acceptable behaviour. Police officers are asked to do what is “right” and to maintain peace and order. When police officers feel that they have not satisfied this mandate, they may experience moral struggles that, in turn, may have a number of negative outcomes, such as increased vulnerability to stress, adverse reactions to traumatic incidents, and poorer job performance […] .” [ 24 ] (p. 72)

Consequentialism (implicit): “ An attitude toward whistleblowing […] is the sum of the products of the employee’s beliefs about the consequences of whistleblowing and his or her subjective evaluation of those consequences. ” [ 25 ] (p. 546)

3.2. Moral Psychology

Moral Intuition (about agents): “ The officers said that they often sensed quite quickly whether people were cooperative or not. Some of them said that they could spot a troublemaker from a long distance, ‘Some people have an attitude problem’. One of the interviewed policemen talked about a ‘gut feeling’, saying, ‘When I arrive at a scene where two people are fighting, I very quickly get a feeling that one of them is the idiot and the other one is OK. The idiot doesn’t listen to me, but the other one does as he is told’. The officers said that they consistently tried to be ‘good with the good guys and bad with the bad guys ’.” [ 37 ] (p. 77)

Moral Intuition (general): “ According to a Norwegian study, the internal status of Norwegian expert police officers is connected to ‘experiential professionalism’, which is ‘characterized by gut feelings, hunches, intuition (rather than analysis), loyalty to colleagues, and attitudes aimed at crime control...’ […]. In a British setting, Loftus (2010) describes this ‘sixth sense’ as follows: ‘[…] the police learn to treat their geographical domain as a “territory of normal appearances”. Their task is to become sensitive to those occasions when background expectancies are in variance.’ The ‘ecological’ […] rationality of experts, sensitive to what is present in and what is missing from a scenario, is intensified by a feeling of rightness […]. This ability to discern nuances and its accompanying feeling of rightness may grow strong, almost incorrigible .” [ 38 ] (p. 22)

3.3. Structural and Normative Effects

Organizational Factors : “ One promising avenue for reducing the influence of antagonistic emotions on police decision-making, then, is for agencies to strive to maintain an organizationally fair work environment for their officers. Indeed, some research suggests that officers who feel their supervisors are respectful, transparent, listen to their concerns, and otherwise treat them fairly tend to be less cynical and distressed, and in turn are less reliant on coercive force […] ” [ 26 ] (p. 630)

Public Perception of Policing : “ The police face a dilemma in maintaining legitimacy: they must be perceived as effective in fighting crime and disorder, but they must also maintain standards of fairness […] .” [ 37 ] (p. 784)

Police Subculture : “ While there is evidence that reform in Australia has generated some major successes, particularly in stopping organized protection rackets and substantially reducing police process corruption […], Australian police departments continue to be subject to frequent conduct scandals. Recent high-profile cases in the media include racially motivated assaults and harassment; an escalation in fatal shootings; excessive tasering and assaults of suspects; and negligent responses to victims of crime, especially domestic violence […] .” [ 44 ] (p. 371)

3.4. Psychological Dimensions

Implicit Bias : “ Consciously or unconsciously, officers may convey their feelings or judgments about others in the degree to which they operate in a procedurally just (or unjust) fashion toward them. The degree of PJ [procedural justice] or injustice shown someone communicates a powerful symbolic message about the citizen’s status or worth […] .” [ 51 ] (p. 121)

Implicit Bias (technology): “ Given that American police have routinely (and justifiably) faced criticism for police brutality and implicit bias, particularly when dealing with minority communities, local police departments may feel pressure to seek automated solutions to issues like crowd control during protests or riots, by, for instance, programming rules of engagement into autonomous drones .” [ 52 ] (p. 6)

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): “ Papazoglou et al. […] showed a relationship between moral injury […] and incidence rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). That connection can occur when the moral injury resulted from an incident or incidents in which the officer was exposed in some way to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence […] .” [ 30 ] (p. 2)

Moral Disengagement : “ Perhaps the theory that best explains how policing fosters unethical decision-making is moral disengagement […], which describes eight mechanisms whereby individuals are disinhibited from acting unethically. Each of the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement occur during routine police work […]. Two of the mechanisms, dehumanization and attribution of blame, are particularly relevant when it comes to officers engaging in unethical behavior that will directly impact their wellness .” [ 45 ] (p. 2)

Social Identity Theory : “ This focus ignores the internal relationships among law enforcement personnel, where arrests function as an object of exchange and a medium of social connection. Existing research neither describes why officers desire to make arrests […], nor explains the nature of the struggle between deputies to determine who will claim an arrest as his or her own .” [ 55 ] (p. 109)

Role of Gender (civilians): “ Males may be perceived as more threatening, females as more submissive and in need of protection […]. Males may also be viewed as less deserving and consequently receive less PJ. A bad reputation with the police is expected to reduce deservingness and police-provided PJ. Police researchers have not found strong or consistent effects of social status on police coercive practices […], but recent meta-analyses have found that minority race/ethnicity significantly increases the risk of arrest, and one study finds that males are at significantly greater risk, while the effects of age are not significant […] .” [ 51 ] (p. 122)

Role of Gender (officers): “ Following women’s entrance into police patrol in the 1970s, most research on female officers’ capability to perform police duties has questioned their ability to maintain the typically masculine police qualities of physical aggression and force necessary to maintain police authority. Based on the traditional policing view, opponents of women police officers (namely, male officers) have argued vigorously that women cannot perform the job as well as men, due to their lack of physical strength and inability to maintain an authoritative presence […]. ” [ 56 ] (p. 426)

3.5. Gaps in Police Training and Policy

Training Gaps (recruits/cadets): “ Training could focus on police recruits before they have been exposed to the negative communications rituals of the street to teach them more sophisticated techniques of behavior management that are better suited to developing long-term relationships with youths. As community policing moves police into the “same cop, same beat” model, these strategies will be of critical importance to police safety and to the success of the community policing movement ” [ 58 ] (p. 40)

Training Gaps (officers): “ Although in many situations fear is warranted and even advantageous, officers who experience fear in response to civilians with bad attitudes may also be more likely to escalate the situation (e.g., by taking an aggressive stance, or drawing and pointing their firearm). Elevated fear may also be associated with perceptual distortions […], which could result in mistake-of-fact shootings […]. Periodic training exercises that require officers to make quick decisions while in a state of heightened fear may improve officer decision-making in real world encounters. More broadly, a better understanding of how civilian demeanor interacts with the situational context to influence fear among officers is important for efforts to reduce overreactions and mistakes that may result from increased fearfulness and that may be especially likely in certain environments ” [ 26 ] (p. 22)

3.6. Interventions

Interventions (race): “ When making judgments about others, however, White privilege lessons may not trigger these self-preservation motivations and, instead, may simply highlight a system of racial inequality. And, in such a context, we find that White privilege lessons lead non-Black people—regardless of their political orientation—to perceive more racism when a Black man is shot by police. Critically, these shifts in perceived racism also had important downstream consequences for perceptions of legal guilt .” [ 60 ] (p. 7)

Interventions (wellness): “ The POWER perspective of wellness, ethics, and resilience helps law enforcement agencies and police officers to view wellness in an integrated way. Officers cannot stay healthy without maintaining a steadfast commitment to their core values. Similarly, when officers violate their moral code, their wellness will suffer. Initiatives to improve wellness should concurrently focus on officers’ ethical decision-making. Likewise, efforts to reduce officers’ misconduct must also address their physical, cognitive, emotional, spiritual, and social wellness. Although law enforcement agencies play a critical role in steps to improve officers’ wellness and ethics, it is ultimately up to each individual police officer to incorporate a comprehensive wellness and ethics program .” [ 45 ] (p. 3)

4. Discussion—(Un)Ethical Decision-Making

4.1. socio-moral dimensions impact the job complexities of police work, 4.2. lethal means, moral injury, and decision-making, 4.3. police readiness, wellness, and interventions, 5. limitations, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Dempsey, R.P.; Eskander, E.E.; Dubljević, V. Ethical Decision-Making in Law Enforcement: A Scoping Review. Psych 2023 , 5 , 576-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych5020037

Dempsey RP, Eskander EE, Dubljević V. Ethical Decision-Making in Law Enforcement: A Scoping Review. Psych . 2023; 5(2):576-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych5020037

Dempsey, Ronald P., Elizabeth E. Eskander, and Veljko Dubljević. 2023. "Ethical Decision-Making in Law Enforcement: A Scoping Review" Psych 5, no. 2: 576-601. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych5020037

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Perspective: Importance of Vulnerability in Law Enforcement

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Importance of Vulnerability in Law Enforcement

By Erin O’Donnell

The image is fairly universal—a uniformed police officer, strong, brave, and confident. If we asked a group of people to describe an officer, we would receive various responses and opinions, each based on the answerer’s individual experiences with law enforcement. However, even with many replies, it likely would surprise us to hear of one described as “vulnerable.”

From the time we are children, we learn that police officers are tough. They are portrayed in television and movies with an air of superiority and a take-charge personality. When fictional officers act outside of this characterization, it is usually through negative, antisocial behaviors like drinking, engaging in affairs, and participating in corruption. We rarely get to glimpse the human side of law enforcement—the struggles officers face and the toll this line of work takes on overall wellness.

Gap in Training

To truly understand why members of our society—and even ourselves as officers—have a hard time with the image of police vulnerability, we must look at our training. When we first walk through the door of a police academy, there is an immediate sense that we are about to embark on a journey that will impact our entire lives—as well as the lives of our families, friends, and members of the public we serve. It is both an exhilarating and a serious undertaking.

Police training programs around the world incorporate common concepts. The successful graduate proves proficient in firearms, defensive tactics, emergency driving, ethics, and law. We stress the importance of physical fitness and situational awareness. Officers need these skills to perform their jobs safely and legally. Overall, these academies produce well-prepared, high-quality, and enthusiastic officers.

However, one area missing from the curriculum is an emphasis on combining the technical skills of policing with the soft skills of interpersonal relationships. It leaves a gap in our training that causes a ripple effect throughout our careers. This can be the difference between an adequate officer and one who exceeds expectations.

One of the most difficult things to do in our profession is be vulnerable. We define someone vulnerable as “capable of being physically or emotionally wounded.” 1 This concept directly conflicts with everything a police officer learns from the first day on the job to retirement. We do everything possible to avoid being hurt in any way, constantly working on our technical skills to ensure we are prepared for any circumstance that may harm us physically. Still, while we train ourselves to survive, we do not spend nearly enough time learning how to thrive.

Connection with Others

Why does being vulnerable matter to law enforcement? What can we gain from opening ourselves up to being wounded? Is there a positive kind of vulnerability that allows us to achieve a better-quality, longer-lasting career—one that leaves us fulfilled and well-adjusted when we retire?

“One of the most difficult things to do in our profession is be vulnerable.” 

The answer lies in our willingness to learn something that, on the surface, seems trivial or irrelevant to our job. This begs the question, what is policing? Ultimately, it is about helping people, doing the right thing, and providing stability in uncertain times. We accomplish these goals by building relationships with others. Being vulnerable allows us to connect with others and to build and maintain meaningful relationships every day. “Connection is why we’re here. It’s what gives purpose and meaning to our lives.” 2 Without vulnerability, we cannot truly connect.

Learning to be vulnerable means opening ourselves up to the judgments and opinions of others. It entails admitting that we are not perfect and that we do not have all the answers. Both of these concepts prove difficult for police officers because the public puts a great deal of trust in our ability to solve problems and handle crises. When vulnerable, we risk letting people know that we are human and need help.

It is precisely in those moments that we become most connected to the people around us. In revealing our limitations, fears, dreams, and human side, we allow others the opportunity to participate in our growth as people. This, in turn, builds trust, which serves as the foundation for all our relationships. As police officers, we need the trust of the people we serve to be successful. We must remain diligent in our pursuit of trusting relationships and be as proficient in our self-awareness as we are with our firearms.

“Vulnerability is the birthplace of innovation, creativity, and change.” 3 The benefits of employing creative, innovative thinkers in law enforcement are numerous. If we do not open our minds to new ways of doing things, we are doomed to repeat past mistakes and become stagnant in our profession. When we embrace our vulnerability, we become free to expand our minds and think outside the box, propelling our profession forward.

The image of the strong, brave, and confident police officer is as real as it has ever been. The officer of today can be all those things and vulnerable as well. In fact, the most successful police officers are those who can be strong both physically and emotionally. That strength helps them navigate the difficult challenges inherent in police work and sustains them long after they retire.

“…the most successful police officers are those who can be strong both physically and emotionally.”

Captain O’Donnell serves with the Johnson County, Kansas, Sheriff’s Office and can be contacted at [email protected].

1 Merriam-Webster, s.v. “vulnerable,” accessed July 17, 2019, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vulnerable. 2 Brené Brown, “The Power of Vulnerability” (video of lecture, TEDxHouston, Houston, TX, June 2010), accessed July 17, 2019, https://www.ted.com/talks/brene_brown_on_vulnerability. 3 Brené Brown, “Listening to Shame” (video of lecture, TED2012, Long Beach, CA, March 2012), accessed July 17, 2019, https://www.ted.com/talks/brene_brown_listening_to_shame.

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Home > Student Works > GRADUATE_WORKS > ETD > 375

Electronic Theses and Dissertations

Critical thinking in law enforcement training academies: a phenomenological study of officer experiences.

Billy J. Spruill , Abilene Christian University Follow

Campus Location

Dallas Campus (Online)

Date of Award

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3116-7965

Document Type

Dissertation

Organizational Leadership

Degree Name

Doctor of Education

Committee Chair or Primary Advisor

Robert Haussmann

Second Committee Member or Secondary Advisor

Timothy Atkinson

Third Committee Member or Committee Reader

Dean Campbell

Recently, law enforcement officer use of force incidents resulting in death has seemingly become more prevalent. Generally, the educational requirement for a law enforcement officer is a high school diploma or general education development degree. One must question if this requirement is sufficient for a law enforcement officer to be successful in a modern world as the law enforcement training academy may be the law enforcement officer’s only postsecondary education. Critical thinking is a needed skill identified by high-stress professions such as the military, nursing, and disaster management, yet there is limited study regarding critical thinking in law enforcement. The purpose of this research study was to assess the efficacy of law enforcement training academies to prepare cadets to pass a state licensing examination successfully and prepare cadets to think critically upon entering their careers as law enforcement officers. This qualitative research study employed a transcendental phenomenological approach interviewing law enforcement officers with at least five years’ experience assigned to the patrol division of their agency. Participants were recruited from law enforcement agencies in the western region of Texas. Once consent was obtained, participants were scheduled for interviews. Interviews were completed using predeveloped interview questions designed to address the two research questions for this study. Interviews were transcribed, and the resulting data were analyzed utilizing the modified van Kaam method of phenomenological data analysis. This research study learned law enforcement training academies attended by participants focused on cadets’ passage of the state licensing examination and imparted limited critical thinking skills to cadets. These academies delivered information through a lecture-based teaching methodology with little hands-on application, which may explain the deficit in critical thinking skills.

Creative Commons License

Recommended Citation

Spruill, Billy J., "Critical Thinking in Law Enforcement Training Academies: A Phenomenological Study of Officer Experiences" (2021). Digital Commons @ ACU, Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 375. https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/etd/375

Since June 10, 2021

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