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Distance learning in higher education during COVID-19: The role of basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation for persistence and procrastination–a multi-country study

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review & editing

Roles Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology

Affiliation Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Aleksandër Moisiu University, Durrës, Albania

Affiliation Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Philology and Education, Bedër University, Tirana, Albania

Affiliation Xiangya School of Nursing, Central South University, Changsha, China

Affiliations Xiangya School of Nursing, Central South University, Changsha, China, Department of Nursing Science, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Affiliation Study of Nursing, University of Applied Sciences Bjelovar, Bjelovar, Croatia

Affiliation Baltic Film, Media and Arts School, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia

Affiliation Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Affiliation Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

Affiliation Chair of Educational Psychology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Affiliation Department of Educational Studies, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Affiliation Faculty of Education, University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland

Affiliation Department of Global Education, Tsuru University, Tsuru, Japan

Affiliation Career Center, Osaka University, Osaka University, Suita, Japan

Affiliation Graduate School of Education, Osaka Kyoiku University, Kashiwara, Japan

Affiliation Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Prishtina ’Hasan Prishtina’, Pristina, Kosovo

Affiliation Department of Social Work, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Pristina ’Hasan Prishtina’, Pristina, Kosovo

Affiliation Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Klaipėda University, Klaipėda, Lithuania

Affiliation Geography Department, Junior College, University of Malta, Msida, Malta

Affiliation Institute of Family Studies, Faculty of Philosophy, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, North Macedonia

Affiliation Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Social Science, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland

Affiliation Faculty of Historical and Pedagogical Sciences, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland

Affiliation Faculty of Educational Studies, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland

Affiliation CERNESIM Environmental Research Center, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iași, România

Affiliation Social Sciences and Humanities Research Department, Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Iași, România

Affiliation Department of Informatics, Örebro University School of Business, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden

Affiliation Faculty of Social Studies, Penn State University, State College, Pennsylvania, United States of America

•  [ ... ],

Affiliations Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, Department for Teacher Education, Centre for Teacher Education, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

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• Elisabeth R. Pelikan, 
• Selma Korlat, 
• Julia Reiter, 
• Julia Holzer, 
• Martin Mayerhofer, 
• Barbara Schober, 
• Christiane Spiel, 
• Oriola Hamzallari, 
• Ana Uka, 

• Published: October 6, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, higher educational institutions worldwide switched to emergency distance learning in early 2020. The less structured environment of distance learning forced students to regulate their learning and motivation more independently. According to self-determination theory (SDT), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness affects intrinsic motivation, which in turn relates to more active or passive learning behavior. As the social context plays a major role for basic need satisfaction, distance learning may impair basic need satisfaction and thus intrinsic motivation and learning behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between basic need satisfaction and procrastination and persistence in the context of emergency distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in a cross-sectional study. We also investigated the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in this relationship. Furthermore, to test the universal importance of SDT for intrinsic motivation and learning behavior under these circumstances in different countries, we collected data in Europe, Asia and North America. A total of N = 15,462 participants from Albania, Austria, China, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Kosovo, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, North Macedonia, Romania, Sweden, and the US answered questions regarding perceived competence, autonomy, social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, persistence, and sociodemographic background. Our results support SDT’s claim of universality regarding the relation between basic psychological need fulfilment, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence. However, whereas perceived competence had the highest direct effect on procrastination and persistence, social relatedness was mainly influential via intrinsic motivation.

Citation: Pelikan ER, Korlat S, Reiter J, Holzer J, Mayerhofer M, Schober B, et al. (2021) Distance learning in higher education during COVID-19: The role of basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation for persistence and procrastination–a multi-country study. PLoS ONE 16(10): e0257346. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346

Editor: Shah Md Atiqul Haq, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, BANGLADESH

Received: March 30, 2021; Accepted: August 29, 2021; Published: October 6, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Pelikan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data is now publicly available: Pelikan ER, Korlat S, Reiter J, Lüftenegger M. Distance Learning in Higher Education During COVID-19: Basic Psychological Needs and Intrinsic Motivation 2021. doi: 10.17605/OSF.IO/8CZX3 .

Funding: This work was funded by the Vienna Science and Technology Fund (WWTF) [ https://www.wwtf.at/ ] and the MEGA Bildungsstiftung [ https://www.megabildung.at/ ] through project COV20-025, as well as the Academy of Finland [ https://www.aka.fi ] through project 308351, 336138, and 345117. BS is the grant recipient of COV20-025. KSA is the grant recipient of 308351, 336138, and 345117. Open access funding was provided by University of Vienna. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

In early 2020, countries across the world faced rising COVID-19 infection rates, and various physical and social distancing measures to contain the spread of the virus were adopted, including curfews and closures of businesses, schools, and universities. By the end of April 2020, roughly 1.3 billion learners were affected by the closure of educational institutions [ 1 ]. At universities, instruction was urgently switched to distance learning, bearing challenges for all actors involved, particularly for students [ 2 ]. Moreover, since distance teaching requires ample preparation time and situation-specific didactic adaptation to be successful, previously established concepts for and research findings on distance learning cannot be applied undifferentiated to the emergency distance learning situation at hand [ 3 ].

Generally, it has been shown that the less structured learning environment in distance learning requires students to regulate their learning and motivation more independently [ 4 ]. In distance learning in particular, high intrinsic motivation has proven to be decisive for learning success, whereas low intrinsic motivation may lead to maladaptive behavior like procrastination (delaying an intended course of action despite negative consequences) [ 5 , 6 ]. According to self-determination theory (SDT), satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness leads to higher intrinsic motivation [ 7 ], which in turn promotes adaptive patterns of learning behavior. On the other hand, dissatisfaction of these basic psychological needs can detrimentally affect intrinsic motivation. According to SDT, satisfaction of the basic psychological needs occurs in interaction with the social environment. The context in which learning takes place as well as the support of social interactions it encompasses play a major role for basic need satisfaction [ 7 , 8 ]. Distance learning, particularly when it occurs simultaneously with other physical and social distancing measures, may impair basic need satisfaction and, in consequence, intrinsic motivation and learning behavior.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between basic need satisfaction and two important learning behaviors—procrastination (as a consequence of low or absent intrinsic motivation) and persistence (as the volitional implementation of motivation)—in the context of emergency distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. In line with SDT [ 7 ] and previous studies (e.g., [ 9 ]), we also investigated the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in this relationship. Furthermore, to test the universal importance of SDT for intrinsic motivation and learning behavior under these specific circumstances, we collected data in 17 countries in Europe, Asia, and North America.

The fundamental role of basic psychological needs for intrinsic motivation and learning behavior

SDT [ 7 ] provides a broad framework for understanding human motivation, proposing that the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and social relatedness must be satisfied for optimal functioning and intrinsic motivation. The need for autonomy refers to an internal perceived locus of control and a sense of agency. In an academic context, students who learn autonomously feel that they have an active choice in shaping their learning process. The need for competence refers to the feeling of being effective in one’s actions. In addition, students who perceive themselves as competent feel that they can successfully meet challenges and accomplish the tasks they are given. Finally, the need for social relatedness refers to feeling connected to and accepted by others. SDT proposes that the satisfaction of each of these three basic needs uniquely contributes to intrinsic motivation, a claim that has been proved in numerous studies and in various learning contexts. For example, Martinek and colleagues [ 10 ] found that autonomy satisfaction was positively whereas autonomy frustration was negatively related to intrinsic motivation in a sample of university students during COVID-19. The same held true for competence satisfaction and dissatisfaction. A recent study compared secondary school students who perceived themselves as highly competent in dealing with their school-related tasks during pandemic-induced distance learning to those who perceived themselves as low in competence [ 11 ]. Students with high perceived competence not only reported higher intrinsic motivation but also implemented more self-regulated learning strategies (such as goal setting, planning, time management and metacognitive strategies) and procrastinated less than students who perceived themselves as low in competence. Of the three basic psychological needs, the findings on the influence of social relatedness on intrinsic motivation have been most ambiguous. While in some studies, social relatedness enhanced intrinsic motivation (e.g., [ 12 ]), others could not establish a clear connection (e.g., [ 13 ]).

Intrinsic motivation, in turn, is regarded as particularly important for learning behavior and success (e.g., [ 6 , 14 ]). For example, students with higher intrinsic motivation tend to engage more in learning activities [ 9 , 15 ], show higher persistence [ 16 ] and procrastinate less [ 6 , 17 , 18 ]. Notably, intrinsic motivation is considered to be particularly important in distance learning, where students have to regulate their learning themselves. Distance-learning students not only have to consciously decide to engage in learning behavior but also persist despite manifold distractions and less external regulation [ 4 ].

Previous research also indicates that the satisfaction of each basic need uniquely contributes to the regulation of learning behavior [ 19 ]. Indeed, studies have shown a positive relationship between persistence and the three basic needs (autonomy [ 20 ]; competence [ 21 ]; social relatedness [ 22 ]). Furthermore, all three basic psychological needs have been found to be related to procrastination. In previous research with undergraduate students, autonomy-supportive teaching behavior was positively related to satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and competence, both of which led to less procrastination [ 23 ]. A qualitative study by Klingsieck and colleagues [ 18 ] supports the findings of previous studies on the relations of perceived competence and autonomy with procrastination, but additionally suggests a lack of social relatedness as a contributing factor to procrastination. Haghbin and colleagues [ 24 ] likewise found that people with low perceived competence avoided challenging tasks and procrastinated.

SDT has been applied in research across various contexts, including work (e.g., [ 25 ]), health (e.g., [ 26 ]), everyday life (e.g., [ 27 ]) and education (e.g., [ 15 , 28 ]). Moreover, the pivotal role of the three basic psychological needs for learning outcomes and functioning has been shown across multiple countries, including collectivistic as well as individualistic cultures (e.g., [ 29 , 30 ]), leading to the conclusion that satisfaction of the three basic needs is a fundamental and universal determinant of human motivation and consequently learning success [ 31 ].

Self-determination theory in a distance learning setting during COVID-19

As Chen and Jang [ 28 ] observed, SDT lends itself particularly well to investigating distance learning, as the three basic needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness all relate to important aspects of distance learning. For example, distance learning usually offers students greater freedom in deciding where and when they want to learn [ 32 ]. This may provide students with a sense of agency over their learning, leading to increased perceived autonomy. At the same time, it requires students to regulate their motivation and learning more independently [ 4 ]. In the unique context of distance learning during COVID-19, it should be noted that students could not choose whether and to what extent to engage in distance learning, but had to comply with external stipulations, which in turn may have had a negative effect on perceived autonomy. Furthermore, distance learning may also influence perceived competence, as this is in part developed by receiving explicit or implicit feedback from teachers and peers [ 33 ]. Implicit feedback in particular may be harder to receive in a distance learning setting, where informal discussions and social cues are largely absent. The lack of face-to-face contact may also impede social relatedness between students and their peers as well as students and their teachers. Well-established communication practices are crucial for distance learning success (see [ 34 ] for an overview). However, providing a nurturing social context requires additional effort and guidance from teachers, which in turn necessitates sufficient skills and preparation on their part [ 34 , 35 ]. Moreover, the sudden switch to distance learning due to COVID-19 did not leave teachers and students time to gradually adjust to the new learning situation [ 36 ]. As intrinsic motivation is considered particularly relevant in the context of distance education [ 28 , 37 ], applying the SDT framework to the novel situation of pandemic-induced distance learning may lead to important insights that allow for informed recommendations for teachers and educational institutions about how to proceed in the context of continued distance teaching and learning.

In summary, the COVID-19 situation is a completely new environment, and basic need satisfaction during learning under pandemic-induced conditions has not been explored before. Considering that closures of educational institutions have affected billions of students worldwide and have been strongly debated in some countries, it seems particularly relevant to gain insights into which factors consistently influence conducive or maladaptive learning behavior in these circumstances in a wide range of countries and contextual settings.

Therefore, the overall goal of this study is to investigate the well-established relationship between the three basic needs for autonomy, competence, and social relatedness with intrinsic motivation in the new and specific situation of pandemic-induced distance learning. Firstly, we examine the relationship between each of the basic needs with intrinsic motivation. We expect that perceived satisfaction of the basic needs for autonomy (H1a), competence (H1b) and social relatedness (H1c) would be positively related to intrinsic motivation. In our second research question, we furthermore extend SDT’s predictions regarding two important aspects of learning behavior–procrastination (as a consequence of low or absent intrinsic motivation) and persistence (as the implementation of the volitional part of motivation) and hypothesize that each basic need will be positively related to persistence and negatively related to procrastination, both directly (procrastination: H2a –c; persistence: H3a –c) and mediated by intrinsic motivation (procrastination: H4a –c; persistence: H5a –c). We also proposed that perceived autonomy, competence, and social relatedness would have a direct negative relation with procrastination (H6a –c) and a direct positive relation with persistence (H7a –c). Finally, we investigate SDT’s claim of universality, and assume that the aforementioned relationships will emerge across countries we therefore expect a similar pattern of results in all observed countries (H8a –c). As previous studies have indicated that gender [ 4 , 17 , 38 ] and age [ 39 , 40 ]. May influence intrinsic motivation, persistence, and procrastination, we included participants’ gender and age as control variables.

Study design

Due to the circumstances, we opted for a cross-sectional study design across multiple countries, conducted as an online survey. We decided for an online-design due to the pandemic-related restrictions on physical contact with potential survey participants as well as due to the potential to reach a larger audience. As we were interested in the current situation in schools than in long-term development, and we were particularly interested in a large-scale section of the population in multiple countries, we decided on a cross-sectional design. In addition, a multi-country design is particularly interesting in a pandemic setting: During this global health crisis, educational institutions in all countries face the same challenge (to provide distance learning in a way that allows students to succeed) but do so within different frameworks depending on the specific measures each country has implemented. This provides a unique basis for comparing the effects of need fulfillment on students’ learning behavior cross-nationally, thus testing the universality of SDT.

Sample and procedure

The study was carried out across 17 countries, with central coordination taking place in Austria. It was approved and supported by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research and conducted online. International cooperation partners were recruited from previously established research networks (e.g., European Family Support Network [COST Action 18123]; Transnational Collaboration on Bullying, Migration and Integration at School Level [COST Action 18115]; International Panel on Social), resulting in data collection in 16 countries (Albania, China, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Kosovo, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, North Macedonia, Romania, Sweden, USA) in addition to Austria. Data collection was carried out between April and August 2020. During this period, all participating countries were in some degree of pandemic-induced lockdown, which resulted in universities temporarily switching to distance learning. The online questionnaires were distributed among university students via online surveys by the research groups in each respective country. No restrictions were placed on participation other than being enrolled at a university in the sampling country. Participants were informed about the goals of the study, expected time it would take to fill out the questionnaire, voluntariness of participation and anonymity of the acquired data. All research partners ensured that all ethical and legal requirements related to data collection in their country context were met.

Only data from students who gave their written consent to participate, had reached the age of majority (18 or older) and filled out all questions regarding the study’s main variables were included in the analyses (for details on data cleaning rules and exclusion criteria, see [ 41 ]). Additional information on data collection in the various countries is provided in S1 Table in S1 File .

The overall sample of N = 15,462 students was predominantly female (71.7%, 27.4% male and 0.7% diverse) and ranged from 18 to 71 years, with the average participant age being 24.41 years ( SD = 6.93, Mdn = 22.00). Sample descriptives per country are presented in Table 1 .

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.t001

The variables analyzed here were part of a more extensive questionnaire; the complete questionnaire, as well as the analysis code and the data set, can be found at OSF [ 42 ] In order to take the unique situation into account, existing scales were adapted to the current pandemic context (e.g., adding “In the current home-learning situation …”), and supplemented with a small number of newly developed items. Subsequently, the survey was revised based on expert judgements from our research group and piloted with cognitive interview testing. The items were sent to the research partners in English and translated separately by each respective research team either using the translation-back-translation method or by at least two native-speaking experts. Subsequently, any differences were discussed, and a consolidated version was established.

To assure the reliability of the scales, we analyzed them using alpha coefficients separately for each country (see S2–S18 Tables in S1 File ). All items were answered on a rating scale from 1 (= strongly agree) to 5 (= strongly disagree) and students were instructed to answer with regard to the current situation (distance learning during the COVID-19 lockdown). Analyses were conducted with recoded items so that higher values reflected higher agreement with the statements.

Perceived autonomy was measured with two newly constructed items (“Currently, I can define my own areas of focus in my studies” and “Currently, I can perform tasks in the way that best suits me”; average α = .78, ranging from .62 to .86).

Perceived competence was measured with three items, which were constructed based on the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction Scale (W-BNS; [ 25 ]) and transferred to the learning context (“Currently, I am dealing well with the demands of my studies”, “Currently, I have no doubts about whether I am capable of doing well in my studies” and “Currently, I am managing to make progress in studying for university”; average α = .83, ranging from .74 to .91).

Perceived social relatedness was assessed with three items, based on the W-BNS [ 43 ], (“Currently, I feel connected with my fellow students”, “Currently, I feel supported by my fellow students”) and the German Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale [ 44 ]; “Currently, I feel connected with the people who are important to me (family, friends)”; average α = .73, ranging from .64 to .88).

Intrinsic motivation was measured with three items which were slightly adapted from the Scales for the Measurement of Motivational Regulation for Learning in University Students (SMR-LS; [ 45 ]; “Currently, doing work for university is really fun”, “Currently, I am really enjoying studying and doing work for university” and “Currently, I find studying for university really exciting”; average α = .91, ranging from .83 to .94).

Procrastination was measured with three items adapted from the Procrastination Questionnaire for Students (Prokrastinationsfragebogen für Studierende; PFS; [ 46 ]): “In the current home-learning situation, I postpone tasks until the last minute”, “In the current home-learning situation, I often do not manage to start a task when I set out to do so”, and “In the current home-learning situation, I only start working on a task when I really need to”; average α = .88, ranging from .74 to .91).

Persistence was measured with three items adapted from the EPOCH measure [ 47 ]: “In the current home-learning situation, I finish whatever task I begin”, “In the current home-learning situation, I keep at my tasks until I am done with them” and “In the current home-learning situation, once I make a plan to study, I stick to it”; average α = .81, ranging from .74 to .88).

Data analysis.

Data analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS version 26.0 and Mplus version 8.4. First, we tested for measurement invariance between countries prior to any substantial analyses. We conducted a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFAs) for all scales individually to test for configural, metric, and scalar invariance [ 48 , 49 ] (see S19 Table in S1 File ). We used maximum likelihood parameter estimates with robust standard errors (MLR) to deal with the non-normality of the data. CFI and RMSEA were used as indicators for absolute goodness of model fit. In line with Hu and Bentler [ 50 ], the following cutoff scores were considered to reflect excellent and adequate fit to the data, respectively: (a) CFI > 0.95 and CFI > 0.90; (b) RMSEA < .06 and RMSEA < .08. Relative model fit was assessed by comparing BICs of the nested models, with smaller BIC values indicating a better trade-off between model fit and model complexity [ 51 ]. Configural invariance indicates a factor structure that is universally applicable to all subgroups in the analysis, metric invariance implies that participants across all groups attribute the same meaning to the latent constructs measured, and scalar invariance indicates that participants across groups attribute the same meaning to the levels of the individual items [ 51 ]. Consequently, the extent to which the results can be interpreted depends on the level of measurement invariance that can be established.

For the main analyses, three latent multiple group mediation models were computed, each including one of the basic psychological needs as a predictor, intrinsic motivation as the mediator and procrastination and persistence as the outcomes. These three models served to test the hypothesis that perceived autonomy, competence and social relatedness are related to levels of procrastination and persistence, both directly and mediated through intrinsic motivation. We used bootstrapping in order to provide analyses robust to non-normal distribution variations, specifying 5,000 bootstrap iterations [ 52 ]. Results were estimated using the maximum likelihood (ML) method. Bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals are reported.

Finally, in an exploratory step, we investigated the international applicability of the direct and mediated effects. To this end, an additional set of latent mediation models was computed where the path estimates were fixed in order to create an average model across all countries. This was prompted by the consistent patterns of results across countries we observed in the multigroup analyses. Model fit indices of these average models were compared to those of the multigroup models in order to establish the similarity of path coefficients between countries.

Statistical prerequisites

Table 2 provides overall descriptive statistics and correlations for all variables (see S2–S18 Tables in S1 File for descriptive statistics for the individual countries).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.t002

Metric measurement variance, but not scalar measurement invariance could be established for a simple model including the three individual items and no inter-correlations between perceived competence, perceived social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and procrastination. For these four variables, the metric invariance model had a good absolute fit, whereas the scalar model did not, due to too high RMSEA; moreover, the relative fit was best for the metric model compared to both the configural and scalar model (see S18 Table in S1 File ). Metric, but not scalar invariance could also be established for persistence after modelling residual correlations between items 1 and 2 and items 2 and 3 of the scale. This was necessary due to the similar wording of the items (see “Measures” section for item wordings). Consequently, the same residual correlations were incorporated into all mediation models.

Finally, as the perceived autonomy scale consisted of only two items, it had to be fitted in a model with a correlating factor in order to compute measurement invariance. Both perceived competence and perceived social relatedness were correlated with perceived autonomy ( r = .59** and r = .31**, respectively; see Table 2 ). Therefore, we fit two models combining perceived autonomy with each of these factors; in both cases, metric measurement invariance was established (see S19 Table in S1 File ).

In summary, these results suggest that the meaning of all constructs we aimed to measure was understood similarly by participants across different countries. Consequently, we were able to fit the same mediation model in all countries and compare the resulting path coefficients.

Both gender and age were statistically significantly correlated with perceived competence, perceived social relatedness, intrinsic motivation, procrastination, and persistence (see S20–S22 Tables in S1 File ).

Mediation analyses

Autonomy hypothesis..

We hypothesized that higher perceived autonomy would relate to less procrastination and more persistence, both directly and indirectly (mediated through intrinsic learning motivation). Indeed, perceived autonomy was related negatively to procrastination (H6a) in most countries. Confidence intervals did not include zero in 10 out of 17 countries, all effect estimates were negative and standardized effect estimates ranged from b stand = - .02 to -.46 (see Fig 1 ). Furthermore, perceived autonomy was directly positively related to persistence in most countries. Specifically, for the direct effect of perceived autonomy on persistence (H7a), all but one country (USA, b stand = -.02; p = .621; CI [-.13, .08]) exhibited distinctly positive effect estimates ranging from b stand = .18 to .72 and confidence intervals that did not include zero.

Countries are ordered by sample size from top (highest) to bottom (lowest).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g001

In terms of indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination mediated by intrinsic motivation (H7a), confidence intervals did not include zero in 8 out of 17 countries and effect estimates were mostly negative, ranging from b stand = -.33 to .03. Indirect effects of perceived autonomy on persistence (mediated by intrinsic motivation; H5a) were distinctly positive and confidence intervals did not include zero in 12 out of 17 countries. The indirect effect estimates and confidence intervals for all remaining countries were consistently positive, with the standardized effect estimates ranging from b stand = .13 to .39, indicating a robust, positive mediated effect of autonomy on persistence. Fig 2 displays the unstandardized path coefficients and their two-sided 5% confidence intervals for the indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination via intrinsic motivation (left) and of perceived autonomy on persistence via intrinsic motivation (right).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g002

Unstandardized and standardized path coefficients, standard errors, p-values and bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence intervals for the direct and indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination and persistence for each country are provided in S23–S26 Tables in S1 File , respectively.

Competence hypothesis. Secondly, we hypothesized that higher perceived competence would relate to less procrastination and more persistence both directly and indirectly, mediated through intrinsic learning motivation. Direct effects on procrastination (H6b) were negative in most countries and confidence intervals did not include zero in 10 out of 17 countries (see Fig 3 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g003

Standardized effect estimates ranged from b stand = -.02 to -.60, with 10 out of 17 countries exhibiting at least a medium-sized effect. Correspondingly, effect estimates for the direct effects on persistence were positive everywhere except the USA and confidence intervals did not include zero in 14 out of 17 countries (see Fig 3 ). Standardized effect estimates ranged from b stand = -.05 to .64 with 14 out of 17 countries displaying an at least medium-sized positive effect.

The pattern of results for the indirect effects of perceived competence on procrastination mediated by learning motivation (H4b) is illustrated in Fig 4 : Effect estimates were negative with the exception of China and the USA. Confidence intervals did not include zero in 7 out of 17 countries. Standardized effect estimates range between b stand = .06 and -.46. Indirect effects of perceived competence on persistence were positive everywhere except for two countries and confidence intervals did not include zero in 7 out of 17 countries (see Fig 4 ). Standardized effect estimates varied between b stand = -.07 and .46 (see S23–S26 Tables in S1 File for unstandardized and standardized path coefficients).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g004

Social relatedness hypothesis.

Finally, we hypothesized that stronger perceived social relatedness would be both directly and indirectly (mediated through intrinsic learning motivation) related to less procrastination and more persistence. The pattern of results was more ambiguous here than for perceived autonomy and perceived competence. Direct effect estimates on procrastination (H6c) were negative in 12 countries; however, the confidence intervals included zero in 12 out of 17 countries (see Fig 5 ). Standardized effect estimates ranged from b stand = -.01 to b stand = .33. The direct relation between perceived social relatedness and persistence (H7c) yielded 14 negative and three positive effect estimates. Confidence intervals did not include zero in 7 out of 17 countries (see Fig 5 ), with standardized effect estimates ranging from b stand = -.01 to b stand = .31.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g005

In terms of indirect effects of perceived social relatedness being related to procrastination mediated by intrinsic motivation (H4c), the pattern of results was consistent: All effect estimates except those for the USA were clearly negative, and confidence intervals did not include zero in 15 out of 17 countries (see Fig 6 ). Standardized effect estimates ranged between b stand = .00 and b stand = -.46. Indirect paths of perceived social relatedness on persistence showed positive effect estimates and standardized effect estimates ranging from b stand = .00 to .44 and confidence intervals not including zero in 16 out of 17 countries (see Fig 6 ; see S23–S26 Tables in S1 File for unstandardized and standardized path coefficients).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g006

Meta-analytic approach

Due to the overall similarity of the results across many countries, we decided to compute, in an additional, exploratory step, the same models with path estimates fixed across countries. This resulted in three models with average path estimates across the entire sample. Standardized path coefficients for the direct and indirect effects of the basic psychological needs on procrastination and persistence are presented in S27 and S28 Tables in S1 File , respectively. We compared the model fits of these three average models to those of the multigroup mediation models: If the fit of the average model is better than that of the multigroup model, it indicates that the individual countries are similar enough to be combined into one model. The amount of explained variance per model, outcome variable and country are provided in S29 Table in S1 File for procrastination and S30 Table in S1 File for persistence.

Perceived autonomy.

Relative model fit was better for the perceived autonomy model with fixed paths (BIC = 432,707.89) compared to the multigroup model (BIC = 432,799.01). Absolute model fit was equally good in the multigroup model (RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97) and in the fixed path model (RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97). Consequently, the general model in Fig 7 describes the data from all 17 countries equally well. The average amount of explained variance, however, is slightly higher in the multigroup model, with 19.9% of the variance in procrastination and 33.7% of the variance in persistence explained, as compared to 18.3% and 27.6% in the fixed path model. The amount of variance explained increased substantially in some countries when fixing the paths: in the multigroup model, explained variance ranges from 2.2% to 44.4% for procrastination and from 0.9% to 69.9% for persistence, compared to 13.0% - 27.7% and 18.2% to 63.2% in the fixed path model. Notably, the amount of variance explained did not change much in the three countries with the largest samples, Austria, Sweden, and Finland; countries with much smaller samples and larger confidence intervals were more affected.

*** p = < .001.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g007

Overall, perceived autonomy had significant direct and indirect effects on both procrastination and persistence; higher perceived autonomy was related to less procrastination directly ( b unstand = -.27, SE = .02, p = < .001) and mediated by learning motivation ( b unstand = -.20, SE = .01, p = < .001) and to more persistence directly ( b unstand = .24, SE = .01, p = < .001) and mediated by learning motivation ( b unstand = .12, SE = .01, p = < .001). Direct effects for the autonomy model are shown in Fig 7 ; for the indirect effects see Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.t003

Effects of age and gender varied across countries (see S20 Table in S1 File ).

Perceived competence.

For the perceived competence model, relative fit decreased when fixing the path coefficient estimates (BIC = 465,830.44 to BIC = 466,020.70). The absolute fit indices were also better for the multigroup model (RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96) than for the fixed path model (RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96). Hence, multigroup modelling describes the data across all countries somewhat better than a fixed path model as depicted in Fig 8 . Correspondingly, the fixed path model explained less variance on average than did the multigroup model, with 23.2% instead of 24.3% of the variance in procrastination and 32.9% instead of 37.3% of the variance in persistence explained. Explained variance ranged from 1.0% to 51.9% for procrastination in the multigroup model, as compared to 13.9% - 34.4% in the fixed path model. The amount of variance in persistence explained ranged from 1.0% to 58.1% in the multigroup model and from 23.5% to 55.9% in the fixed path model (see S29 and S30 Tables in S1 File ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g008

Overall, higher perceived competence was related to less procrastination ( b unstand = -.44, SE = .02, p = < .001) and to higher persistence ( b unstand = .32, SE = .01, p = < .001). These effects were partly mediated by intrinsic learning motivation ( b unstand = -.11, SE = .01, p = < .001, and b unstand = .07, SE = .01, p = < .001, respectively; see Table 3 ). Effects of gender and age varied between countries, see S21 Table in S1 File .

Perceived social relatedness.

Finally, the perceived social relatedness model with fixed paths had a relatively better model fit (BIC = 479,428.46) than the multigroup model (BIC = 479,604.61). Likewise, the absolute model fit was similar in the model with path coefficients fixed across countries (RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96) and the multigroup model (RMSEA = 0.05, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.97). The multigroup model explained 17.6% of the variance in procrastination and 26.3% of the variance in persistence, as compared to 15.2% and 21.6%, respectively in the fixed path model. Explained variance for procrastination ranged between 0.5% and 48.1% in the multigroup model, and from 9.0% to 23.0% in the fixed path model. Similarly, the multigroup model explained between 1.0% and 56.5% of the variance in persistence across countries, while the fixed path model explained between 15.6% and 48.3% (see S29 and S30 Tables in S1 File ).

Hence, the fixed path model depicted in Fig 9 is well-suited for describing data across all 17 countries. Higher perceived social relatedness is related to less procrastination both directly ( b unstand = -.06, SE = .01, p = < .001) and indirectly through learning motivation ( b unstand = -.12, SE = .01, p = < .001). Likewise, it is related to higher persistence both directly ( b unstand = .07, SE = .01, p = < .001) and indirectly through learning motivation ( b unstand = .08, SE = .00, p = < .001; see Table 3 ). Effects of gender and age are shown in S22 Table in S1 File .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257346.g009

The aim of this study was to extend current research on the association between the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and social relatedness with intrinsic motivation and two important aspects of learning behavior—procrastination and persistence—in the new and unique situation of pandemic-induced distance learning. We also investigated SDT’s [ 7 ] postulate that the relation between basic psychological need satisfaction and active (persistence) as well as passive (procrastination) learning behavior is mediated by intrinsic motivation. To test the theory’s underlying claim of universality, we collected data from N = 15,462 students across 17 countries in Europe, Asia, and North America.

Confirming our hypothesis, we found that the three basic psychological needs were consistently and positively related to intrinsic motivation in all countries except for the USA (H1a - c). This consistent result is in line with self-determination theory [ 7 ] and other previous studies (e.g., 9), which have found that satisfaction of the three basic needs for autonomy, competence and social relatedness is related to higher intrinsic motivation. Notably, the association with intrinsic motivation was stronger for perceived autonomy and perceived competence than for perceived social relatedness. This also has been found in previous studies [ 4 , 9 , 28 ]. Pandemic-induced distance learning, where physical and subsequential social contact in all areas of life was severely constricted, might further exacerbate this discrepancy, as instructors may have not been able to establish adequate communication structures due to the rapid switch to distance learning [ 36 , 53 ]. As hypothesized, intrinsic motivation was in general negatively related to procrastination (H2a - c) and positively related to persistence (H3a - c), indicating that students who are intrinsically motivated are less prone to procrastination and more persistent when studying. This again underlines the importance of intrinsic motivation for adaptive learning behavior, even and particularly in a distance learning setting, where students are more prone to disengage from classes [ 34 ].

The mediating effect of intrinsic motivation on procrastination and persistence

Direct effects of the basic needs on the outcomes were consistently more ambiguous (with smaller effect estimates and larger confidence intervals, including zero in more countries) than indirect effects mediated by intrinsic motivation. This difference was particularly pronounced for perceived social relatedness, where a clear negative direct effect on procrastination (H6c) could be observed only in the three countries with the largest sample size (Austria, Sweden, Finland) and Romania, whereas the confidence interval in most countries included zero. Moreover, in Estonia there was even a clear positive effect. The unexpected effect in the Estonian sample may be attributed to the fact that this country collected data only from international exchange students. Since the lockdown in Estonia was declared only a few weeks after the start of the semester, international exchange students had only a very short period of time to establish contacts with fellow students on site. Accordingly, there was probably little integration into university structures and social contacts were maintained more on a personal level with contacts from the home country. Thus, such students’ fulfillment of this basic need might have required more time and effort, leading to higher procrastination and less persistence in learning.

A diametrically opposite pattern was observed for persistence (H7c), where some direct effects of social relatedness were unexpectedly negative or close to zero. We therefore conclude that evidence for a direct negative relationship between social relatedness and procrastination and a direct positive relationship between social relatedness and persistence is lacking. This could be due to the specificity of the COVID-19 situation and resulting lockdowns, in which maintaining social contact took students’ focus off learning. In line with SDT, however, indirect effects of perceived social relatedness on procrastination (H4c) and persistence (H5c) mediated via intrinsic motivation were much more visible and in the expected directions. We conclude that, while the direct relation between perceived social relatedness and procrastination is ambiguous, there is strong evidence that the relationship between social relatedness and the measured learning behaviors is mediated by intrinsic motivation. Our results strongly underscore SDT’s assumption that close social relations promote intrinsic motivation, which in turn has a positive effect on learning behavior (e.g., [ 6 , 14 ]). The effects for perceived competence exhibited a somewhat clearer and hypothesis-conforming pattern. All direct effects of perceived competence on procrastination (H6b) were in the expected negative direction, albeit with confidence intervals spanning zero in 7 out of 17 countries. Direct effects of perceived competence on persistence (H7b) were consistently positive with the exception of the USA, where we observed a very small and non-significant negative effect. Indirect effects of perceived competence on procrastination (H4b) and persistence (H5b) as mediated by intrinsic motivation were mostly consistent with our expectations as well. Considering this overall pattern of results, we conclude that there is strong evidence that perceived competence is negatively associated with procrastination and positively associated with persistence. Furthermore, our results also support SDT’s postulate that the relationship between perceived competence and the measured learning behaviors is mediated by intrinsic motivation.

It is notable that the estimated direct effects of perceived competence on procrastination and persistence were higher than the indirect effects in most countries we investigated. Although SDT proposes that perceived competence leads to higher intrinsic motivation, Deci and Ryan [ 8 ] also argue that it affects all types of motivation and regulation, including less autonomous forms such as introjected and identified motivation, indicating that if the need for competence is not satisfied, all types of motivation are negatively affected. This may result in a general amotivation and lack of action. In our study, we only investigated intrinsic motivation as a mediator. For future research, it might be advantageous to further differentiate between different types of externally and internally controlled behavior. Furthermore, perceived competence increases when tasks are experienced as optimally challenging [ 7 , 54 ]. However, in order for instructors to provide the optimal level of difficulty and support needed, frequent communication with students is essential. Considering that data collection for the present study took place at a time of great uncertainty, when many countries had only transitioned to distance learning a few weeks prior, it is reasonable to assume that both structural support as well as communication and feedback mechanisms had not yet matured to a degree that would favor individualized and competency-based work.

However, our findings corroborate those from earlier studies insofar as they underline the associations between perceived competence and positive learning behavior (e.g., [ 19 ]), that is, lower procrastination [ 18 ] and higher persistence (e.g., [ 21 ]), even in an exceptional situation like pandemic-induced distance learning.

Turning to perceived autonomy, although the confidence intervals for the direct effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination (H6a) did span zero in most countries with smaller sample sizes, all effect estimates indicated a negative relation with procrastination. We expected these relationships from previous studies [ 18 , 23 ]; however, the effect might have been even more pronounced in the relatively autonomous learning situation of distance learning, where students usually have increased autonomy in deciding when, where, and how to learn. While this bears the risk of procrastination, it also comes with the opportunity to consciously delay less pressing tasks in favor of other, more important or urgent tasks (also called strategic delay ) [ 5 ], resulting in lower procrastination. In future studies, it might be beneficial to differentiate between passive forms of procrastination and active strategic delay in order to obtain more detailed information on the mechanisms behind this relationship. Direct effects of autonomy on persistence (H7a) were consistently positive. Students who are free to choose their preferred time and place to study may engage more with their studies and therefore be more persistent.

Indirect effects of perceived autonomy on procrastination mediated by intrinsic motivation (H4a) were negative in all but two countries (China and the USA), which is generally consistent with our hypothesis and in line with previous research (e.g., [ 23 ]). Additionally, we found a positive indirect effect of autonomy on persistence (H5a), indicating that autonomy and intrinsic motivation play a crucial role in students’ persistence in a distance learning setting. Based on our results, we conclude that perceived autonomy is negatively related to procrastination and positively related to persistence, and that this relationship is mediated by intrinsic motivation. It is worth noting that, unlike with perceived competence, the direct and indirect effects of perceived autonomy on the outcomes procrastination and persistence were similarly strong, suggesting that perceived autonomy is important not only as a driver of intrinsic motivation but also at a more direct level. It is important to make the best possible use of the opportunity for greater autonomy that distance learning offers. However, autonomy is not to be equated with a lack of structure; instead, learners should be given the opportunity to make their own decisions within certain framework conditions.

The applicability of self-determination theory across countries

Overall, the results of our mediation analysis for the separate countries support the claim posited by SDT that basic need satisfaction is essential for intrinsic motivation and learning across different countries and settings. In an exploratory analysis, we tested a fixed path model including all countries at once, in order to test whether a simplified general model would yield a similar amount of explained variance. For perceived autonomy and social relatedness, the model fit increased, whereas for perceived competence it decreased slightly compared to the multigroup model. However, all fixed path models exhibited adequate model fit. Considering that the circumstances in which distance learning took place in different countries varied to some degree (see also Limitations), these findings are a strong indicator for the universality of SDT.

Study strengths and limitations

Although the current study has several strengths, including a large sample size and data from multiple countries, three limitations must be considered. First, it must be noted that sample sizes varied widely across the 17 countries in our study, with one country above 6,000 (Austria), two above 1,000 (Finland and Sweden) and the rest ranging between 104 and 905. Random sampling effects are more problematic in smaller samples; hence, this large variation weakens our ability to conduct cross-country comparisons. At the same time, small sample sizes weaken the interpretability of results within each country; thus, our results for Austria, Finland and Sweden are considerably more robust than for the remaining fourteen countries. Additionally, two participating countries collected specific subsamples: In China, participants were only recruited from one university, a nursing school. In Estonia, only international exchange students were invited to participate. Nevertheless, with the exception of the unexpected positive direct relationship between social relatedness and procrastination, all observed divergent effects were non-significant. Indeed, this adds to the support for SDT’s claims to universality regarding the relationship between perceived autonomy, competence, and social relatedness with intrinsic motivation: Results in the included countries were, despite their differing subsamples, in line with the overall trend of results, supporting the idea that SDT applies equally to different groups of learners.

Second, due to the large number of countries in our sample and the overall volatility of the situation, learning circumstances were not identical for all participants. Due to factors such as COVID-19 case counts and national governments’ political priorities, lockdown measures varied in their strictness across settings. Some universities were fully closed, some allowed on-site teaching for particular groups (e.g., students in the middle of a laboratory internship), and some switched to distance learning but held exams on site (see S1 Table in S1 File for further information). Therefore, learning conditions were not as comparable as in a strict experimental setting. On the other hand, this strengthens the ecological validity of our study. The fact that the pattern of results was similar across contexts with certain variation in learning conditions further supports the universal applicability of SDT.

Finally, due to the novelty of the COVID-19 situation, some of the measures were newly developed for this study. Due to the need to react swiftly and collect data on the constantly evolving situation, it was not possible to conduct a comprehensive validation study of the instruments. Nevertheless, we were able to confirm the validity of our instruments in several ways, including cognitive interview testing, CFAs, CR, and measurement invariance testing.

Conclusion and future directions

In general, our results further support previous research on the relation between basic psychological need fulfilment and intrinsic motivation, as proposed in self-determination theory. It also extends past findings by applying this well-established theory to the new and unique situation of pandemic-induced distance learning across 17 different countries. Moreover, it underlines the importance of perceived autonomy and competence for procrastination and persistence in this setting. However, various other directions for further research remain to be pursued. While our findings point to the relevance of social relatedness for intrinsic motivation in addition to perceived competence and autonomy, further research should explore the specific mechanisms necessary to promote social connectedness in distance learning. Furthermore, in our study, we investigated intrinsic motivation, as the most autonomous form of motivation. Future research might address different types of externally and internally regulated motivation in order to further differentiate our results regarding the relations between basic need satisfaction and motivation. Finally, a longitudinal study design could provide deeper insights into the trajectory of need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and learning behavior during extended periods of social distancing and could provide insights into potential forms of support implemented by teachers and coping mechanisms developed by students.

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Global Perspectives on Higher Education pp 101–115 Cite as

Doctoral Students at a Distance: Voicing Their Challenges and Needs

• Amira El-Soussi 11  
• First Online: 30 June 2023

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Part of the book series: Knowledge Studies in Higher Education ((KSHE,volume 11))

Studies on distance doctoral education investigating students’ concerns and needs are scarce in the literature. To fill this critical gap, this study aims to examine, from a critical perspective, what these students struggle with by allowing them to voice their concerns and propose some actions instrumental in enhancing their experiences, especially post-pandemic. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data from five doctoral students residing in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and pursuing their degrees at four well-established universities in the United Kingdom (UK). Findings show that most students experience much frustration, a sense of isolation, and low motivation levels due to issues related to their connectedness with their peers, supervisors, and university and the legitimacy of their degrees. Results stress the need for educators to respond to the demands of distance doctoral students by establishing web-based communities with frequent contact with faculty and peers to support them as they deal with the complexity of research obligations.

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El-Soussi, A. (2023). Doctoral Students at a Distance: Voicing Their Challenges and Needs. In: Stephen, J.S., Kormpas, G., Coombe, C. (eds) Global Perspectives on Higher Education. Knowledge Studies in Higher Education, vol 11. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31646-3_8

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Research supervision in distance learning: issues and challenges

Asian Association of Open Universities Journal

ISSN : 2414-6994

Article publication date: 28 April 2020

Issue publication date: 3 July 2020

The purpose of this study is to explore and highlight the issues and challenges teachers face while supervising thesis and projects in distance/online learning mode.

Design/methodology/approach

This is a cross-sectional qualitative study. Grounded theory approach using Gioia methodology has been applied. Semi-structured interviews of 16 research supervisors have been conducted to explore the issues and challenges faced by the supervisors in guiding research students. Purposive sampling is used to select the subjects for data collection.

Results of the study reveal that the time constraints, official restrictions, irregular contacts and technology are the main issues faced by supervisors. Whereas student–supervisor interaction, diversity, perceptions, virtual communities and academic collaboration are the biggest challenges for the supervisors in distance learning. Lastly, it is found that students' attitude and supervisors' mindset are the key success factors in distance research supervision.

Practical implications

Findings of this paper will help institutions particularly in Asia, to strategically review their research programs to make these programs more effective. Effectiveness will encompass two things, timely completion and novel research. If these two things are addressed efficiently, comparison of distance learning with conventional learning will be more favorable for distance learning.

Originality/value

This study will be helpful for the top management of distance/online learning institutes to better equip their teachers and students to complete their research endeavors accordingly. This is an empirical research based on primary data collected from the research supervisors currently supervising thesis/projects at Virtual University of Pakistan.

• Distance learning
• Higher education
• Research supervision

Zaheer, M. and Munir, S. (2020), "Research supervision in distance learning: issues and challenges", Asian Association of Open Universities Journal , Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 131-143. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-01-2020-0003

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Muhammad Zaheer and Saba Munir

Published in Asian Association of Open Universities Journal . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Pakistan is a big country in terms of population as it is world's sixth-most populous country, to this large population, provision of education is a daunting task. Large population with small number of qualified faculty members resulted in shortage of institutional capacity to cater the needs of education. One of the solutions to this problem was establishing distance learning (DL) institutions and Government of Pakistan took the initiative in this regard. Currently two distance/online universities are working in Pakistan, Allama Iqbal Open University, established in 1974 and Virtual University of Pakistan established in 2002. Moreover, many conventional universities have also started DL programs.

DL improves the access to education for all the aspiring students. DL overcomes the issues of capacity, infrastructure and faculty. It provides standardized quality content to all the students without any discrimination.

Like conventional system, DL is also not free from certain shortcomings, for example, burden of learning is shifted on the learner (though flexibility is there), there is too much diversity in the same course, more importantly student and teacher are separated by time and space leading to asynchronous mode. Though, by using modern information and communication technology (ICT), universities are trying hard to be synchronous whenever possible. These issues of learning are exacerbated when students enter their research phase like research thesis or research project. Research requires a closer contact and frequent interaction between supervisor and the student. And the flexibility of DL can become an obstacle to complete research with quality within specific time period.

In research, supervisors' responsibility increases exponentially as each student is working on a different topic and requires customized mentoring. This poses a bigger challenge to the supervisors to take a student along the bumpy road of research with ease by maintaining quality and following the timeline given by the university.

This research is focused on exploring the issues and challenges faced by the research supervisors in DL. Numerous studies have been conducted to explore the problems and issues faced by the students in DL, while issues of supervisors need more attention.

Primary data have been collected from the teachers who are supervising research theses or projects in DL. Semi-structured interviews have been used for data collection with informed consent. Grounded theory has been used as qualitative technique for exploring the issues and challenges in research supervision.

2. Literature review

Students in higher education generally struggle to complete their research endeavor in specified time ( Costa, 2018 ). This problem exacerbates when it comes to students studying in DL. Irrespective of the mode of education (DL or conventional), supervisors play a vital role in research supervision. Supervisors' motivation to supervise the students is very important ( Askew et al. , 2016 ). According to Askew et al. (2016) , four factors that affect research supervisors are workload agreements, time pressures, quality of students and recognition of the supervisors' contribution.

Supervision is a social interaction between two people who might have diverging views but same objectives. Supervision is defined as “intensive, interpersonally focused one-to-one relationship between the supervisor and the student” ( Wood and Louw, 2018 ). Supervision plays vital role during thesis or research work and the relationship between the supervisor and the student determines the successful completion of the research thesis ( Da Costa, 2016 ). Increasing the throughput of thesis students is the main focus of the universities these days due to certain time restrictions imposed by the Higher Education Commissions. On the other hand, it enhances the reputation of the institutions as well as provides the economic benefits in terms of more admissions. The completion rate and the quality of thesis can be increased by improving the processes associated with thesis in organization and among those factors supervisor–student interaction is the most important one ( Aghaee, 2015 ). In online and distance learning (ODL), the role of supervisor becomes even critical where a supervisor is required to build a culture of productive interaction with his/her supervisee ( Easton, 2003 ).

In DL mode where student–teacher interaction lacks face-to-face interaction and physical absence of the supervisors hinders the quick relationship building. ODL poses various threats to the students as they might feel alone and dejected and physical distance from the supervisor may make them skeptical about the quality of their work. In such virtual mode, the responsibility of the supervisors increases in building an interactive setup where the students should feel confident and supported by the supervisor during the whole time period of research work ( Donnelly and Fitzmaurice, 2013 ). The successful completion of research work or a thesis depends on multiple factors pertaining to supervisor and supervisee. These factors can be experience, attitude toward the completion of the thesis and the ability of the student. A study conducted by Guin (2019) on the social work programs offered in Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) where it is mandatory for supervisor and the supervisee to meet, it was found that student–teacher interaction was the biggest challenge due to distance between the study center and students' residence and socioeconomic background of the students.

A graduate class usually is a mix of diverse students in terms of age, culture, experience, ability, etc. ( Abiddin et al. , 2011 ). This diversity is even more noticeable in DL where a class may consist of a student from a metropolitan city or a far flung area, a full-time student or a job holder, a student with clear idea of his research topic or a student having no idea of his topic or the methodology he/she is going to adopt. These variations in the ability and knowledge of students make supervision more challenging for the supervisors teaching in distance education. Many studies have been conducted on the issues and challenges faced by students but lesser studies are available on the difficulties of the supervisors who are the key player of research process.

According to Lessing and Schulze (2002) , a supervisor has to establish a balance among multiple factors like supporting students, having expertise in research, providing positive criticism and bringing creativity. He needs to work on various fronts to bring quality research work by providing guidance to the students in a way that leads to innovative ideas while keeping in mind the timelines and rules established by the organization. These tasks become even more horrendous in DL mode. Student persistence is a key element in ODL, Au et al. (2018) recommend that to enhance student persistence advisors should be appointed for proper guidance of students and lesson videos should be kept short for better attention.

According to MacKeogh (2006) , distance teaching mode poses many challenges for the instructors including student's access to the resources and increased chances of deception by students in their work as being distant it sometimes become difficult for a teacher to analyze that whether the work submitted by student is really done by him, in other words authenticity of student's work cannot be ensured easily as compared to conventional mode. Lack of research skills, as Lindner et al. (2001) conceptualized that lack of on-campus interpersonal dimension can be a disadvantage for research students as face-to-face interaction helps them in acquisition of research knowledge.

Social presence and interaction is enhanced by the nonverbal gestures and cues that help students understand the point of discussion more effectively. In the absence of nonverbal communication, distance supervision becomes more challenging for the supervisors and they need to exert extra efforts to compensate it ( Lindlof and Shatzer, 1998 ). In the same way, teacher cannot guess when student is bored, confused or frustrated. This makes the participants less social and more task-oriented. Moreover it takes long for a supervisor and student in DL to develop social relation as compared to conventional, face-to-face supervision. According to Stacey and Fountain (2001) , power and status differences cannot easily be perceived in DL. Although it is considered good in building trusting social interaction, but in some cases it may distort the respect element associated with a teacher. Another issue faced by off campus students is the difficulty in accessing the appropriate resources like software, research tools or articles for literature review, that ultimately affect the quality of research work; the main focus of the instructor.

Butcher and Sieminski (2006) stated that face-to-face interaction between student and teacher is vital for the motivation, confidence building and knowledge enhancement of supervisee and distance supervision sometimes becomes passive due to lack of face-to-face interaction, causing dissatisfaction among the students that becomes the biggest challenge for the supervisors ( MacKeogh, 2006 ). But, the effective and appropriate use of ICT can help providing a supportive environment to the thesis students and supervisors. According to study conducted by Iwasaki et al. (2019) no significant difference was found between face-to-face tutoring and online tutoring using ICT. ICT can be of great assistance in providing frequent feedbacks and high level of interaction between supervisor and supervisee ( Hansen and Hansson, 2015 ). Virtual meetings with supervisee can save the traveling time of supervisors and allow them to arrange meetings in flexible timings that ultimately increases the student-teacher interaction ( Aghaee et al. , 2013 ). This interaction only depends on the preference of the supervisor, for example when and how often he/she wants to meet his/her supervisee ( Karunaratne, 2018 ). So it can be concluded that with or without technology, the supervisor is the key element in the research process and universities should focus on resolving the issue and challenges faced by the supervisor if they want to provide quality supervision to the students or want to attain maximum satisfaction and motivation for them. Unfortunately most of the studies have focused on the issues faced by the students of DL while ignoring the supervisor or teacher end. This study particularly has focused on the challenges faced by the supervisors.

3. Methodology

This is a qualitative study and inductive approach has been used. Philosophical assumption is interpretivism, and grounded theory approach is used to collect and analyze the data.

How long have you been supervising thesis/research projects?

Please explain your supervision experience in DL.

Have you also supervised students in conventional system? If yes how was the experience?

What issues have you faced while supervising students in VU (both thesis and projects)?

In your opinion what are the biggest challenges of research supervision in DL?

How things can be improved? Suggestions.

Demographic data of the informants were also collected, which have been shown in Table 1 .

All the interviews were audio recorded with the permission of informants. 16 interviews were conducted, according to Steinar (2007) in qualitative research sample size ranging from 5 to 25 is sufficient. However, in grounded theory we follow theoretical sampling, which means data are collected till data saturation is achieved ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). In this study, data saturation was there after 10 interviews, six more interviews were conducted to validate the findings of the previous interviews. After each interview, audio recording was transcribed and main themes were extracted. Gioia et al. 's (2013) methodology was applied, in this methodology main ideas (themes) are called first-order categories, from these categories, second-order themes are developed and at the end aggregate dimensions are extracted from second-order themes. For each question data were analyzed and compared with other responses to have constant comparison ( Glaser and Strauss, 1967 ). This adds to the validity of the data.

First-order categories are the initial codes generated from the responses of informants, these codes or categories resemble to what Corbin and Strauss (1990) termed as open coding, a large number of codes generally emerge in the beginning. As the data collection and analysis continues, similarities and differences among these initially developed codes are visible, similar categories are merged and this reduces the number of initially generated categories, these categories are second-order themes, similar to axial coding ( Corbin and Strauss, 1990 ). Second-order analysis is more abstract and theoretical in nature, it is analyzed if the emerging concepts explain the phenomena under observation ( Gioia et al. , 2013 ). After second-order analysis, second-order themes are further explored to merge into aggregate dimensions. The pictorial representation of this process is called data structure. Figures 1–3 represent the data structures of the responses of the informants.

4. Data analysis

Table 1 shows the information of informants. VUP is just 17 years old institution and it has relatively young faculty members as compared to other universities. Out of 16 informants, 12 belong to VUP and rest four belongs to conventional universities. It is noteworthy that authors of this study have 12 years of experience in DL.

VUP has a good number of females working in the faculty, which is quite representative of Pakistan's population mix. Average age of the VUP informants is 37 years approximately, which shows that VUP has quite young faculty members.

Figure 1 , represents the data structure of issues faced by the supervisors in DL. Five second-order themes emerged which made up an aggregate dimension “communication barriers”.

Time constraints are the most frequently cited problem of the students in DL by the research supervisors. DL is an opportunity for those students who cannot attend regular classes in conventional class room environment. So these students are either living in remote areas where they do not have the access to higher education institutions or they are working students. Working students have their own issues. Due to their time schedule in office they are unable to contact their supervisors as scheduled. This makes their research work a bumpy road to travel. As teachers/supervisors and students have the same working hours, so, there is a clash of time. As one of the supervisors reported “students have to take off from office to contact me for research discussion”. This is not always possible for the working students to take leave from the job, but some students do, according to one informant “my student always came for discussion on voice call whenever I had scheduled him”. These constraints prohibit students to contact their supervisors for mentoring; hence the result is delayed research.

Another factor is the official restrictions of the working students, some students are working in law enforcement agencies and have the official restriction on the use Internet and even cell phones, this aggravates the communication gap. Sometimes they are deployed in far areas where they have no access to networks. So, this becomes a hurdle in the communication.

Irregular contact with the supervisor is yet another issue, students in DL are not bound to appear in class as they are in conventional mode, and attendance is not an issue (that's why they are in DL). This also becomes an unnecessary hurdle, students sometimes become complacent, they become dormant and lose contact with their superior as one professor told “one of my students did not appear for 2 yrs then came and asked for extension, in conventional system you find student who is slow you ask him/her what's going on so you may say something, in DL it is not possible” this professor is basically teaching in conventional system and also supervising thesis in DL. Remaining away for some time has some influence on the supervisors as well, irregular contact results in dissatisfaction of the supervisor, one supervisor explained “when any student remains away for quite some time, even I forget what I had suggested and what was in my mind, I have to start from scratch and this is really depressing”. There are some genuine reasons for remaining dormant including marriage, pregnancy and official deployment in any mission.

Technological issues also restrict contact which has been termed here as tech-issues. These issues include non-availability of Internet, Internet speed, interrupted power supply and students' expertise to use IT devices and applications. Due to infrastructure issues, provision of Internet services is not up to the mark in certain areas which becomes a hurdle in contacting the supervisor. This leads to interrupted communication which damages the learning process. According to one supervisor “when they (students) come online there are issues of technology like Internet speed or students' understanding of technology”. Sometimes students are unable to use the application effectively which is being used for communication, as one supervisor complained “we are stuck in tech issues then on research, initial interactions are just focused on training the students on how to use this application for voice or video calls”. Sometimes there are issues of electricity supply, though university is well equipped to cater such issues but students in far areas face problems of irregular power supply.

Another aspect is the official restriction on the use of certain user applications by some countries especially in Gulf. This becomes a big barrier and restricts student–teacher interactions. Students use proxies to bypass these restrictions but these proxies sometimes work and sometimes not. Overall academic interaction is severely affected by these restrictions.

These second-order themes, time constraints, official restrictions, irregular contacts, tech and legal issues make up an aggregate dimension “Communication Barrier”. Communication barrier is a major issue in DL, though flexibility has its own benefits but in research endeavors distance can make a difference. If student–supervisor interactions are regular without any delays, this can foster this relationship and let students finish their research projects/theses well within time.

Figure 2 shows the data structure of challenges faced by the research supervisors during their supervision in DL mode. Five second-order themes have emerged from the data, which are discussed here.

Student–supervisor interaction is at the very heart of research endeavor in any mode. Higher the number of effective interactions, greater are the chances of good research output. Though, technology has overcome most of the issues and barriers of interactions, yet, according to some supervisors face-to-face interactions have to add value. According to one supervisor “thesis supervision is not just an academic activity it is more than that, it is an overall grooming activity for student in which student not only learns about research but other aspects of life as well.” This factor is quite peculiar and needs to be addressed for example according to another supervisor “lack of physical contact does not let student teacher relationship build, we cannot motivate them.”

Students in DL are quite diverse; Pakistan is a big country with cultural diversity and students from diverse background are present. Sometimes, this diversity is good and at times perplexing for the supervisor. Students from different regions require different levels of mentoring. Supervisors have to adjust accordingly. Moreover, this diversity is also found in the subjects, for example, Psychology, Management Sciences or Mathematics. One respondent explained “it is very difficult to explain the feedback on student's work in my subject as it requires different software.”

This is quite common that students in distance/online learning join virtual communities and groups. Not everything found on the Internet is authentic; students discuss their research topics and methodologies there, and are influenced by the discussions on these forums and they then try to convince their supervisors. These suggestions unnecessarily affect the research process. Students unintentionally, sometimes, reveal their novel research ideas in blogs/groups which are then adapted by others. This is very serious matter. As reported by one supervisor “my student who was at data analysis stage of his thesis, innocently shared the data file on Internet, which was quickly used by someone else, and wrote a paper, moreover the paper was also uploaded, when we checked the plagiarism, my student's original work was then plagiarized”. Such online communities pose an extra challenge to research supervision.

Students' perceptions regarding DL and supervision also bring a hard challenge for the supervisors. There are certain myths among the students that research in DL is tough. As revealed by a respondent “negativity regarding DL is quite common that it is difficult to complete thesis in DL, students are influenced by such remarks so ultimately it takes more time to complete.” Since there is lack of physical interaction, so supervisors feel they are not able to convince or motivate students at times. Students do spread positive and negative word of mouth about supervisors which also affects the minds of students and they request for supervisor change. Some students think that they cannot complete their research in DL, these are the students with low self-efficacy. Supervisors have to keep their students motivated that they can do it.

Research is a joint venture of student and supervisor, after successful completion of the project/thesis, next step should be the publication of the research paper. But this has been a rare phenomenon in DL as reported by the supervisors. There are some students who after the completion of their thesis got their papers published with their supervisors. But in general it does not happen. Generally, students do not remain in contact with the supervisor, according to one supervisor “once thesis is done students no more contact you, like I had a student whose work was good but he disappeared as soon as passed out, I urged him to present and publish his work, but he never did, which is really a drawback.” Student–supervisor academic collaboration is very important factor for research publications that needs to be addressed.

These five second-order themes, namely, student–supervisor interaction, diversity, perceptions, virtual communities and academic collaboration contribute to aggregate dimension challenges in DL.

These are not small challenges in a country like Pakistan where DL is still fighting for its recognition as the equally effective education mode like conventional mode.

Data structure shown in Figure 3 depicts the key success factors in distance supervision. Two second-order themes attitude and mindset were discovered form the interviews.

According to supervisors, in DL students' attitude is a critical factor. Students should be self-motivated and should have high self-efficacy. Students having internal locus of control are the best for DL as in DL burden of knowledge acquisition is borne by the learner in general, this mode requires a persistent motivational effort on the part of the students ( Zaheer, 2013 ). Students who are ready to put more efforts finish their research work well within time, according to a senior research supervisor “some of my students who were motivated enough completed their research in one semester and they were position holders of their sessions”. This is important that whether a student is a full-time student or working student, enthusiasm and self-discipline are very important. As explained by another supervisor “my working students came on the scheduled time on voice call for guidance, I seldom had to wait”. It is clear that students' own positive attitude is the key, when they follow the instructions and seek guidance they are able to complete their work accordingly.

Second important theme that emerged is the mindset of supervisors. If supervisors are of the view that supervising a research work from the distance is a difficult or uphill task they are less likely to motivate their students. As shared by one supervisor “in my opinion conventional and distance have not much difference, we have just made up our mind that virtual is difficult.” Positive mindset of the mentor is also critical; supervising from the distance may require different skills. Comments of another supervisor were “as instructors we should realize the limitations of students, our mindset needs to be changed.” And “if proper guideline is given to students they follow the supervisors”. It was also expressed “distance learning students are technically self-reliant on IT.” So it is very important to acknowledge that these students are self-confident and self-reliant. This quality of students is a quality that is hallmark of these students in general. According to another supervisor “online guidance is better than conventional face to face, you can give more time to students, they do not have to travel and bother too much, to meet the supervisor”.

Students' attitude and supervisors' mindset are the factors that are the key success factors in DL research. Positive student attitude and supervisor mindset are the factors that make DL a successful experience.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

The present study has focused on the issues and challenges of research supervision in DL. It was found that time constraints, irregular contact, technological issues, legal issues and official restrictions are the issues in DL that create communication barriers between students and supervisors. Whereas student–supervisor interaction, student diversity, virtual communities, students perceptions toward DL and academic collaboration are the main challenges in the DL supervision.

On the basis of supervisors' suggestions it is recommended that institutions should facilitate face-to-face interactions more frequently with the students who are involved in research. Though, technology has its advantages but it is not without issues. For example issues of bandwidth are always there in Asian countries, such distortions hinder communication. Institutions should adopt a two prong strategy to overcome these issues; they should increase the number of study centers where students can go and use technology to connect to their supervisors, since bandwidth of home users is not that good; and if possible, students who are geographically nearer to supervisors should be allocated to them so that more frequent face-to-face interaction may take place.

Institutions should invest more in gaining access to online research databases so that the access to online databases of students is also enhanced. Moreover, students should be facilitated to participate in research workshops, conferences and seminars to sharpen their research skills.

There is also a need of specific trainings for the teachers in DL, they are away from their students and at times they fail to exhibit empathy which may result in communication barriers. Special research initiatives are required to develop training modules for online/DL teachers and research supervisors. Similarly, at the start of study program, effective orientation sessions need to be arranged by the universities to acclimatize the students with DL environment and use of technology so that they learn how to work independently and effectively. Moreover, at the start of research projects/theses, students should be given effective orientations and refreshers regarding research, data analysis and related software.

Findings of this paper will help institutions particularly in Asia, to strategically review their research programs to make these programs more effective. Effectiveness will encompass two things, timely completion and novel research. If these two things are addressed efficiently, comparison of DL with conventional learning will be more favorable for DL.

Communication barriers

Challenges in distance learning

Key success factors

Information of supervisors

Note(s) : *AP: Assistant professor, *DL: Distance learning

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An Analysis of the Effect of Distance Learning on Student Self-Efficacy of Junior High School Spanish Students.

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Prior to the development of interactive television, schools that were either geographically isolated or financially restricted were often unable to provide courses that may have been essential for students. Interactive television has helped such school districts provide appropriate courses for their students. Because student self-efficacy is a significant indicator of student success, the relationship between distance learning and students' self-efficacy requires research. The problem of the study was to examine the impact of site location in a distance learning environment on student self-efficacy in Spanish instruction. The participants in this study were junior high school students enrolled in distance-learning Spanish … continued below

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Vroonland, David W. August 2004.

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• Department: Department of Teacher Education and Administration
• Grantor: University of North Texas

Prior to the development of interactive television, schools that were either geographically isolated or financially restricted were often unable to provide courses that may have been essential for students. Interactive television has helped such school districts provide appropriate courses for their students. Because student self-efficacy is a significant indicator of student success, the relationship between distance learning and students' self-efficacy requires research. The problem of the study was to examine the impact of site location in a distance learning environment on student self-efficacy in Spanish instruction. The participants in this study were junior high school students enrolled in distance-learning Spanish classes at two junior high schools in a north central Texas independent school district. All of the students were taught by the same instructor. The age range of the students was from 11 to 14 years of age, and all students were in either the seventh or the eighth grade. Students took a modified version of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire at the end of each treatment. Using the counterbalanced design, each subject was matched to themselves. T-tests for nonindependent samples were used to compare the two treatments. The findings indicate that there is no significant difference in the level of student self-efficacy by site location. The findings in this study support the use of distance learning as a medium for Spanish instruction at the junior high school level. Because of the strong statistical relationship between self-efficacy and student performance, teachers and administrators can reasonably believe that site location will not hamper their students' success.

• distance learning
• junior high school students
• self-efficacy

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• Distance education.
• Junior high school students.
• Spanish language -- Study and teaching.
• Videoconferencing.
• Thesis or Dissertation

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Vroonland, David W. An Analysis of the Effect of Distance Learning on Student Self-Efficacy of Junior High School Spanish Students. , dissertation , August 2004; Denton, Texas . ( https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4563/ : accessed March 23, 2024 ), University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu ; .

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What supervisor, student and programme practices can be seen to align with successful dissertation outcomes for online distance learners?

As a number of new online Masters programmes launch at the University of Edinburgh, and online distance learning (ODL) becomes more mainstream across the University, supporting part-time, online distance students through the latter stages of their studies becomes a matter of shared interest as well as a priority for individual programmes and supervisors.

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Showing result 1 - 5 of 96 swedish dissertations containing the words distance education .

1. Letters & Bytes : Sociotechnical Studies of Distance Education

Author : Francis Lee ; Ulf Mellström ; Boel Berner ; Adrian Mackenzie ; Linköpings universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; HUMANIORA ; HUMANITIES ; SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; NATURVETENSKAP ; NATURAL SCIENCES ; sociology of technology ; distance education ; education ; history of education ; correspondence education ; Learning Objects ; standardization ; actor-network theory ; associations ; translation ; dispositif ; tekniksociologi ; distansutbildning ; utbildning ; korrespondensundervisning ; lärobjekt ; standardisering ; aktörsnätverks teori ; översättning ; associering ; dispositif ; Technology and social change ; Teknik och social förändring ; Sociology ; Sociologi ; History of technology ; Teknikhistoria ; Education ; Pedagogik ; Informatics and systems science ; Informatik och systemvetenskap ;

Abstract : This dissertation studies the social aspects of technology in distance education trough the lens of history – in the form of correspondence education – and a possible future – in the form of a project of technical standardization, Learning Objects. The studied cases form a reflexive tool that allows the present of distance education to be seen in perspective. READ MORE

2. Learner support for distance learners : A study of six cases of ICT-based distance education institutions in China

Author : Shuting Gao ; Vinayagum Chinapah ; Shangwu Zhao ; Chang Zhu ; Stockholms universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Learner support ; student support ; support services ; peer support ; learner center ; collaborative learning ; interaction ; motivation ; critical thinking ; creative thinking ; deep learning ; higher order learning ; group learning ; small group work ; Community of Inquiry CoI ; ICT-based distance learning ; Radio and TV University ; distance education ; Web-based learning ; e-Learning ; adult education ; higher education ; International and Comparative Education ; internationell och jämförande pedagogik ;

Abstract : This thesis focuses on learner support in Chinese distance education. It draws a picture of Chinese modern distance education, covering the major issues in the field of learner support, and small group work as peer support. READ MORE

3. ICT-based Distance Education : A Study of University Students’ Views and Experiences in Early Post-Apartheid South Africa

Author : Jared O. Odero ; Petros Gougoulakis ; Ulf Fredriksson ; Stewart Kowalski ; Stockholms universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Higher and distance education ; South Africa ; ICT-based distance education ; students ; universities ; technikons ; facilitators lecturers ; learning ; internationell och jämförande pedagogik ; International and Comparative Education ;

Abstract : The overall aim of this study was to investigate how the introduction of ICT into distance education at public institutions of higher learning in South Africa during the early post-apartheid period from 1994 to 2002, provided learning opportunities for students and facilitated the delivery of learning content. More explicitly, it examined and analyzed the views and experiences of students and course facilitators at selected higher education institutions, which provided ICT-based distance education. READ MORE

4. How were high-pressure rocks exhumed in Naxos, Greece?

Author : Alexandre Peillod ; Uwe Ring ; Johannes Glodny ; Alasdair Skelton ; Joakim Mansfeld ; Jaroslaw Majka ; Stockholms universitet ; [] Keywords : NATURVETENSKAP ; NATURAL SCIENCES ; extrusion wedge Naxos petrology metamorphism ; Mineralogy ; Petrology and Geochemistry ; mineralogi ; petrologi och geokemi ;

Abstract : Combining petrological and geochronological data we were able to show that rocks in south Naxos completed a full blueschist-/greenschist-facies metamorphic loop in about 10 Myr, distinctly faster than hitherto believed. We show that the high-pressure rocks reached peak pressure (16.3±0.9 kbar - 619 ±32°C) between 40. READ MORE

5. Learning to be at a distance : structural and educational change in the digitalization of medical education

Author : Fanny Pettersson ; Anders D. Olofsson ; Tor Söderström ; Christina Ljungberg ; Andreas Lund ; Umeå universitet ; [] Keywords : SAMHÄLLSVETENSKAP ; SOCIAL SCIENCES ; Distance education ; medical education ; medical program ; regionalized medical program ; rural clinical school ; digitalization ; digital technologies ; technology-enhanced learning ; TEL ; cultural-historical activity theory ; CHAT ; transition ; transformation ; conflicts ; contradictions ; dominant- non-dominant activities ; levels of learning ; pedagogik ; Education ;

Abstract : As an expression of current challenges faced by contemporary societies, past decades have witnessed heavy demands for higher education to change and transform. One key question here has been the increased digitalization of higher education. READ MORE

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Making study more human: how online education is creating powerful spaces for learning

Tertiary education can challenge our mental health and wellbeing, but online university study programs are transforming the way students are supported

Everyone learns differently. But whether we’re a bookish student or more hands-on and interactive, one thing is always true: we do better with support.

A core theme of the research conducted at Monash University’s Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health is what it calls “developing well”. Recognising the complexity of learning experiences, the institute applies advanced genetics, developmental neuroscience and psychological methods to better understand our brains.

Then, it applies this knowledge to develop tech innovations that promote education, resilience and mental wellbeing for every child.

The institute’s work is also being used to help university students. For Dr Lilani Arulkadacham, the acting director of online education with the School of Psychological Sciences at Monash University, the approach forms the basis of her school’s inclusive, supportive and diverse environment. As an expert in online learning, she knows the potential such an approach has to encourage students from every background to thrive.

We all learn in complex, dynamic ways

Human learning is complex. “It’s a dynamic process involving interactions between perception, attention, memory, reinforcement and adaptation,” Arulkadacham says.

“Essentially, humans learn by taking in information from their surroundings and we remember it by repeating it or thinking about it. When we need to, we can remember what we’ve learned in the past and use it in different contexts and situations. So, learning is a cycle where we keep building on what we know to get better at things.”

In a university setting, she says, students are able to learn in different ways, through reading, group and solo projects, and feedback from teachers. But an online learning environment goes even further, offering the potential for teaching staff to respond to individual needs and break down access barriers by creating flexible spaces for students juggling time and geographical constraints, and other commitments.

The right support has the power to transform learning

Tertiary students are in the midst of a serious mental health challenge. As a cohort, they experience greater levels of mental distress than the general population and their peers who are not in tertiary education. Arulkadacham says a supportive environment that prioritises health and wellbeing has a positive impact on everything from a student’s academic confidence to the bonds they form.

“We know that students who experience high levels of university support experience lower levels of psychological distress,” she says. “[Support] can transform a student’s learning experience by reducing stress, anxiety. Students can focus better on their studies and engage more actively in class discussions.”

At Monash, Arulkadacham says, support includes easy access to resources such as counselling services and wellness programs, which can provide tools to manage stress and stop students feeling overwhelmed. “As a result, [students are] more resilient, they’re more productive, they’re motivated, which leads to improved academic performance and overall satisfaction with their learning journey.”

Online study is flexible enough to support every student

Monash University offers fully online study programs across a range of disciplines, including business, computer science, health and psychology.

Arulkadacham says that as a result, online learning environments can open new doors for those who might not previously have had access to higher education. “Students can really learn at their own pace from anywhere,” she says. “It presents an alternative to face-to-face learning by offering flexibility and accessibility, so it allows students to access course materials at their convenience, enabling students to balance their education with other commitments – work, family responsibilities.”

Having that level of flexibility has other benefits. “It cultivates self-discipline, and autonomy, preparing students for success both academically and professionally,” she says. “The autonomy and continuous access to resources can really empower students to take ownership of their education and pursue their learning goals.”

Online courses can improve access to tertiary education for students from diverse backgrounds and locations.

“That inclusivity promotes diversity in our programs. It allows individuals who may not have access to traditional educational institutions to pursue their studies – and their dreams.”

Despite the distance, online students can be equally supported

“There may be perceptions that online study can be a lonely experience,” Arulkadacham says. “We really challenge that.”

But it’s not without its difficulties, and she stresses the importance of recognising that online study is different to being on campus. “On campus, you do have access to physical mental health support. You can easily turn to a peer in class if there’s something on your mind. For our online tertiary students, there may be the added stress of juggling other roles.”

To overcome these challenges, Monash has created a supportive environment specifically for online education, rather than trying to simply mimic the on-campus experience. “In an online setting, course administrators need to be mindful of ensuring that students can easily access mental health resources,” Arulkadacham says.

Arulkadacham’s own research has shown – “time and again” – that one of the greatest predictors of student success is the opportunity to practise self-care. “So, with the help of our students and some of our practising therapists, is an online self-care toolbox for our students. Something that students can turn to whenever they feel like they need some mental help or assistance.”

Within the toolbox are various strategies, including mindfulness and breathing techniques, all guided by mental health professionals and designed for students studying online.

“Then, they can take it out into the real world. It’s helping them with that lifelong learning journey that we want to instill in them.”

Lifelong learning starts with Monash University; find your next challenge with an industry-leading online study program.

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The Impact of Remote Learning on College Student Engagement and Academic Performance

In recent years, remote learning has emerged as a pivotal aspect of higher education, fundamentally altering the landscape of student engagement and academic performance. As institutions and students alike navigate this digital terrain, the importance of comprehensive support systems has never been more evident. Students, in particular, are finding it essential to seek out additional resources to bolster their learning experiences. Among these resources, many find dissertation writing service from this list of academic aids crucial for their scholarly projects, signifying a shift in how educational outcomes are supported and achieved in a virtual setting.

Understanding Remote Learning’s Reach

Remote learning, primarily fueled by advances in technology and the pressing need for educational continuity during global challenges, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, has transcended geographical barriers. It offers a flexibility unseen in traditional campus settings, but not without its hurdles. The shift from physical classrooms to digital platforms has prompted a reevaluation of teaching methods, student engagement strategies, and the measurement of academic success.

Engagement in the Digital Classroom

Student engagement in remote learning environments is multifaceted, encompassing both the participation in coursework and the interaction with instructors and peers. The lack of physical presence in classrooms poses unique challenges to fostering a sense of community and connection among students. However, innovative digital tools and platforms have emerged, enabling real-time collaboration, discussions, and feedback, thereby simulating a classroom vibe. The effectiveness of these tools, however, is largely dependent on the digital literacy of both students and educators, as well as the quality of the digital infrastructure available to them.

Academic Performance: A New Yardstick

Evaluating academic performance in a remote learning context requires a nuanced approach. Traditional metrics of success, such as exam scores and grade point averages, remain relevant but are now complemented by new indicators of learning engagement and digital competencies. The ability to navigate online research tools, participate in virtual group projects, and effectively manage time in an unstructured environment are becoming key components of academic excellence. In this ecosystem, services like a “ cover letter writing service ” become invaluable, aiding students in presenting their newfound skills and competencies effectively in the job market.

The Double-Edged Sword of Flexibility

The flexibility of remote learning is both its greatest strength and its most significant challenge. On one hand, it allows students to tailor their educational experiences to fit their personal and professional lives, potentially enhancing learning outcomes. On the other, this same flexibility can lead to procrastination and a lack of structure, negatively impacting student engagement and performance. Successful remote learners often develop strong self-discipline and time-management skills, traits that are beneficial both academically and professionally.

Support Systems and Resources

The transition to remote learning has underscored the importance of accessible support systems for students. Academic resources, such as dissertation writing services, tutoring, and advising, have become vital components of the remote learning ecosystem. Additionally, mental health support and community-building activities facilitated through digital platforms play a crucial role in maintaining student engagement and well-being.

The impact of remote learning on college student engagement and academic performance is complex and multifaceted. While it presents challenges in maintaining engagement and measuring performance, it also offers opportunities for innovation in educational delivery and support. As the landscape of higher education continues to evolve, the focus must remain on enhancing digital literacy, expanding support systems, and fostering a sense of community among remote learners. Only then can the full potential of remote learning be realized, ensuring that students not only adapt but thrive in this new academic environment.

Author Profile

Nicole Hardy is renowned for her insightful and meticulous journalism in education and the arts, particularly noted for her coverage of performing arts education. With a career spanning over a decade, Hardy has established herself as a respected authority in the field. Her work is characterized by deep analysis and an engaging narrative style. She holds a Master’s in Journalism from the University of Arts, specializing in arts and culture reporting.

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