what should be in the header of an essay

Text begins as a new paragraph.

Text begins as a new paragraph.

Text begins as a new paragraph.

Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

Whose last name should you use in your MLA header if you’re writing a group paper?

The MLA Style Guide has no specific guidelines for group projects. You should always include the names of all members of the group project in the first line of your heading, but you don’t necessarily need to do this for the header on every page.

If there are only two or three authors collaborating on your paper, you can include all of your last names in the MLA header, e.g., “Granger, Potter, and Weasley 2.”

If you’re part of a bigger group and it would take up too much space to include all of your last names, you can write the name that comes first in the alphabet and then add “ et al. ”, e.g., “Granger et al. 2.” (The term “et al.” is short for the Latin term “et alia”, which means “and others.” You’ll often see it used in academic papers with multiple authors.)

Should you include your class period in your MLA heading or just the class name?

There’s no MLA rule about this, but when in doubt, it’s always better to err on the side of including too much information in your heading rather than not enough.

If your instructor teaches more than one version of the same course, they’ll probably find it helpful if you specify the class period you’re in. You can either include your class period after the class name, e.g., “History of Magic—2nd period”, or before the class name, e.g., “2nd Period History of Magic.”

What should you write in your MLA heading if you don’t have an instructor?

If you have no instructor, you can explain the situation in the line where you would normally put the instructor’s name, e.g., “Independent Study” or “No Instructor.”

What should you write in your MLA heading if you have multiple instructors?

If you have multiple instructors, you can include both of their names in the line where you would put the instructor’s name. If you’re in a college course where you have a professor and a TA, you should choose whose name to include in the header depending on who will ultimately be reading your paper.

Should you include the date you started writing the paper or the date the paper is due?

The MLA Style Guide has no specific guidelines about which date you need to put in the heading. In general, however, the best practice is to put the date the assignment is due.

This is because all the papers for the same assignment will have the same due date, even if different students begin writing their assignments on different days, so it’s easier for your instructor to use the due date to determine what assignment the paper is for.

Should you format the date as Day Month Year or Month Day Year?

In MLA format, you should write the date in the order of Day Month Year. Instead of writing May 31 2021, for example, you would write 31 May 2021.

What font should you use for your MLA heading and header?

Both the heading and the header should be in the same font as the rest of your paper. If you haven’t chosen a font for your paper yet, remember that the key thing to aim for is readability. If you choose a font where your teachers have to squint to read it, or one where your teachers can’t figure out the difference between what’s italicized and what isn’t, you should rethink your choice.

When in doubt, go with Times New Roman, 12 pt. It’s always a safe bet for MLA papers unless your instructor specifically tells you otherwise.

Do you need to italicize or bold the title of your MLA paper?

No. There’s no need to use any special styling on the title of an MLA paper, such as bold or italics.

How do you format section titles in your MLA paper?

If you’re writing a paper with multiple sections, you may need to include a subtitle at the top of each section.

The MLA Style Guide gives you two options for using subtitles in a paper: one-level section titles or several-level subtitles (for papers with subsections within each section).

For one-level section titles, the formatting is simple. Every subtitle should look the same as the title (centered and double-spaced, with no special formatting).

The only difference is that instead of using title case, you should capitalize only the first word of each subtitle. For example, a title would be spelled “How to Turn a Matchstick into a Needle”, while a subtitle would be spelled “How to turn a matchstick into a needle.”

For several-level subtitles, you will need to format each level in a different way to show which level each section is at. You can use boldface, italics, and underlining to differentiate between levels. For example, subtitles at the highest level should be bolded, while subtitles at the next level down should be italicized.

See the chart below for MLA’s suggested formats.

What is the difference between MLA format and APA format?

MLA and APA are two sets of guidelines for formatting papers and citing research.

MLA stands for the Modern Language Association. The MLA handbook is most often used in fields related to the humanities, such as literature, history, and philosophy.

APA stands for the American Psychological Association. The APA format is most often used in fields related to the social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and nursing.

The APA manual includes a heading format similar to the MLA heading format with a few key differences, such as using a separate cover page instead of simply including the heading at the top of the first page. Both heading formats ensure that all of your papers include all your key identifying information in a clear and consistent way.

Where can you learn more about MLA style?

If you have questions about how to format a specific assignment or paper, it’s always best to consult your instructor first. Your school may also have a writing center that can help you with formatting questions.

In addition, Purdue has fantastic resources for all kinds of formatting topics, from MLA headings to MLA citations and everything in between.

If you would like to find out more directly from the Modern Language Association, consult the MLA Style Center or the MLA Handbook (8th edition).

Now you’re ready to write an MLA paper with a fantastic heading. Make sure your essay does your heading justice by checking it over with ProWritingAid.

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Need editing and proofreading services, how to create an mla header | format guidelines & examples.

• Tags: Formatting Guidelines , MLA , MLA Style

Like many other formatting styles, the MLA style requires headers to be included on every page. An MLA header focuses on authorship, so the header format contains the author’s name(s) and page numbers.

In this article, we’ll be exploring guidelines around the MLA header format, how to create one, and sample headers. Without further ado, let’s get started!

What is an MLA header? 

The MLA header is a line of text above the contents of every page in your MLA-style paper. It contains the author’s last name and the page number. The MLA format header is a mandatory element of MLA-style academic writing and must be present on every page (except the MLA title page , if you have one).

The MLA header helps your readers easily track the page numbers of your paper. It is also known as an MLA running head. 

Note: An MLA paper header is not the same as a heading.

MLA header format guidelines 

Crafting MLA-style headers requires precision and attention to detail. In this section, we will provide detailed guidelines to format your paper.

Follow these steps to format your MLA format header:

Include the author’s last name(s) followed by the page number after a space. (Example: Hume 24)

• Write your page number in Arabic numerals, starting with “1” on the first page of the paper body.
• Do not include any punctuation marks in the header. 
• Place your header in the top-right of the page. 
• Leave a margin of 0.5 inches (1.25 centimeters) from the top and right side of the page, as shown in the infographic below. 
• Maintain the same font style and size you’re using in the rest of the paper. (This is usually 12-point Times New Roman.)

MLA format header for more than two authors 

The official MLA Handbook does not prescribe detailed guidelines for how headers are written in papers with multiple authors. We’ve compiled some commonly used guidelines that you can consider while creating your header.

MLA header for two authors

If you’re writing your paper with someone, your header must contain both your names followed by the page number. For example: 

Hume and Bachchhav 24 

Separate your names with the conjunction “and”. Avoid the use of ampersands (&). 

MLA header for three or more authors 

If you’re working on a group project or a paper with three or more authors, you can list only the surname of the first listed author of the paper, followed by “et al.” and the page number. For example, the header for a paper written by Hume, Bachchhav, and Scott will look like this: 

Hume et al. 24

Another acceptable header format for a paper with more than three authors is to list down all the authors’ last names, provided that your header doesn’t become too long. Here’s one such MLA header example: 

Hume, Bachchhav, and Scott 24 

Since there are multiple commonly acceptable variants of MLA format headers, you should consult your university’s style guide and get clarification from your instructor. You can also look for an MLA header example in papers that your peers or seniors have written. 

How to create an MLA style header 

Popular word processors like Microsoft Word and Google Docs come with built-in features that let you format MLA-style papers. This makes it quite easy to format MLA-style headers. In MS Word, you can create a header under the “Insert” menu.

• Double-click the top of the page.
• Click the “Insert” menu in the toolbar.
• Click “Page Number”, hover over “Top of Page”, and click “Plain Number 3”.
• Enter your last name along with the page number, both right-aligned

Now that you know how to format an MLA running head you can write your paper with confidence. If you’d like to keep reading about the MLA style, here are some more resources:

• How to Cite Sources in the MLA Format
• MLA Citation Examples: Essays, Websites, Movies, and More
• How to Write an Essay Header: MLA and APA Essay Headers  
• How to Write an Abstract in MLA Format: Tips & Examples
• What Is a Mind Map? Free Mind Map Templates & Examples

Frequently Asked Questions

Should the mla paper header be on every page, what font and font size should i use for the mla header, what is included in the mla header format, is an mla header and heading the same.

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Formatting MLA Headings & Subheadings Guide

Using random capitalization for your MLA style assignment can land you in hot water. To ace the format and structure and improve overall readability of your paper, read on! We’ve prepared a thorough MLA headings guideline and even included tips on how to format MLA in Google Docs and Microsoft Word! 

Table of Contents

What Are MLA Headings?

Unlike APA , Modern Language Association (MLA) papers typically do not have a title or cover page. But since identification is necessary (unless you don’t want your instructor to know it’s your paper), you will need to use an MLA heading. 

This MLA element appears on the first page of your paper, showing your name, instructor’s name, course name, and submission date. 

Note:  MLA headings and MLA headers are different. MLA headings appear on the first page of your paper, while MLA headers are on every top right corner of a page. 

What Are the 4 Parts of an MLA Heading?

MLA heading is divided into different parts. They follow the standard MLA formatting style – 12-point readable font , double-spaced and 1-inch margins. They should also be left aligned. 

The first part of an MLA heading is your full name. As mentioned above, only use a 12-point readable font like Times New Roman. There’s no need to put your surname first. Input your name like you usually would on any paper. 

Your Instructor’s Name

MLA headings wouldn’t be complete without including your instructor’s name. Press enter on your keyboard and enter your professor’s name. For example, Professor Porter. 

Tip: If your instructor’s name is too close to the first MLA heading, you did not set your paper to double space. 

Course Title

The third element of an MLA heading is the course title or name—for example, Humanities 101 or English 101. 

Submission Date

Lastly, you will need to add the submission date. You should write in order of day, month, and year—for example, 14 March 2023 or 21 December 2023. There’s no need to add a comma or other punctuation. 

MLA Heading Example

If you combine all the mentioned elements of an MLA heading, you should be able to get something like this for your essay or research paper: 

What Are the Different MLA Level Subheadings?

Unlike MLA headings, subheadings give structure based on the order of prominence, making it easier for readers to digest the information you’ve presented. There are five level headings: 

Tip: If you are unsure of MLA capitalization for the subheaders, this MLA tool can save you the confusion.

These subheadings highlight the main topic or theme of your paper. You should write them in boldface and left-aligned. Also, ensure to format them using the same font size and avoid underlining or writing in italics.

Literacy development

Level 2 subheadings are also known as subtopics. When writing, you should align them to the left and italicize them. These subheadings help in subdividing sections into smaller parts.

Factors affecting literacy development

When using level 3 subheadings, bolden and place them at the center of the page. You should use them only after a level 2 subheading if you need to subdivide content within that section. It is vital to include a brief description that summarizes the following content.

Language and vocabulary

These subheadings should be in italics and centered. You should only use them when further breaking down information within a level 3 subheading.

Vocabulary Comprehension

When using level 5 subheadings, ensure to underline them and make sure they are flush with the left margin.

Improving vocabulary

MLA Heading Format Requirements

Now that we’ve covered both MLA headings and subheadings, here are MLA format requirements you should always follow: 

Paper to Use

If your instructor requires a physical copy, use high-quality and plain white paper. You only need to use a cardstock if your professor asks for it. For the size, you should use 8-½-by-11-inch paper.

While writing a paper using MLA format, any readable font type is acceptable. Even so, the common font styles include Times New Roman and Arial.

You should use a 12-point font size when writing your paper in MLA format, which is the archetypal size many processing programs apply. Other standard sizes are 11 and 11.5-point, but you should only use them as per your instructor’s request.

The ideal spacing in MLA format is double space , which you should include in the heading, body paragraphs, and reference page.

You should use 1-inch margins throughout the paper.

Indentation

You should begin every first line of each paragraph one half-inch from the left margin. 

Tip: Instead of pressing the space bar several times, hit the “Tab” key. 

Page number

The page number should appear at the upper right corner or flush with the right margin of every page and half an inch from the top. 

MLA Headings FAQ

How do you list multiple authors in mla heading.

Create a different title page and type each author on separate lines. After this, insert the rest of the information, including the instructor’s name, the course title, and the date of submitting the paper. Type the paper title mid-page at the center of the page, and continue with your paper’s content on the next page.

Do You Need An MLA Heading On Every Page?

No, you don’t. An MLA Heading should only appear on the first page of your paper. You might confuse an MLA Heading with an MLA running head. However, the running head should appear on every page before the page number.

How Do You Create An MLA Running Header in Google Docs and Word?

To create an MLA running header in Google Docs or Word, follow these steps: 

Google Docs

• Click the Insert tab
• Click Headers & Footers. Choose header
• Click right align in the toolbar
• Click Insert again and select Page numbers. 
• From the dropdown, select the first option. 
• Enter your name and the page number. 
• From the toolbar, click the right aligned. 
• Select the header and set it to the correct MLA font size and style. 

Microsoft Word

• Click the “Insert” tab
• Click on Page Number. Then, select Top of Page>Plain number 3 (or the right-aligned option)
• Click the header and type your last name and the page number. 
• Select your surname and page number and set the correct font style and size.

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MLA Style Guide: 8th Edition: Heading and Title

• Works Cited examples
• Direct Quote
• Block Quote
• Paraphrase/Summary
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• Multiple Authors
• In-Text Exceptions
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Heading and Title

An MLA-formatted research paper does not need a title page (unless your instructor requires one, of course). Instead, include at the top of your first page a heading – consisting of your name, your instructor’s name, the course number, and the date – and the title of your paper.

The title should be centered and double-spaced. Do not italicize, bold, underline, or put your title in quotation marks (unless using a quote in the title), and do not use a period after your title.

• Last Updated: Jan 5, 2023 1:44 PM
• URL: https://research.wou.edu/mla

How to Write Essay Titles and Headers

The deadline for your latest writing assignment is mere minutes away. You’re rushing to get the final details together and suddenly realize you’ve forgotten a title. You quickly throw something random on top of the page and submit it to your teacher.

You’re not satisfied with your title, but you vow to do better next time. And you will!

You’ve learned from your mistake: essay titles are not a last-minute detail. They’re an integral part of any piece of written work and should be planned out earlier on in the writing process.

Titles lead to your reader’s first impression of your essay, and the headings help organize your thoughts and make the essay easier to read. Let’s take a look at how you can turn your titles from an afterthought into a well-thought-out writing element.

How Do You Write a Great Title?

People DO judge a book by its cover, and they will judge your essay by its title. So writing a strong title is an important part of starting your writing off on the right foot.

Your essay title has two main functions:

• Inform your reader
• Spark your reader’s interest

Additionally, keep in mind these three pointers:

Be clear and concise

Vague titles do not inform the reader. Provide a specific description of what your focus will be. Your audience wants to know precisely what they will be reading.

Bad Example: Oceans

Good Example: Disappearing Ocean Life in the Pacific Rim

Offer an exciting tidbit or interesting fact

If your title is boring, readers will not want to keep reading. Offer them something that will get attention.

Bad Example: How Consumers are Wrongly Spending Money

Good Example: The Seven Million Dollar Mistake

Everyone may be writing a college admissions essay, but don’t title yours: My College Admissions Essay . No matter what the prompt, make your title something that stands out from the stack.

Bad Example: My Research Project

Good Example: Relocating the Human Race to Mars

How Do You Create a Great Header?

Essay headers are often overlooked by writers, but they can really help your readers as they journey through your essay. While the title may get the reader hooked, the headers keep them moving smoothly through your paper. They enhance readability and help explain what is most relevant in the essay.

Each essay header should answer these two questions:

• What will I learn?
• What is the focus?

When readers approach a new section of your essay, they will have a better reading experience if they have a small preview of what’s to come.

Writing a useful header should be relatively easy. Read through your paragraphs and see what the main idea of is. From here, make a list of sub-topics that are discussed in each section. The best way to do this is to pull from the main points you listed out in your outline (which you, of course, remembered to do!).

Remember the following details about writing a header:

Be simple, but informative

You don’t want to give away all of your ideas here, but you need to give some guiding information.

Bad Example: Eating Too Many Fatty Foods Can Increase Your Cholesterol Levels

Good Example: How Your Diet Affects Your Health

Be consistent throughout your essay.

Choose a pattern and stick with it throughout the entirety of the assignment. If you start off by having a heading for each paragraph, keep it that way until the end. Also, make sure the format remains the same. If your first heading is in the form of a question, all of the rest should be as well.

Bad Example: Beaches, What is Up With Littering?, I Want to Clean Up the Planet

Good Example: Neglected Beaches, Effects of Litter, Motivated Activists

Just like when you are writing a title, there are generic headings you can lean on to get it done quick and easy. But don’t use these. Your conclusion shouldn’t have the header, "Conclusion." Come up with something unique for each part of your essay to keep your reader from feeling fatigued as they read on.

Bad Example: Conclusion

Good Example: Will the Pandas Survive?

Be organized and helpful

Your essay should be scannable. This means that if someone needs information fast, they can find it without having to read every word of your piece.

Although titles and headers are often neglected, they are very important to your pieces of writing. They grab your reader’s attention from the start and keep them focused throughout the rest of your essay. Taking the time to craft great titles and headers can advance your writing to the next level.

Don’t overlook the title and section headers when putting together your next writing assignment. Follow these pointers for keeping your writing organized and effective.

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Mla format papers: step-by-step tips for formatting research essays in mla style.

Jerz >  Writing > Academic     [ Argument | Title  |  Thesis  |  Blueprint  | Pro/Con | Quoting | MLA Format ]

(View a Google Doc template for an MLA Style paper .)

0.1) If you’ve been asked to submit a paper in MLA style, your instructor is asking you to format the page and present the content in a specific way. Just as football referees dress a certain way, and Japanese chefs cook a certain way, writers in certain disciplines follow a certain set of conventions. This document will show you how to format an essay in MLA style.

0.2) If, instead of questions about putting the final formatting touches on your essay, you have questions about what to write, see instead my handouts on writing a short research paper , coming up with a good thesis statement , and using quotations in the body of your paper .

• Document Settings (1 inch margins; double spaced; 12-point)
• Page Header (name and page number, upper right of every page)
• Title Block (assignment info and an informative title)
• Citations (no comma between the author and page number; commas and periods go outside of inline quotes)
• Works Cited List (lots of tricky details! sort alphabetically by author, not by the order the quotes appear in your paper)

For the most complete information, check your campus library or writing center for the  MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , 8th ed.

MLA Style Format (First Page)

How to format the Works Cited page of an MLA style paper.

1. Document Settings

Your word processor comes with default settings (margin, line height, paragraph spacing, and typeface) that will likely need adjustment. For MLA style, you need:

1.1 Adjusting Document Settings in MS-Word (Windows)

My copy of Microsoft Word for Windows defaults to

• 1-inch margins all around
• 1.15 line height
• 10pt spacing between paragraphs
• Calibri 11-point  typeface.

Changing to MLA Style (Windows)

• The default margins in my test run were fine, but if you need to change them: Page Layout -> Margins -> Normal (1-inch all around)
• The default line height is too low. Change it to 2.0. Home -> Line Spacing -> 2.0. (You could try fudging it to 1.9 or 2.1 to meet a page count, but any more than that and your instructor may notice.)
• The MS-Word default adds extra space after paragraphs.(MLA Style instead requires you to  signal paragraph breaks by indenting the first line.) CTRL-A (select all your text) Home -> Line Spacing -> Remove Space After Paragraph
• Change the typeface to Times New Roman 12-point. Home -> Font Face Selector (change to Times New Roman) Home -> Font Size Selector (change to 12)

1.2 Adjusting Document Settings in MS-Word (Mac)

My copy of  microsoft word for mac defaults to.

• 1.25 inch left and right margins, 1 inch top and bottom
• 1.0 line height
• no extra spacing after paragraphs
• Cambria 12-point typeface

Changing to MLA style (Mac)

• In my test run, the left and right margins are too big. To change them: Layout -> Margins -> Normal (1-inch all around)
• The default line height is too low. Change it to 2.0. Home -> Line Spacing  -> 2.0
• My Mac copy of MS-Word does not add extra spaces after paragraphs. If yours does: Home -> Line Spacing  -> Line Spacing Options… (a new window will pop up) Don’t add space between paragraphs of the same style (check this box) -> OK
• The 12-point Cambria will probably be fine, but to change the typeface: Home -> Font Face Selector (change to Times New Roman) Home -> Font Size Selector (change to 12)

2. Page Header

In the top right of every page, use your word processor’s “Page Header” function add an automatic page number and your surname.

2.1 Adding the Page Header in MS-Word (Windows)

• Insert -> Page Number -> Top of Page -> (choose the right-justified “Plain Number” option)
• The cursor will jump automatically to the right place for you to t ype your surname .
• Click anywhere in the body of the paper to exit the header area.

2.2 Adding the Page Header in MS-Word (Mac)

• Insert (in the top menu) -> Page Numbers…  -> (Set “Position” to “Top of Page (header)” and “Alignment” to “Right”)
• Click just to the left of the new page number, and type your surname .
• On my test document, my name was too far over to the left; grab the triangular tab adjuster just above your name, and drag it a notch to the right .

3. Title Block

In the upper left corner, type your name, your instructor’s name, the course number and section, and today’s date. Centered on the next line, type an informative title that actually informs the reader of your main point (not just “English Paper” or “A Comparison between Hamlet and Macbeth”).

• Like all the other text in an MLA style paper, the title block is double-spaced .
• The title is in the same font as the rest of the paper — it is not boldface, or enlarged.
• There is  no extra space above or below the title.
• A truly informative title will include the general topic, and your precise opinion on that topic.  (So, if you pan to compare Hamlet and Macbeth, your title should state the unique point you want to make about Hamlet and Macbeth. Reuse part of your thesis statement.)

4. Citations

This handout presumes you already know why you should cite your sources (to establish your authority, to introduce persuasive evidence, to avoid plagiarism , etc.). 

To fully cite a source requires two stages.  The first happens in the body of your paper (the “in-text citation”) and the second happens on a separate page at the end of your paper (see “Works Cited List,” below.)

4.1 Citing a Block Quote (more than three lines)

• Long quotes can start to look like filler. Only use a block quote if you have a very good reason to include the whole passage. (You can usually make your point with a shorter quote.)

• Place the parenthetical citation (the author’s name and the page number) after the period . (This is different from inline quotes, below.)
• There is no comma between the author’s name and the page number.
• If the quotation runs across more than one page: (Wordsworth-Fuller 20-21) or (Wordsworth-Fuller 420-21).
• Skip wordy introductions such as, “In his informative guide The Amazing Writing Book , published by Elizabeth Mount College in 2010, the noted composition expert Maxwell Wordsworth-Fuller describes the importance of citations in MLA style papers.” Cutting the filler leaves more room to develop your own original ideas. (See “ Integrating Quotations .”)

4.2 Citing an Inline Quotation

When the passage you want to quote is less than three lines long, use inline style.  Here we have two brief passages, taken from the same page of the same source, so we can handle both with a single parenthetical citation.

• The parenthetical citation appears outside the quoted material.
• The period that ends the sentence comes after the close parenthesis . (This is different from block quotes, above.)
• In this example, we have changed the first word a little, lowercasing it in order to fit it into our own sentence. To let the reader know what we changed, we put [] around it.
• Again, note the absence of a full sentence that explains who Wordsworth-Fuller is and where the quote comes from. All that info will be in the Works Cited list, so we leave it out of the body of the paper.

4.3 Citing a Paraphrase

Let’s imagine we want to reference Wordsworth-Fuller’s general idea about citation as a way to establish credibility, but we don’t need to include any of the technical details. We can save space, and make it much easier on our reader, if we paraphrase:

• Use paraphrasing for variety, or to make a passing reference without taking up much space.
• If we use an author’s idea, rephrased in our own words, we must still cite the idea.

Tips for avoiding common errors in MLA citations.

5. Works Cited List

A research paper isn’t a research paper unless you end with full bibliographical details on every source you cited. This part can be tedious and tricky; leave yourself plenty of time to do it.

How to format the “Works Cited” list of an MLA style paper.

• MS-Word Wind: Insert -> Page Break -> New Page.
• MS-Word Mac: Document Elements -> Break -> Page.
• Title your new page: Works Cited MLA style calls for no extra spaces above or below the page title; no special formatting.

5.1.  How to Create an Individual Works Cited Entry

Exactly what goes into each item in your bibliography depends on what kind of item it is. The general format is as follows:

Author. Title of Source. Container, contributors, version, volume and issue, publisher, date, location.

Exactly how that basic format gets turned into a Works Cited entry depends on the source.

Here’s the basic format for any book:

• Gibaldi, Joseph, and George Spelvin.
• Gibaldi, Joseph, Alan Smithee, and George Spelvin.
• GIbaldi, Joseph et al.
• The italicized phrase “ et al. ” is an abbreviation for the Latin “et alia,” meaning “and others.”
• The “ al. ” is short for a longer word, so we mark the abbreviation with a period.
• The “ et” is not an abbreviation, so it doesn’t get a period.
• Place periods after the author’s name, after the title of the book, and at the end of the entry.
• The title of the book is italicized .
• The publisher is the name of the organization responsible for publishing the book. In this example it’s the Modern Language Association. It might instead be Project Gutenberg, the US Department of Agriculture, or the World Health Organization,

Basic Format for Any Academic Article

Author. “Title of Article in Quotation Marks.” Title of Journal in Italics, volume #, issue #, YEAR, pp. [pages of article]. Italicized Name of Database.

Let’s break that example down.

The author Margaret Kantz wrote the article “Helping Students Use Textual Sources Persuasively.” That article doesn’t exist on its own floating in space; it was published by a journal called College English,  in the 52nd year of publication, in the first issue of its 52nd volume, in the year 1990, the article started on page 74 and ran through page 91. The student found this article while searching the database Academic Search Elite .

Every academic article has a specific title, and is published in a journal with a different title. (Online citation generators often get this wrong, and will often repeat the same title twice.)

What is this “volume 52, number 1”?

If  College English were a TV series, then “volume” would be which season, and “number” would be the episode number. The title of the article would be the equivalent of a scene within that episode.

The title of the database, Academic Search Elite , is like the title of the streaming service you’d need to sign into. If you were talking about your favorite TV show and you told me it was on Netflix, or Disney+, I could find it. But if you told me “It’s on my MacBook” or “It’s on my Samsung phone,” that wouldn’t help me to find it.

Basic Format for Any Web Page

In the above example, reporter Camila Domonoske filed a news story called “Students Have ‘Dismaying’ Inability To Tell Fake News From Real, Study Finds,” that aired on a news program called The Two-Way , which is published by National Public Radio, and the story aired Nov 23, 2016.

In MLS Style, the full URL is optional. Really long URLs with long strings of numbers in them are often generated for specific users, so someone else who visits that same URL will often get an error message.

You might shorten the URL to “npr.org,” because it would be a simple matter to use a search engine to find the actual story.

Other Citation Examples

What if your source doesn’t fit any of my examples?

You might be trying to cite something that doesn’t fit the above pattern, like a social media post, a video game, a work of art, an email from a relative, a billboard, or something else. It’s just not practical for me to try to include an example of every single thing it’s possible to cite.

The MLA citation format is designed to be flexible, so that it works for forms of media that haven’t been invented yet.

See Purdue OWL’s handouts for how to create a bibliography entry for a book , an article in a  periodical (such as a journal or newspaper), or an  electronic source (such as an email, web page or a YouTube clip). See also this list of  other common sources  (such as a personal interview or a movie).

5.2.  How to Organize Your Works Cited list

Sort the entries alphabetically by the author ‘s last name.

• If the author is an organization (such as a government agency or non-profit foundation), alphabetize according to the name of the organization .
• If you are citing a painting, or a composer, then obviously “author” has to be interpreted a little loosely.
• Unless your instructor ask you to organize your Works Cited list differently,  everything should be alphabetized together, in a single list. MLA does not require that you separate works of different kinds, or that you cite works in the order that they appeared in your paper, or that you write annotations to go along with each item.
• Use double-spaced line height. (in my copy of Word, I select the text and choose Format -> Paragraph ->  Line spacing -> Double -> OK.)
• Use hanging indent paragraph format. (In my copy of word, I select the text then choose Format -> Paragraph -> Indentation -> Special -> Hanging Indent.)

29 May 2011 — new document posted, replacing outdated handout written in 1999. 06 Jun 2011 — expanded section on organizing the Works Cited list, since several readers asked for clarification. 07 Jun 2011 — reorganized for emphasis 19 Apr 2012 — added numbers to more subheads 24 Mar 2014 — added details on Works Cited paragraph formatting. 02 Oct 2016 — updated with MLA 8th Edition details. 30 Nov 2016 — added annotated Works Cited sample image. 07 Sep 2020 — updated section 5.1

571 thoughts on “ MLA Format Papers: Step-by-step Tips for Formatting Research Essays in MLA Style ”

This guide to formatting MLA style papers is incredibly detailed and helpful! It’s great to have step-by-step instructions for setting up everything from margins to citations correctly. Thanks for sharing—this will definitely make writing research papers in MLA format much easier!

The information was very helpful

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Thanks for sharing such an informative post with us.

fantastic information

Thanks for info!

hello i am nate sedmack i am here to kill all the furries for what they did to gavin born

I’m learning more writing a paper

it was very informational and helped me a lot

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Curious how you would Cite this webpage? haha…

awesome reminders

what about if when your using a quote and there is no name just anonomus

Honestly, I’d say find another way to make your point. An anonymous saying like “A stitch in time saves nine” won’t help you demonstrate your ability to write the kind of scholarly paper that MLA is designed for. Certainly investigate the quote to find out whether it maybe comes from Shakespeare or some other source that you can quote. I might identify the example I used as “English proverb,” but since I won’t be marking your paper, you really should check with your instructor.

This article..thing is the only reason I am passing my online college class. Especially the citation builder. Thank you!

I would Like You To Give Simple Instructions Not Complicated Ones , and Include also how much Papers Should be worked on.

Khalid, if there is any particular detail you are confused about, please let me know what question you have and perhaps I can help. There is no specific answer to how much a paper should be worked on. It depends on what grade you want to earn, how much time you have, whether your instructor is willing to meet with you before the due date, whether your instructor will give you the chance to revise your work, and many other factors.

hahahah xD me too same

How do I cite a photo that I found online?

Is it a historical photograph or a photograph published in a book that someone scanned and posted on line, is it a photograph of something like a sculpture? Is your paper focused on the work of the photographer, the makeup artist who prepared the model, the digital image enhancer who altered the image, the model? There is no single correct way to cite a photograph, because there are many different reasons to cite a photograph. Your instructor would be able to give you more specific advice. In general, though, the 8th edition of the MLA guide would say something like this:

Olsen, Jimmy. “Superman Rescues Boy Scouts from Lava Pit.” Photograph. The Daily Planet . July 22, 1956.

If you found the picture on a blog or a Flickr gallery, adjust the citation accordingly. If you found the image as the result of a Google search for something, you might very well end up finding a page that re-uses someone else’s picture without appropriately giving credit. There are many variables. Talk to your instructor, who will be the one grading your work, and will therefore be the right person to advise you on what to do.

is the text or what you wrote supposed to be centered in the page or to the left margin

Left margin.

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cool it was helpful

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I think you should include online resource citation instructions

Click on “Citing” at the top of the page. One of the options on the other end of that link is how to cite a web page.

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which writing style (MLA, APA) have more importance for students of social sciences, media sciences and business?

It depends on the instructor or editor who’s calling the shots. http://subjectguides.library.american.edu/c.php?g=175008&p=1154150

Very informative. It helped introduce my tired old mind to the MLA format. So, I can better help coach and prepare my wife for her English course. Thank you very much.

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I’m using a book title and author as my paper heading. How is that formatted?

I would tell my own students that a book title and the name of an author is not a good paper title, and I would ask them to write a title that catches the reader’s attention, identifies the topic, and identifies what position the paper is going to take on the topic. But if you are not my student, then I’m not the person who will be evaluating your paper. MLA style puts the book title in italics. Other than that, I really don’t have any advice for you.

Thank you very much for this useful information. As a freshman in highschool, my biology teacher asked for me to write an essay in mLA format about evolution. I had no clue what mLA format was,so I searched it up and it brought me here. In middle school I never wrote an essay in this format before,but I feel very confident to type my first mLA essay and I’m excited to do so! (Right after I finish my draft >.<) thank you very much! （⌒▽⌒)✌

This wasn’t helpful at all

Shavez, what were you looking for? This page is about formatting a paper you have already written. The first section includes links to pages about how to write essays.

u a real nigga dennis

really dude my collies and I would prefer that you didn’t use any profane language due to younger children that may be reading this

thank u i got an A 97 percent

this was very helpful i got an A 95 percent

hi my name is Jessie i have to writ a 2 pages Essay about MLA can someone help me

Dennis, what lends itself to science in the APA system? And what lends itself to the Humanities with the MLA? TIA.

As compared to MLA papers, APA papers tend to be shorter, and divided up into sections. Authors who use APA style tend to publish more frequently, because their knowledge goes out of date more quickly; so the date is prominent in APA citations, and page numbers are rare.

By contrast, people who use MLA style tend to write longer essays that aren’t divided up into standard sections like “procedure” and “conclusions.” Humanities scholarship generally doesn’t go out of date quickly. Instead of conducting experiments, humanists read and write a lot of longer essays and books, re-interpreting and quoting passages from them. MLA style makes the page numbers prominent, so that other scholars can easily find and re-read those same passages for themselves, and further the work of scholarship as it is conducted in the humanities.

Thanks for the reply. What do you mean by ” MLA style tend to write longer essays that aren’t divided up into standard sections like “procedure” and “conclusions.”? Are we not suppose to use conclusions in MLA format? In my English class, we use MLA with conclusions, but what do you mean by “procedure” and “conclusions”? I understand each instructor is different but is it right to use conclusions in an MLA paper…or am I getting confused?

Typically papers written in MLA style DO have a conclusion, but it would not be set off in a separate section under the subheading “Conclusion.” MLA papers tend NOT to follow a standard, particular structure. Papers written in the sciences DO have a fairly rigid set of sections, with separate subheadings. But it’s best for you to talk to your teacher about the specifics of any asisgnment.

Ok, thanks. I just wanted to ask and clarify it. Also, doesn’t the word “humanist” means something else entirely? The Humanist term today implies ‘human’ and is often used for atheists, for example… or am I wrong?

I used the term “humanist” to mean “a person who studies the culture of humans,” without intending the more specific meaning you mention. At my school, the humanities division includes theologians.

seems easy enough

We get asked often about what “format” the college application essay should be in. Although not generally… http://t.co/v1TTNxtE4e

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When using MLA format, do you list the book title, the title of the article or both?

For guidance on citing individual sources, see the link in item 4, above. This page is about formatting the paper once you’ve already written it.

I wrote a paper and it looks just like your example. I followed everything to the “t” and my professor says that my header is indented and my paragraphs are double indented and the page numbers are in wrong format. What can I do?

Winston, I suggest you talk to your professor. I have been teaching from thiis handout for years, and when a student makes a formatting error on a rough draft, I just ask them to fix it for the revision. But your instructor is the one who designed the assignment and who evaluates your submissions, so he or she is the person to approach with questions.

I agree. .let me ask you this. Are your headers indented?

The screenshot was taken from a page that I created following the instructions for using MS-Word with a MacBook Pro. I followed the instructions that are on the page. But surely your instructor gave you guidelines, in a handout or an assigned textbook, which is why I encourage you to have this conversation with your instructor. Whether your instructor does or does not agree with the information on this page really doesn’t matter, since your instructor created the assignment and evaluates it according to his or her own criteria. I suggest you let your your teacher know you are confused about what you did wrong, and ask for an opportunity to make minor formatting changes to a paper that, we hope, met all the major criteria.

How do you add footnotes to an MLA style paper?

Most word processors will have an Insert -> Footnote or Insert -> Note (footnote or endnote) option. Most short college papers don’t need footnotes. (They aren’t for documenting sources — use an in-text citation and a Works Cited list instead.) I suggest you talk to your instructor about whether you really do need to use a footnote.

RT @DennisJerz: MLA Format Papers: Step-by-step Instructions for Writing Research Essays #mlastyle http://t.co/B6pGb3Pkeh

Thank you so much!! I love the Bib builder!!

I’m glad to hear you found it helpful!

Dear Dr. Jerz,

I am writing to request permission to link your webpage, “MLA Format Papers: Step-by-step Instructions for Writing Research Essays” to our website.

Marie Walcroft Librarian Lansdale School of Business

I am glad you found this page helpful. Yes, you are welcome to include a link and a brief extract.

Can you put what information is supposed to be in each paragraph???

Emma, I’m afraid I don’t understand the question. I feel like you’ve asked me what emotions are supposed to be in each verse of a song, or what colors are supposed to be in a painting. The many different kinds of songs or paintings are all created for different reasons; likewise, paragraphs are assigned, written, and read for a whole range of different reasons, so there’s no answer that covers all possible cases.

that was beautiful

I really find this useful (especially fudging the line spacing to 2.1). Good job!

Im in middle school and I have to do this. I have never heard of MLA Format and this helped ALOT. Thanks so much! Hopefully I get a good grade on this paper!

“@pretti_slimm: @Thyler_Jonzy http://t.co/QIf00vlgws try this site looks helpful”I just found a sample paper on Google

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Is the Table of Contents double spaced – MLA?

i think you should add an explanation about page header. that was what i was looking for

See item 2 from the table of contents: http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/academic1/mla-style-papers/#page-header

when you say page numbers (Wordworth-Fuller 20), are you referring to the page number within the MLA document or the page number the text appears on within the authors works?

In this case, your paper would be referring to something you found on page 20 of the text by Wordsworth-Fuller.

With your delicate information about to write MLA format essay in right way will lead me to successful college year.

Thank you for useful information about how to write MLA format essay. Before my college year I didn’t know there were many different forms of essay. When my professor asked me to write MLA format I had no idea how to write it, but with your delicate information I think I will survive my college year. Thank you again.

I’m glad to know you found this page helpful. Most instructors will be happy to help if you stop by during their office hours, and if your prof is too busy for that most universities will have a writing center where you can get help at any stage of any assignment involving writing.

Thank you for valuable information. Before my college year in America I didn’t know what MLA Format was, but with this delicate information I will survive my college year.

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That means the quote is from page 20 of the book or article written by Wordsworth-Fuller.

Very good information, I really needed this incite on research paper formats. It has such thorough details and that make it so much easier to understand.

How do you in text cite a website? I didnt really see much about that.

I think you should add an explanation about page numbers. That was what I was looking for, but I couldn’t find the significant area.

Section 2 explains how to put page numbers in the header, and section 4 discusses page numbers in citations.

read it… it’s there.

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English Composition 1

Inserting headers into essays.

According to the MLA (the Modern Language Association), each page of an essay, including the first page, should include the writer's last name and the page number inserted as a header in the upper right corner of the page, as illustrated below:

The header should not be typed where the text of your papers should be. It should be inserted as a header in your word processor so that your last name and the page number appear slightly above the first line of text on each page.

This page explains how to insert a header using Microsoft Word 2010. The procedure for inserting a header will vary depending on what type of word processor you are using, but a similar approach to what is explained below should work in other word processors.

How to Insert a Header in Microsoft Word

Begin by opening in your word processor the document in which you want to add the header.

• Make the "Insert" ribbon active at the top of the screen.
• Click the "Page Number" icon.
• Click "Top of Page."
• Click "Plain Number 3."

• Type your last name and a space just before the page number that will be added to the upper right of your document.
• If the header is not in the correct fonts, highlight your name and the page number, make the "Home" ribbon active, and choose the correct fonts.

Double left mouse click anywhere outside of the header area to return to the text area of your document.

If you need to make changes to the header after you have added it, just double left mouse click in the header area of the document.

If you do not see the header added to your document, the problem most likely is the "View" you are using. To see the document with the header, just make the "View" ribbon active and click "Print Layout."

Copyright Randy Rambo , 2019.

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

MLA Formatting and Style Guide

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The following overview should help you better understand how to cite sources using MLA  9 th edition, including how to format the Works Cited page and in-text citations.

Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in MLA. See also our MLA vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .

Creating a Works Cited list using the ninth edition

MLA is a style of documentation that may be applied to many different types of writing. Since texts have become increasingly digital, and the same document may often be found in several different sources, following a set of rigid rules no longer suffices.

Thus, the current system is based on a few guiding principles, rather than an extensive list of specific rules. While the handbook still describes how to cite sources, it is organized according to the process of documentation, rather than by the sources themselves. This gives writers a flexible method that is near-universally applicable.

Once you are familiar with the method, you can use it to document any type of source, for any type of paper, in any field.

Here is an overview of the process:

When deciding how to cite your source, start by consulting the list of core elements. These are the general pieces of information that MLA suggests including in each Works Cited entry. In your citation, the elements should be listed in the following order:

• Title of source.
• Title of container,
• Other contributors,
• Publication date,

Each element should be followed by the corresponding punctuation mark shown above. Earlier editions of the handbook included the place of publication and required different punctuation (such as journal editions in parentheses and colons after issue numbers) depending on the type of source. In the current version, punctuation is simpler (only commas and periods separate the elements), and information about the source is kept to the basics.

Begin the entry with the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the rest of the name, as presented in the work. End this element with a period.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Title of source

The title of the source should follow the author’s name. Depending upon the type of source, it should be listed in italics or quotation marks.

A book should be in italics:

Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House . MacMurray, 1999.

An individual webpage should be in quotation marks. The name of the parent website, which MLA treats as a "container," should follow in italics:

Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html.*

A periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper) article should be in quotation marks:

Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature , vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50.

A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks. The name of the album should then follow in italics:

Beyoncé. "Pray You Catch Me." Lemonade, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016, www.beyonce.com/album/lemonade-visual-album/.

*The MLA handbook recommends including URLs when citing online sources. For more information, see the “Optional Elements” section below.

Title of container

The eighth edition of the MLA handbook introduced what are referred to as "containers," which are the larger wholes in which the source is located. For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in a collection of poems, the individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of the container is usually italicized and followed by a comma, since the information that follows next describes the container.

Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.

The container may also be a television series, which is made up of episodes.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, performance by Amy Poehler, season 2, episode 21, Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2010.

The container may also be a website, which contains articles, postings, and other works.

Wise, DeWanda. “Why TV Shows Make Me Feel Less Alone.”  NAMI,  31 May 2019,  www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/May-2019/How-TV-Shows-Make-Me-Feel-Less-Alone . Accessed 3 June 2019.

In some cases, a container might be within a larger container. You might have read a book of short stories on Google Books , or watched a television series on Netflix . You might have found the electronic version of a journal on JSTOR. It is important to cite these containers within containers so that your readers can find the exact source that you used.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation , season 2, episode 21, NBC , 29 Apr. 2010. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/70152031?trackId=200256157&tctx=0%2C20%2C0974d361-27cd-44de-9c2a-2d9d868b9f64-12120962.

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal , vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest, doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.

Other contributors

In addition to the author, there may be other contributors to the source who should be credited, such as editors, illustrators, translators, etc. If their contributions are relevant to your research, or necessary to identify the source, include their names in your documentation.

Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Translated by Richard Howard , Vintage-Random House, 1988.

Woolf, Virginia. Jacob’s Room . Annotated and with an introduction by Vara Neverow, Harcourt, Inc., 2008.

If a source is listed as an edition or version of a work, include it in your citation.

The Bible . Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.

Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.

If a source is part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume book or journal with both volume and issue numbers, those numbers must be listed in your citation.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362. Accessed 20 May 2009.

Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.

The publisher produces or distributes the source to the public. If there is more than one publisher, and they are all are relevant to your research, list them in your citation, separated by a forward slash (/).

Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive, www.artchive.com/artchive/K/klee/twittering_machine.jpg.html. Accessed May 2006.

Women's Health: Problems of the Digestive System . American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2006.

Daniels, Greg and Michael Schur, creators. Parks and Recreation . Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2015.

Note : The publisher’s name need not be included in the following sources: periodicals, works published by their author or editor, websites whose titles are the same name as their publisher, websites that make works available but do not actually publish them (such as  YouTube ,  WordPress , or  JSTOR ).

Publication date

The same source may have been published on more than one date, such as an online version of an original source. For example, a television series might have aired on a broadcast network on one date, but released on  Netflix  on a different date. When the source has more than one date, it is sufficient to use the date that is most relevant to your writing. If you’re unsure about which date to use, go with the date of the source’s original publication.

In the following example, Mutant Enemy is the primary production company, and “Hush” was released in 1999. Below is a general citation for this television episode:

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer , created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, Mutant Enemy, 1999 .

However, if you are discussing, for example, the historical context in which the episode originally aired, you should cite the full date. Because you are specifying the date of airing, you would then use WB Television Network (rather than Mutant Enemy), because it was the network (rather than the production company) that aired the episode on the date you’re citing.

“Hush.” Buffy the Vampire Slayer, created by Joss Whedon, performance by Sarah Michelle Gellar, season 4, episode 10, WB Television Network, 14 Dec. 1999 .

You should be as specific as possible in identifying a work’s location.

An essay in a book or an article in a journal should include page numbers.

Adiche, Chimamanda Ngozi. “On Monday of Last Week.” The Thing around Your Neck, Alfred A. Knopf, 2009, pp. 74-94 .

The location of an online work should include a URL.  Remove any "http://" or "https://" tag from the beginning of the URL.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention." Emerging Infectious Diseases , vol. 6, no. 6, 2000, pp. 595-600, wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/6/6/00-0607_article. Accessed 8 Feb. 2009.

When citing a physical object that you experienced firsthand, identify the place of location.

Matisse, Henri. The Swimming Pool. 1952, Museum of Modern Art, New York .

Optional elements

The ninth edition is designed to be as streamlined as possible. The author should include any information that helps readers easily identify the source, without including unnecessary information that may be distracting. The following is a list of optional elements that can be included in a documented source at the writer’s discretion.

Date of original publication:

If a source has been published on more than one date, the writer may want to include both dates if it will provide the reader with necessary or helpful information.

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. Perennial-Harper, 1993.

City of publication:

The seventh edition handbook required the city in which a publisher is located, but the eighth edition states that this is only necessary in particular instances, such as in a work published before 1900. Since pre-1900 works were usually associated with the city in which they were published, your documentation may substitute the city name for the publisher’s name.

Thoreau, Henry David. Excursions . Boston, 1863.

Date of access:

When you cite an online source, the MLA Handbook recommends including a date of access on which you accessed the material, since an online work may change or move at any time.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 16 Aug. 2002, alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.

As mentioned above, while the MLA handbook recommends including URLs when you cite online sources, you should always check with your instructor or editor and include URLs at their discretion.

A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source is locatable, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.

Alonso, Alvaro, and Julio A. Camargo. "Toxicity of Nitrite to Three Species of Freshwater Invertebrates." Environmental Toxicology , vol. 21, no. 1, 3 Feb. 2006, pp. 90-94. Wiley Online Library, doi: 10.1002/tox.20155.

Creating in-text citations using the previous (eighth) edition

Although the MLA handbook is currently in its ninth edition, some information about citing in the text using the older (eighth) edition is being retained. The in-text citation is a brief reference within your text that indicates the source you consulted. It should properly attribute any ideas, paraphrases, or direct quotations to your source, and should direct readers to the entry in the Works Cited list. For the most part, an in-text citation is the  author’s name and the page number (or just the page number, if the author is named in the sentence) in parentheses :

When creating in-text citations for media that has a runtime, such as a movie or podcast, include the range of hours, minutes and seconds you plan to reference. For example: (00:02:15-00:02:35).

Again, your goal is to attribute your source and provide a reference without interrupting your text. Your readers should be able to follow the flow of your argument without becoming distracted by extra information.

How to Cite the Purdue OWL in MLA

Entire Website

The Purdue OWL . Purdue U Writing Lab, 2019.

Individual Resources

Contributors' names. "Title of Resource." The Purdue OWL , Purdue U Writing Lab, Last edited date.

The new OWL no longer lists most pages' authors or publication dates. Thus, in most cases, citations will begin with the title of the resource, rather than the developer's name.

"MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The Purdue OWL, Purdue U Writing Lab. Accessed 18 Jun. 2018.

MLA Style Guide: Formatting Your Paper

• Get Started Here
• When, Why, & How to Cite
• Formatting Your Paper
• Citations & Bibliography
• OWL Purdue - MLA Sample Paper

How do I Format My Paper?

     Let's say your professor wants you to format in MLA style, and you have no idea how to do it. Where do you start? And why do you need to use a format anyway?

     There are a few reasons why professors ask you to use a specific format. One reason is to provide consistency between papers while grading. Can you imagine what it would be like to grade 150 papers, and every single one is formatted differently? It would take them quite a bit of time to grade your paper! On top of that, they may be looking for specific things like citations, page numbers, certain paragraphs or names, etc., and using a consistent format helps them find what they looking for quickly and easily, resulting in a faster grade for you!  

     Another reason to learn a format is to prepare you for upper-division classes in your major. It's worth noting that every discipline has its formatting style preference, and learning a citation style like MLA, APA, or Chicago will give you an understanding of how basic style rules work.

Let's get started on the basic rules:

Your paper should be written using a standard (8.5x11 inch) sheet of paper with a common font such as Times New Roman. Some professors may request a different font, but Times New Roman is the most commonly accepted.

The entire document should be double-spaced, including the header and bibliography. You can easily double-space a paper by highlighting the entire document, then pressing the Ctrl button on your keyboard and pressing the 2 (Ctrl + 2).

Margins on the page's sides, top, and bottom are 1 inch. The only exception is with the page number and your name on the right-hand side of the header, which is 1/2 inch from the top of the page.

Pages should be numbered, along with your last name, in the top-right header of the paper.

• Your Name, Professor's Name, Class Name, and Date should be double-spaced on the first page of your paper in the upper left-hand corner, with a 1-inch margin from the top and left sides.
• The title of your paper should be centered, with no boldface, underlining, or italics, unless you include a title within your title.
• Indentations should be 1/2 inch in from the 1-inch font.

Now that you've read this far and have an idea of what you need to do, there is a big shortcut you can use. Word has a few templates for various paper formats, including MLA, APA, and others. To locate these templates, select 'new' under file and type  MLA in the search box . Then select the template you wish to use. Download the Word document to your computer, open the template, and begin typing. 

MLA Style Resources

• MLA Formatting and Style Guide From OWL Purdue University Writing Lab One of the most popular websites regarding citations, bibliographies and plagiarism. Use the search bar on the site to find answers to any obscure question about MLA.

• MLA Style Center Direct from the Modern Language Association (MLA), this site offers help on how to do everything MLA. Offers tutorials, tips, and templates.

Other Useful Places

• Plagiarism by Vivian Harris Last Updated Jul 16, 2024 246 views this year
• English 1A and 1B by Susan Seifried Last Updated Jun 5, 2024 151 views this year
• Norco MLA 9th Style guide
• << Previous: When, Why, & How to Cite
• Next: Citations & Bibliography >>
• Last Updated: Jul 16, 2024 4:33 PM
• URL: https://norcocollege.libguides.com/MLAguide

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NIDA should beware of funding companies that violate people’s privacy

By Jonathan JK Stoltman and Mishka Terplan July 22, 2024

I n a ground-breaking settlement with the Federal Trade Commission, two online addiction and mental health treatment companies, Monument and Cerebral , admitted to deceptively and widely sharing sensitive personal and health information with third-party advertising platforms including Meta (Facebook) and Google. They aren’t alone.

Our research at the Opioid Policy Institute has found more than a dozen other online addiction treatment companies engaging in similar deceptive behavior that contradicts their claims of private, secure, or confidential services. Perhaps the most shocking aspect of these business practices is the role of federal funding for these services.

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The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is the premier drug addiction research branch of the National Institutes of Health. For decades, NIDA’s work to reduce opioid overdose deaths has been stymied by long-standing gaps in treatment, with fewer than 25% of people receiving evidence-based medications for opioid addiction. One way NIDA has been working to address addiction treatment gaps is through encouraging grant proposals for digital health.

Digital health approaches to addiction treatment and recovery are thought to increase connections between people seeking treatment or in long-term recovery to prescribers, psychological services, or recovery supports through websites or apps. The goal is to reduce barriers like travel time, difficulty accessing providers, and isolation. But as with all technology, this digital approach comes with readily anticipated, potentially severe, and completely preventable privacy risks.

Among the 23 opioid addiction treatment and recovery companies the Opioid Policy Institute monitors , 22 engaged in activity similar to that found to be illegal in the FTC’s recent cases. Twelve of the 23 received NIDA funding. These companies conspicuously claimed to be “private,” “confidential,” or “HIPAA compliant” while surreptitiously sharing personal and health data with outside firms that can then use this information to target advertising. This means information like drug use history, health insurance, and detailed personal information can be used to determine what ads are served — or not served — to people who browse these services, contributing to silent and illegal discrimination based on their health condition.

Related: Meta faces mounting questions from Congress on health data privacy as hospitals remove Facebook tracker

Thirteen companies — five of which received NIDA funding — used Facebook Pixel , a tracking tool that reports users interactions with a website to Facebook. That means when people interacted with digital health websites that used Facebook Pixel, information including specific interactions like purchases and form responses (things like drug use history and insurance type) was sent to Facebook and used to target ads on Facebook and related properties such as Instagram.

To confirm a connection between visiting digital health websites and Facebook receiving interaction data for advertising purposes, researchers at the Opioid Policy Institute used a validated technique that included visiting all the monitored addiction treatment and recovery websites. Next we visited the off-Facebook activity page for a dummy Facebook profile (Bill Wilson) we set up. The off-Facebook activity page provides people who have a Facebook profile with an interaction summary originating from non-Facebook websites that use Facebook’s business tools like the Facebook Pixel. Any website visit that occurred on the Bill Wilson off-Facebook activity page established that a Facebook Pixel had been installed and was sending website interaction data to Facebook tagged to the specific profile establishing a clear and illegal link between seeking treatment and ad tracking. This occurs even though Meta prohibits companies that handle sensitive health information from using these ad tools.

Meta is not the only company that fails to address this problem by not enforcing its terms of service. Google also prohibits the use of its tools , like Google Analytics, when a company handles sensitive health information. Yet when notified that the companies our organization monitors are violating their terms of service, neither Google nor Meta took action to prevent their tools being used in this way.

Thirteen of the companies we studied received taxpayer dollars (a total of $16.7 million in funding from the NIH or NIDA) to support their development and commercialization. Of these, 12 engaged in activity similar to that found to be illegal in the FTC’s recent cases against Monument and Cerebral. Effectively, taxpayers have funded the development of privacy-destroying companies that put people who use drugs at significant risk.

How did this happen?

It’s not clear how things got to this point. NIDA knows that privacy is a core part of addiction treatment, harm reduction, recovery, and research. These 23 companies, including those funded by NIDA, also appear to know privacy is important to people seeking addiction support because they frequently mention they offer private, secure, confidential treatment and recovery support on their websites, apps, and advertisements. It’s a standard — and deceptive —   part of their sales pitches.

Related: ‘No data more personal’: Patients, digital health players weigh in on the FTC’s data privacy plan

People who use drugs rank privacy as an essential aspect of addiction support because they have historically been marginalized, overpoliced, and exploited. Knowledge about an individual’s drug use — past or present — has led to substantial harm across employment, housing, and other human rights violations. These are not hypothetical harms: people who use drugs face these barriers daily.

Yet no one appears to be protecting the privacy of vulnerable people using these services. It appears that these NIDA-funded digital health companies said they were private, secure, and confidential, and both the funder and people seeking care took their word on it. This is unacceptable.

One could argue that a funder should not have to ensure that the entity it is funding meets federal privacy regulations. It is the responsibility of the funded entity to not deceive users — or the funder — or engage in illegal business practices.

We believe that the primary blame for these wide-ranging privacy issues and deceptive claims lies with the digital health companies. Blame also falls on Meta/Facebook, Google, and other companies that created privacy-violating tools with little oversight of their use when handling sensitive health data. Blame can also be assigned to funders of these services, like Y Combinator, Palantir, Mark Cuban, and NIH/NIDA.

NIDA’s role in funding addiction research is unmatched. One mechanism that it administers is funding through Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) grants . These grants are designed to facilitate business pitches to the country’s leading addiction research organization. Receiving SBIR funding confers tremendous prestige, and sets up companies for larger outside funding rounds. Future investors see the federal government stamp of approval as an important signal. SBIR funding is also non-dilutive, meaning that the current ownership shares are not further divided and allocated to the funder, therefore future funding rounds have more shares available to sell for larger sums. To addiction treatment providers, federal funding may also provide these companies credibility in a nascent and turbulent field.

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For these reasons, and because taxpayer dollars are being used, NIDA must do more to ensure that funding does not further marginalize people already experiencing significant harm.

There are clear fixes to this disastrous funding approach beyond much-needed FTC actions to clean up the mess.

NIDA must look inward. If it does not have the expertise to evaluate the services it funds, other governmental agencies such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Food and Drug Administration, and the FTC should be included in planning these grants, evaluating the services offered, and creating best practice guidelines. NIDA must require initial and ongoing privacy and security audits, as is done for other federal research grants. NIDA should also restrict how its funding is discussed by the companies in line with other grant funding: the funding must not be portrayed as an endorsement that deceives patients, providers, and other funders. Importantly, NIDA should also take steps to claw back funding that was used to facilitate privacy violations of people seeking addiction treatment.

As shown by the Monument and Cerebral cases, problems with privacy and addiction treatment are not limited to companies receiving grants from the NIH or NIDA. A dozen other non-NIDA-funded companies in our research also violate existing privacy laws. Yet NIH and NIDA have a unique role to play in righting the wrongs of the past and ensuring that future funding does not harm people seeking care. The FTC should not be alone in policing this space. Funders have a responsibility to ensure that taxpayers’ money does not hurt people who desperately need help.

Addiction treatment and recovery support can certainly benefit from digital approaches. But accessing addiction treatment and recovery support cannot come at the expense of individual’s federally protected privacy rights. NIDA cannot afford to be naïve about these risks. The costs to people using these services are too great.

Jonathan JK Stoltman is director of the Opioid Policy Institute and co-director of Reporting on Addiction , a collaboration of addiction science experts, journalists, and journalism educators focused on improving addiction reporting. Mishka Terplan is medical director and senior research scientist at Friends Research Institute and senior physician research scientist at the Opioid Policy Institute .

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George Clooney argues in new op-ed that Democratic Party needs a new nominee

WASHINGTON - American actor George Clooney, a high-profile supporter of President Joe Biden, argued in an op-ed that the Democratic party needs a new nominee.

“We are not going to win in November with this president. On top of that, we won’t win the House, and we’re going to lose the Senate,” wrote Clooney in a New York Times piece published Wednesday. 

“This isn’t only my opinion; this is the opinion of every senator and congress member and governor that I’ve spoken with in private. Every single one, irrespective of what he or she is saying publicly.” he added. 

Clooney, a self-described lifelong Democrat, was among a group of A-list celebrities that co-hosted a glitzy Hollywood fundraiser last month for Biden’s campaign that brought in $30 million.

But in his op-ed, Clooney said Biden was not the same person at the fundraiser in Los Angeles that he’s known for years, writing that the one battle Biden can’t win is the “fight against time.”

"It’s devastating to say it, but the Joe Biden I was with three weeks ago at the fund-raiser was not the Joe “ big F-ing deal ” Biden of 2010. He wasn’t even the Joe Biden of 2020. He was the same man we all witnessed at the debate," Clooney wrote.

Actor and filmmaker Rob Reiner wrote on X, formerly Twitter , that Clooney "has clearly expressed what many of us have been saying."

"We love and respect Joe Biden. We acknowledge all he has done for our country. But Democracy is facing an existential threat. We need someone younger to fight back. Joe Biden must step aside," he wrote.

The Gunman and the Would-Be Dictator

Violence stalks the president who has rejoiced in violence to others.

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When a madman hammered nearly to death the husband of then–House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, Donald Trump jeered and mocked . One of Trump’s sons and other close Trump supporters avidly promoted false claims that Paul Pelosi had somehow brought the onslaught upon himself through a sexual misadventure.

After authorities apprehended a right-wing-extremist plot to abduct Michigan Governor Gretchen Whitmer, Trump belittled the threat at a rally. He disparaged Whitmer as a political enemy. His supporters chanted “Lock her up.” Trump laughed and replied , “Lock them all up.”

Fascism feasts on violence. In the years since his own supporters attacked the Capitol to overturn the 2020 election—many of them threatening harm to Speaker Pelosi and Vice President Mike Pence—Trump has championed the invaders, would-be kidnappers, and would-be murderers as martyrs and hostages. He has vowed to pardon them if returned to office. His own staffers have testified to the glee with which Trump watched the mayhem on television.

Now the bloodshed that Trump has done so much to incite against others has touched him as well. The attempted murder of Trump—and the killing of a person nearby—is a horror and an outrage. More will be learned about the man who committed this appalling act, and who was killed by the Secret Service. Whatever his mania or motive, the only important thing about him is the law-enforcement mistake that allowed him to bring a deadly weapon so close to a campaign event and gain a sight line of the presidential candidate. His name should otherwise be erased and forgotten.

It is sadly incorrect to say, as so many have, that political violence “has no place” in American society. Assassinations, lynchings, riots, and pogroms have stained every page of American political history. That has remained true to the present day. In 2016 , and even more in 2020, Trump supporters brought weapons to intimidate opponents and vote-counters. Trump and his supporters envision a new place for violence as their defining political message in the 2024 election. Fascist movements are secular religions. Like all religions, they offer martyrs as their proof of truth. The Mussolini movement in Italy built imposing monuments to its fallen comrades. The Trump movement now improves on that: The leader himself will be the martyr in chief, his own blood the basis for his bid for power and vengeance.

Christopher R. Browning: A new kind of fascism

The 2024 election was already shaping up as a symbolic contest between an elderly and weakening liberalism too frail and uncertain to protect itself and an authoritarian, reactionary movement ready to burst every barrier and trash every institution. To date, Trump has led only a minority of U.S. voters, but that minority’s passion and audacity have offset what it lacks in numbers. After the shooting, Trump and his backers hope to use the iconography of a bloody ear and face, raised fist, and call to “Fight!” to summon waverers to their cause of installing Trump as an anti-constitutional ruler, exempted from ordinary law by his allies on the Supreme Court.

Other societies have backslid to authoritarianism because of some extraordinary crisis: economic depression, hyperinflation, military defeat, civil strife. In 2024, U.S. troops are nowhere at war. The American economy is booming, providing spectacular and widely shared prosperity. A brief spasm of mild post-pandemic inflation has been overcome. Indicators of social health have abruptly turned positive since Trump left office after years of deterioration during his term. Crime and fatal drug overdoses are declining in 2024; marriages and births are rising. Even the country’s problems indirectly confirm the country’s success: Migrants are crossing the border in the hundreds of thousands, because they know, even if Americans don’t, that the U.S. job market is among the hottest on Earth.

Yet despite all of this success, Americans are considering a form of self-harm that in other countries has typically followed the darkest national failures: letting the author of a failed coup d’état return to office to try again.

One reason this self-harm is nearing consummation is that American society is poorly prepared to understand and respond to radical challenges, once those challenges gain a certain mass. For nearly a century, “radical” in U.S. politics has usually meant “fringe”: Communists, Ku Kluxers, Black Panthers, Branch Davidians, Islamist jihadists. Radicals could be marginalized by the weight of the great American consensus that stretches from social democrats to business conservatives. Sometimes, a Joe McCarthy or a George Wallace would throw a scare into that mighty consensus, but in the past such challengers rarely formed stable coalitions with accepted stakeholders in society. Never gaining an enduring grip on the institutions of state, they flared up and burned out.

Trump is different. His abuses have been ratified by powerful constituencies. He has conquered and colonized one of the two major parties. He has defeated—or is on the way to defeating—every impeachment and prosecution to hold him to account for his frauds and crimes. He has assembled a mass following that is larger, more permanent, and more national in reach than any previous American demagogue. He has dominated the scene for nine years already, and he and his supporters hope they can use yesterday’s appalling event to extend the Trump era to the end of his life and beyond.

The American political and social system cannot treat such a person as an alien. It inevitably accommodates and naturalizes him. His counselors, even the thugs and felons, join the point-counterpoint dialogue at the summit of the American elite. President Joe Biden nearly wrecked his campaign because he felt obliged to meet Trump in debate. How could Biden have done otherwise? Trump is the three-time nominee of the Republican Party; it’s awkward and strange to treat him as an insurrectionist against the American state—though that’s what Trump was and is.

David Frum: Biden’s heartbreaking press conference

The despicable shooting at Trump, which also caused death and injury to others, now secures his undeserved position as a partner in the protective rituals of the democracy he despises. The appropriate expressions of dismay and condemnation from every prominent voice in American life have the additional effect of habituating Americans to Trump’s legitimacy. In the face of such an outrage, the familiar and proper practice is to stress unity, to proclaim that Americans have more things in common than that divide them. Those soothing words, true in the past, are less true now.

Nobody seems to have language to say: We abhor, reject, repudiate, and punish all political violence, even as we maintain that Trump remains himself a promoter of such violence, a subverter of American institutions, and the very opposite of everything decent and patriotic in American life.

The Republican National Convention, which opens this week, will welcome to its stage apologists for Vladimir Putin’s Russia and its aggression against U.S. allies. Trump’s own infatuation with Russia and other dictatorships has not dimmed even slightly with age or experience. Yet all of these urgent and necessary truths must now be subordinated to the ritual invocation of “thoughts and prayers” for someone who never gave a thought or uttered a prayer for any of the victims of his own many incitements to bloodshed. The president who used his office to champion the rights of dangerous people to own military-type weapons says he was grazed by a bullet from one such assault rifle.

Conventional phrases and polite hypocrisy fill a useful function in social life. We say “Thank you for your service” both to the decorated hero and to the veteran who barely escaped dishonorable discharge. It’s easier than deciphering which was which. We wish “Happy New Year!” even when we dread the months ahead.

Adrienne LaFrance: Thoughts, prayers, and Facebook rants aren’t enough

But conventional phrases don’t go unheard. They carry meanings, meanings no less powerful for being rote and reflexive. In rightly denouncing violence, we are extending an implicit pardon to the most violent person in contemporary U.S. politics. In asserting unity, we are absolving a man who seeks power through the humiliation and subordination of disdained others.

Those conventional phrases are inscribing Trump into a place in American life that he should have forfeited beyond redemption on January 6, 2021. All decent people welcome the sparing of his life. Trump’s reckoning should be with the orderly process of law, not with the bloodshed he rejoiced in when it befell others. He and his allies will exploit a gunman’s vicious criminality as their path to exonerate past crimes and empower new ones. Those who stand against Trump and his allies must find the will and the language to explain why these crimes, past and planned, are all wrong, all intolerable—and how the gunman and Trump, at their opposite ends of a bullet’s trajectory, are nonetheless joined together as common enemies of law and democracy.

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Joe Biden's leadership test: An American legacy in jeopardy

Indecision is a path to certain defeat, by chauncey devega.

Joe Biden is still the president of the United States. Americans do not have a king or queen, but they do have a president. The presidency is much bigger and more important than the person who occupies it.

As president, Biden has stood as a type of national father figure; the embodiment of the country’s idealized values and ideals. These feelings of respect for President Biden are felt deeply by his supporters and others who admire and respect him, and what he has accomplished in the horrible aftermath of his predecessor, the convicted felon, coup plotter, and aspiring tyrant Donald Trump. So  Biden’s defeat in the CNN debate , and the cascading siege from all sides he's faced since, is a type of emotional and psychic injury not just to Biden but millions of Democrats who believe in his quest to protect democracy. The president has now been made fully mortal and vulnerable.

Time is a luxury that President Biden, the American people and our democracy do not have.

On Wednesday, it was announced that Biden has COVID. On Thursday, Republicans held their coronation for aspiring dictator Trump at their convention in Milwaukee, where he delivered the longest acceptance speech in history . In contrast, Biden's illness is one more reminder of how it feels as though fate is conspiring against him. 

After surviving an attempted assassination attempt at his rally in Butler, Pennsylvania on Saturday, Trump is now viewed by his MAGA followers as singularly protected by “god”, in essence anointed, and some type of immortal martyr. That horrific event and what it means for a nation where political violence is becoming normalized  has served as a trauma bond between Donald Trump and his MAGA devotees. The loss of personal identity to the Great Leader and movement is so extreme that Trump's MAGA people are now wearing bandages on their ears in an act of hero worship, and as an expression of a desire to be similarly "anointed" by fate and destiny.

On this, historian Ruth Ben-Ghiat explains in her newsletter how, “Trump had always told his devoted followers that the “enemies” were not going after him, but rather going after  them , and he was ‘just standing in the way.’ This awful assassination attempt will seem to validate that claim, especially since a person attending the rally was killed by the shooter.”

Trump's fighting spirit is likely entrancing to many other Americans outside of the Republican Party and the MAGAverse as well. As David Sirota compellingly argues in a new essay at The Lever, "Crazed and  Howard Beale-ish  as they may be, Republicans’ primal screams at least seem like proof of life in a dying world. Democrats, by contrast, don’t seem alive at all, and not just because they have been led by an octogenarian who drifts in and out of consciousness....The Democrats’ current brand contrast could not be more tone deaf to the times. Where Trump fist pumps after getting shot and his minions instantly  blame  their opponents for the violence, Democrats reflexively stand down and  apologize ."

For many people, the concerns about President Biden’s age and what it means for his capacity to function effectively—and for his overall health and mortality—are deeply personal if not immediate. Most, if not all human beings, will experience physical and mental decline as they age. This is perfectly normal and a fundamental part of the human experience. Such public discussions about President Biden’s frailty trigger the anxieties (what experts describe as mortality salience) that many people have about their own aging and independence, and of loved ones and other people they care for who will also be weathered and eventually defeated by time.

In a recent essay at the Washington Post, Maura Judkis deploys the analogy of taking away a beloved elder’s car keys because it was becoming dangerous for him to drive:

Say you have a beloved elder relative — a proud patriarch used to calling the shots — who is showing signs of decline. He’s slower, frailer than he used to be. Your relative might lose his train of thought; another person’s relative might get stuck in verbal cul-de-sacs of nonsense. (Again with the loopy rant about dying by electrocution versus dying by shark, Grandpa?) Say you’re in the car with him — this is a hypothetical, of course — and he’s not really noticing the speed bumps. He blew through a stop sign. On one particular trip late last month he drove through a red light into a fender bender. No one was hurt. Maybe he was just tired, and this was a one-off? But he’s a little bruised up, and so is his ego, because afterward, the family had the Big Talk, to ask: Is it time to take the car keys away from Grandpa? Some relatives think so. Others disagree. Grandpa has, historically, been a really good driver. He has been driving for, say, 54 years — big, cross-country trips, sometimes on challenging roads. He’s driven ancient Hondas and fancy Porsches. He insists he is still capable of driving. Just maybe not at night? But so much is at stake: his safety, our peace of mind, the greater good. It’s a tough spot, for anyone. For everyone. Some families ignore their relative’s decline; some families obsess over it. How should we, as a countr — er, a family — have this conversation?

At the Atlantic, David Frum offers some powerful writing about President Biden and his and our national dilemma :

The great frustration of Biden’s life must be getting the presidency so late. He sought it in 1988, and again in 2008. He wanted it in 2016. Had he gained the Democratic nomination that year, the country might have been spared the Trump presidency, and Biden might now be completing his second term—uncontroversially aged by the office, but still recognizably himself. Instead, the presidency came to him when he still possessed the vigor and skill to do the job, but while the strength to gain and keep it was ebbing from him. At his press conference, he reminded me of an athlete who still knew where to aim the shots, but who could no longer muster the force to send them home…. If Biden loses to Trump, the nation Biden believed in does not outlive him. A different America replaces it, one where the presidency can be contested by violence, with judicially conferred immunity for an attempted seizure of power. Collective security will be junked, with American military power at risk of being hired by whichever dictators pay bribes to the president and his family. Biden’s career has been based on the clear-eyed calculus of political risk. But just as the clarity of his presence is fading with the passage of time, so also does the clarity of his perception seem to be degrading. He remembers what he was, and he wants to hold that former being forever. But time has no mercy for human yearning. It takes, and it does not give back.

To my eyes, this reads like it hurt Frum to write these words – or perhaps that is just me projecting.

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Documentary filmmaker Michael Moore spoke with CNN’s Abby Phillip about President Biden and if he should cede the nomination to Vice President Kamala Harris or another Democrat, who presumably would have a better chance of defeating Donald Trump and saving the country’s democracy. Moore, as is his way, told some uncomfortable truths. 

This isn’t about being loyal to Joe Biden. This isn’t about being grateful as I am for his three-and-a-half years of what he’s done. I’ve said he’s probably the most progressive president we have had in my lifetime. He has done so much – so much good that I don’t want to diminish any of that. But you don’t let somebody keep playing anything or doing anything just because they’ve done 30 or 40 or 50 years of great stuff. It’s about how are you doing it now? And can you do it now?

Moore then explained what he believes must happen next to save the country’s democracy:

I will insist, everybody watching me right now, that if Biden is the candidate on the ballot, every single one of us has to get out there and vote and vote for him in November. And you have to bring five people to the polls with you because I’m telling you this is the only way Trump can win Michigan, or, I think, the majority of the swing states. He’s going to have to count on people being so depressed, the depressed vote, staying home, or showing up like Michiganders did in Democratic districts in 2016.

I mostly agree with Michael Moore .

I will support President Biden no matter what. Donald Trump is not an option. Even If President Biden is substantially diminished by his age and other factors, he still believes in America’s democracy and its institutions, and he will have advisors and other people around him who will do that work. If President Biden decides to step down, his replacement would also be someone who would defend democracy and freedom against the neofascist onslaught. 

Public opinion polls and other data show that many millions of Americans feel the same way: Donald Trump and his MAGA movement and the larger antidemocracy movement must be kept away from the White House. President Biden’s age or other health concerns are of secondary concern and importance to achieving that goal. A new poll from the AP-NORC also shows that a majority of Democrats now want President Biden to step aside and let a new candidate lead the party and defeat Donald Trump and the Republicans in the 2024 Election. Are these deeply felt beliefs or a fleeting blip and reflection of how the mainstream news media and other public voices and elites in the Democratic Party have piled on President Biden with the goal of shaping the public mood with the goal of forcing him to step down? And at this point do the causal arrows even matter if Biden's political obituary has already been written—by members of his own party and other supporters?

President Biden and his advisors need to decide, very soon, if not immediately, if they are going to move forward with his candidacy. The assassination attempt on Donald Trump has delayed this decision. The appearance of national unity and Biden’s steady leadership was judged to be more important than deciding what to do about his political future. That moment, a week that feels like much longer, in a society in crisis where time feels broken, has now passed. The Republicans and Donald Trump have not paused. The convention and his coronation will only give them more momentum. Indecision is a path to defeat in a political or any other type of battle.

It is now being widely reported that senior members of the Democratic Party, including Nancy Pelosi, Chuck Schumer, and Hakeem Jeffries have counseled President Biden to drop out of the race. Barack Obama and Bill and Hillary Clinton also do not support President Biden remaining the party's nominee. As Axios summarized on Thursday , "The private message, distilled to its bluntest form: The top leaders of his party, his friends and key donors believe he can't win, can't change public perceptions of his age and acuity, and can't deliver congressional majorities....Don't underestimate how badly some Democrats simply want a ticket that can win in Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Win those, and Democrats likely win the presidency. Lose them, they're toast."  

Time is a luxury that President Biden, the American people and our democracy do not have. There will in all probability not be another opportunity to stop Donald Trump and the Republican fascists after they take power in 2025. 

about the current state of the 2024 election

• Are the polls even reliable? Experts examine election polling predictions from 1980 to 2024
• "This is over": Biden's Democratic critics say press conference not enough to stop growing revolt
• Unnamed Biden campaign officials view a grim path ahead

Chauncey DeVega is a senior politics writer for Salon. His essays can also be found at  Chaunceydevega.com . He also hosts a weekly podcast,  The Chauncey DeVega Show . Chauncey can be followed on  Twitter  and  Facebook .

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• MLA titles: Formatting and capitalization rules

MLA Titles | How to Format & Capitalize Source Titles

Published on April 2, 2019 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on March 5, 2024.

In MLA style , source titles appear either in italics or in quotation marks:

• Italicize the title of a self-contained whole (e.g. a book, film, journal, or website).
• Use  quotation marks around the title if it is part of a larger work (e.g. a chapter of a book, an article in a journal, or a page on a website).

All major words in a title are capitalized . The same format is used in the Works Cited list and in the text itself.

When you use the Scribbr MLA Citation Generator , the correct formatting and capitalization are automatically applied to titles.

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Table of contents

Capitalization in mla titles, punctuation in mla titles, titles within titles, exceptions to mla title formatting, sources with no title, abbreviating titles, titles in foreign languages, frequently asked questions about mla titles.

In all titles and subtitles, capitalize the first and last words, as well as any other principal words.

What to capitalize

What not to capitalize

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Use the same punctuation as appears in the source title. However, if there is a subtitle, separate it from the main title with a colon and a space, even if different (or no) punctuation is used in the source.

Example of a work with a subtitle

The exception is when the title ends in a question mark, exclamation point or dash, in which case you keep the original punctuation:

Sometimes a title contains another title—for example, the title of an article about a novel might contain that novel’s title.

For titles within titles, in general, maintain the same formatting as you would if the title stood on its own.

Titles and names that fall into the following categories are not italicized or enclosed in quotation marks:

• Scripture (e.g. the Bible, the Koran, the Gospel)
• Laws, acts and related documents (e.g. the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution , the Paris Agreement)
• Musical compositions identified by form, number and key (e.g. Beethoven’s Symphony no. 5 in C minor, op. 67)
• Conferences, seminars, workshops and courses (e.g. MLA Annual Convention)

Sections of a work

Words that indicate a particular section of a work are not italicized or placed within quotation marks. They are also not capitalized when mentioned in the text.

Examples of such sections include:

• introduction
• list of works cited
• bibliography

Introductions, prefaces, forewords and afterwords

Descriptive terms such as “introduction”, “preface”, “foreword” and “afterword” are capitalized if mentioned in an MLA in-text citation or in the Works Cited list, but not when mentioned in the text itself.

Example of descriptive term capitalization

In-text citation: (Brontë, Preface )

In text: In her preface to the work, added in a later edition, Brontë debates the morality of creating characters such as those featured in Wuthering Heights .

If there is a unique title for the introduction, preface, foreword or afterword, include that title in quotation marks instead of the generic section name when referencing the source in the Works Cited list or an in-text citation.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

For sources with no title, a brief description of the source acts as the title.

Example of a source reference with no title

Follow these rules for capitalization:

• Capitalize the first word
• Capitalize proper nouns
• Ignore other MLA rules for capitalization

There are some exceptions to this general format: descriptions including titles of other works, such as comments on articles or reviews of movies; untitled short messages, like tweets; email messages; and untitled poems.

Exceptions to general format for sources with no title

If you need to mention the name of a work in the text itself, state the full title, but omit the subtitle.

If you need to refer to the work multiple times, you may shorten the title to something familiar or obvious to the reader. For example, Huckleberry Finn for The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . If in doubt, prefer the noun phrase.

If the standalone abbreviation may not be clear, you can introduce it in parentheses, following the standard guidelines for abbreviations. For example, The Merchant of Venice ( MV ) . For Shakespeare and the Bible , there are well-established abbreviations you can use.

When you abbreviate a title, make sure you keep the formatting consistent. Even if the abbreviation consists only of letters, as in the MV example, it must be italicized or placed within quotation marks in the same way as it would be when written in full.

Abbreviating very long titles in the Works Cited list

Titles should normally be given in full in the Works Cited list, but if any of your sources has a particularly long title (often the case with older works), you can use an ellipsis to shorten it here. This is only necessary with extremely long titles such as the example below.

In the Works Cited list, if you are listing a work with a title in a language other than English, you can add the translated title in square brackets.

Example of a reference with a translated title

If you are using the foreign-language title in the text itself, you can also include the translation in parenthesis. For example, O Alquimista ( The Alchemist ) .

You don’t need to include a translation in your reference list or in the text if you expect your readers to be familiar with the original language. For example, you wouldn’t translate the title of a  French novel you were writing about in the context of a French degree.

Non-Latin script languages

For works in a language that does not use the Latin alphabet, such as Arabic, Chinese, Greek, Hebrew, Japanese, or Russian, be consistent with how you mention the source titles and also quotations from within them.

For example, if you choose to write a Russian title in the Cyrillic form, do that throughout the document. If you choose to use the Romanized form, stick with that. Do not alternate between the two.

Yes. MLA style uses title case, which means that all principal words (nouns, pronouns , verbs, adjectives , adverbs , and some conjunctions ) are capitalized.

This applies to titles of sources as well as the title of, and subheadings in, your paper. Use MLA capitalization style even when the original source title uses different capitalization .

In MLA style , book titles appear in italics, with all major words capitalized. If there is a subtitle, separate it from the main title with a colon and a space (even if no colon appears in the source). For example:

The format is the same in the Works Cited list and in the text itself. However, when you mention the book title in the text, you don’t have to include the subtitle.

The title of a part of a book—such as a chapter, or a short story or poem in a collection—is not italicized, but instead placed in quotation marks.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

The title of an article is not italicized in MLA style , but placed in quotation marks. This applies to articles from journals , newspapers , websites , or any other publication. Use italics for the title of the source where the article was published. For example:

Use the same formatting in the Works Cited entry and when referring to the article in the text itself.

The MLA Handbook is currently in its 9th edition , published in 2021.

This quick guide to MLA style  explains the latest guidelines for citing sources and formatting papers according to MLA.

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Gahan, C. (2024, March 05). MLA Titles | How to Format & Capitalize Source Titles. Scribbr. Retrieved July 22, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/mla/titles/

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J.D. Vance on the Issues, From Abortion to the Middle East

Like Donald J. Trump, the Ohio senator has been skeptical of American intervention overseas and argues that raising tariffs will create new jobs.

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By Adam Nagourney

• Published July 15, 2024 Updated July 17, 2024

Senator J.D. Vance of Ohio, Donald J. Trump’s newly chosen running mate, has made a shift from the Trump critic he was when he first entered politics to the loyalist he is today. It was a shift both in style and substance: Now, on topics as disparate as trade and Ukraine, Mr. Vance is closely aligned with Mr. Trump.

Here’s a look at where the senator stands on the issues that will most likely dominate the campaign ahead and, should Mr. Trump and Mr. Vance win in November, their years in the White House.

Mr. Vance opposes abortion rights, even in the case of incest or rape, but says there should be exceptions for cases when the mother’s life is in danger. He praised the U.S. Supreme Court decision overturning Roe v. Wade. As he ran for Senate in 2022, a headline on the issues section of his campaign website read simply: “Ban Abortion.”

Mr. Vance has said that he would support a 15-week national ban proposed by Senator Lindsey Graham of South Carolina. He has also said the matter is “primarily a state issue,” suggesting states should be free to make more restrictive laws. “Ohio is going to want to have a different abortion policy from California, from New York, and I think that’s reasonable, he said in an interview with USA Today Network in October 2022.

Mr. Vance has been one of the leading opponents of U.S. support for Ukraine in the war with Russia. “I think it’s ridiculous that we’re focused on this border in Ukraine,” he said in a podcast interview with Stephen K. Bannon, the former Trump adviser and longtime ally. “I’ve got to be honest with you, I don’t really care what happens to Ukraine one way or the other.”

He led the battle in the Senate, unsuccessfully, to block a $60 billion military aid package for Ukraine. “I voted against this package in the Senate and remain opposed to virtually any proposal for the United States to continue funding this war,” he wrote in an opinion essay for The New York Times early this year challenging President Biden’s stance on the war. “Mr. Biden has failed to articulate even basic facts about what Ukraine needs and how this aid will change the reality on the ground.”

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