art appreciation research paper topics

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180 Art Research Topics To Wake Your Inner Creator Up

We know, finding great art research topics can be a pretty difficult thing to do nowadays. Your classmates are all scouring the Internet in search of easy – but interesting – topics. The last thing you want is to pick a topic that has already been chosen. You want to be original. You want your professor to notice the effort you’ve put into finding the perfect topic. This is why you should take a look at our list of art research topics. All of them are original and interesting. And, best of all, the list is updated and new topics are added periodically.

Writing a Proper Art Research Paper

Writing a research paper on a topic in painting, sculpture, literature, architecture, cinema, music, or theater can be tricky if you don’t have much experience. To come to your aid, we have included a short list of tips that should help you write the best possible art research paper as quickly as possible:

Obviously, you need to find an engaging topic for your paper Spend some time on crafting the thesis statement (it’s very important) Only use information from authoritative sources that you can check Make sure all citations and references are properly formatted It pays to start your writing project with an outline Stay organized and follow the outline until you finish the paper Don’t forget to edit your work and then proofread it thoroughly Finally, don’t forget that you can get professional academic writing help, if necessary

In this blog post, we will help you with a list of 180 original art research topics for your next paper. The topics, organized in 20 categories, can be found below and are 100% free. Furthermore, if you have more important things to do, rather than going through that long and boring process, you can pay someone to write a paper and feel free to spend your time as you wish.

Brand New Art Topics for Research Papers

Below, you can find our brand new art topics for research papers. All of these topics have been recently added and we think that all of them should work great in 2023:

• Compare 2 major themes of art
• Discuss the adversity theme in art
• Is digital 3D motion graphic design an art?
• Discuss artistic styles in modern art
• An in-depth look at digital art
• Social media in 2023 art
• Talk about the popularity of art fairs
• Should you become an art historian?
• Peculiarities of abstract art of the 21st century
• Talk about Cubism influences in art
• What is mixed media art?

Artist Research Paper Ideas

Would you like to talk about artists? No problem, we’ve got an entire list of artist research paper ideas for you right here. Choose the best one and start writing in minutes:

• The life and work of Jean-Michel Basquiat
• The importance of Peter Doig’s work
• Modern paintings by Christopher Wool
• Influences in Rudolf Stingel’s art
• An in-depth look at Salvador Dali’s work
• The neo-Pop movement (Yoshitomo Nara)
• Richard Prince’s use of mass-media images in art
• The instability of life in Zeng Fanzhi’s paintings
• The life and work of Frida Kahlo
• Andy Warhol’s rise in popularity
• Discuss the themes in Vincent van Gogh’s work
• The importance of Jackson Pollock for modern art

Art History Research Paper Topics

If you want to talk about art history, you will be thrilled to learn that we are offering a list of art history research paper topics for free. Check out the latest version of the topics list:

• Imagery and symbolism in Carlo Crivelli’s work
• Talk about evolution and devolution in Willem de Kooning’s work
• An in-depth look at Chinese art
• The 3 most important architecture themes
• Talk about the portrayal of war in contemporary art
• The most important literary works of the 20th century
• European art during Medieval times
• The importance of prehistoric art in Mesopotamia

Art Topics to Write About in High School

Are you looking for some art topics to write about in high school? Don’t worry about it; we’ve got your back. We have a whole list of topics dedicated to high school students right here:

• Talk about the use of symbols in Egyptian art
• Discuss Mayan architecture
• An in-depth look at Chinese ancient paintings
• Light in Claude Monet’s work
• Talk about the peculiarities of Romanticism
• Discuss the Surrealism movement
• The importance of the Sistine Chapel paintings
• A closer look at the Harlem Renaissance

Most Interesting Art Topics

We know you want to write a paper on something interesting. After all, you probably want to impress your professor, don’t you? Here are our most interesting art topics:

• Discuss peculiarities of Iranian cinema movies
• Talk about Hindi architecture
• Best Chinese novels ever written
• Artistic similarities between the US and Canada
• Talk about a famous painter in the United Kingdom
• The ascendance motif in Raphael’s work
• Talk about feminism in contemporary art
• Japanese motifs in Claude Monet’s paintings

Advanced Art Topics

We are most certain that your professor will appreciate the effort if you choose to write your paper on a more complex topic. Here are some advanced art topics you could try:

• The emergence of urban street art
• Cubism in Pablo Picasso paintings
• The life and works of Louise Bourgeois
• Talk about the influence of the paranormal on art
• An in-depth look at Aztec religious art
• Talk about a primeval music instrument of your choice
• Talk about sculpture in Ancient Rome
• Discuss the use of art for propaganda means

Fun Art Topic Ideas

Who said writing a research paper about art can’t be fun? It all depends on the topic you choose. To help you out, we have compiled a list of fun art topic ideas. Check it out below:

• Depictions of extraterrestrials in art
• Using art during the war
• 3 most creative uses of paintings
• Talk about the emergence of NFT art
• Interesting traits of the Bauhaus movement
• Sculptures that make you laugh
• Interesting depictions of the human anatomy
• The most famous graffiti in the United States

Art Topics Good for College Students

Of course we have many art topics that are good for college students. Our experts have recently finished updating the list of ideas, so go ahead and choose the one you like the most:

• Analyze the Surrealism period
• Postmodernism in 2023 art
• The life and work of Auguste Renoir
• Talk about French caricatures
• The benefits of art therapy
• Hitler and his contribution to arts
• War dances in the Maori society

Controversial Art Topics to Write About

M any students find writing a research paper challenging. There are many controversial topics in art that you can talk about in a research paper. Take a look at some of the most controversial art topics to write about and take your pick:

• Discuss The Last Judgement by Michelangelo
• The controversies surrounding Marcel Duchamp
• Graffiti: vandalism or art?
• Why is art so controversial?
• What makes a drawing a piece of art?
• Architecture: art or utility? 

Easy Topics for Art Papers

If you want to spend as little time as possible writing the research paper, you need an easier topic. Fortunately for you, our experts have compiled a list of easy topics for art papers right here:

• Types of Chinese jewelry
• Analyze art in South Korea
• The first recorded music instrument
• Discuss a novel of your choice
• Talk about Venetian carnival masks
• The life and works of Giuseppe Verdi
• Compare and contrast 3 war dances
• American Indian art over the years
• An in-depth look at totem masks
• Art in sub-Saharan Africa
• Talk about art in North Korea

Modern/Contemporary Art History Topics

Yes, we really do have a list of the best modern/contemporary art history topics. As usual, you can choose any of our topics and even reword it without giving us any credit. Take your pick:

• Talk about 5 artistic styles in modern art
• Talk about activism and art
• Discuss the role of political cartoons
• The role of digital art in 2023
• Is printmaking really an art?
• Discuss the theme of identity politics
• Political critique through the use of art
• Most interesting works of contemporary art

Ancient Art Topics

Do you want to talk about ancient art? It’s not a simple subject, but we’re certain you will manage just fine. Check out our latest list of ancient art topics and select the one you like the most:

• Analyze the El Castillo Cave Paintings
• Ancient art in India
• An in-depth look at the Diepkloof Eggshell Engravings
• Ancient art in Persia
• Why is ancient art so important?
• Ancient art in China
• What makes ancient art unique?

Ideas for an Art Research Project

Did your teacher ask you to come up with an idea for an art research project? Don’t worry about it too much because we have plenty of ideas for an art research project right here:

• Research 3 Kpop artists and their work
• Uncover signs of prehistoric art in your area
• Make a rain painting on your own
• Design a Zen garden in your backyard
• Make a 3D sculpture on your computer
• Make a wall mural for your school
• Experiment with pin art
• Experiment with sand art

Fine Arts Research Paper Topics

If you would prefer to write about the fine arts, you have definitely arrived at the right place. We have a long list of interesting fine arts research paper topics below:

• Is drawing a form of art?
• An in-depth analysis of the Mona Lisa
• The Girls with a Pearl Earring painting
• An in-depth analysis of Venus of Willendorf
• A closer look at the Terracotta Army
• Discuss a piece of abstract architecture
• A closer look at the Burj Khalifa architecture
• Discuss Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats

Renaissance Art Topics

Did you know that our Renaissance art topics have been used by more than 500 students to date? This is a clear indication that our ideas are some of the best on the Web:

• Talk about the Linear perspective in Renaissance art
• Discuss the altarpieces found in Renaissance art
• An in-depth look at anatomy in Renaissance art
• Discuss the Fresco cycles
• Talk about the peculiarities of the landscape
• Influences of Realism in Renaissance art
• Analyze the use of light in Renaissance art
• Discuss the humanism theme
• Talk about the individualism theme in Renaissance art

The Best Baroque Art Topics

We can assure you that you teacher will greatly appreciate it if you choose one of these Baroque topics. Remember, this is the place where you can find the best Baroque art topics:

• Discuss the Grandeur theme in Baroque art
• An in-depth look at the sensuous richness theme
• Talk about the importance of religious paintings
• Talk about the emotional exuberance theme
• Allegories in Baroque art
• The life and works of Annibale Carracci
• The life and works of Nicolas Poussin

Art Debate Topics

Are you planning an art debate? If you are, you most definitely need some great art debate topics to choose from. Talk to your team and propose them any of these awesome ideas:

• Do artists need talent to sculpt?
• The best painter in the world today
• Can graffiti be considered a form of art?
• The best sculpture ever made
• Can we consider dance a form of art?
• The best painting ever made
• Should we study arts in school?
• The best literary work ever written
• Why is Banksy’s work so controversial?
• The best singer of all time
• How can photographs be considered works of art?

Artist Biography Topics

Our experts have put together a list of the most intriguing artist biography topics for you. You should be able to find more than enough information about each artist on the Internet:

• Talk about the life of Michael Jackson
• Discuss the works of Leonardo da Vinci
• Discuss the importance of Elvis Presley’s work
• The life and works of Rembrandt
• The importance of Ernest Hemingway’s masterpieces
• The importance of Michelangelo’s paintings
• Talk about the life of Vincent van Gogh
• Auguste Rodin’s sculptures
• The life and works of Donatello
• The life and works of Leo Tolstoy
• Discuss Jane Austen’s literary works

Art Therapy Topics

Choosing one of our captivating art therapy topics will definitely get your research paper noticed. This is a field that has been growing in popularity for years. Check out our latest ideas:

• The importance of photography in art therapy
• Reducing pain through art therapy
• Art therapy for PTST patients
• Art therapy against the stress of the modern world
• Improving the quality of life through art therapy
• Positive health effects of finger painting
• The effects of art therapy on 3 mental health disorders
• The effects of art therapy on autism
• Art therapy and psychotherapy
• The job of an art therapist
• Benefits of art therapy for mental health

Art Epochs Paper Topics

If you want to write your paper on one of the many art epochs, you could give our art epochs paper topics a try. You should find plenty of great ideas in the list below:

• The legacy of the Romanesque period
• The importance of the Romanticism movement
• Talk about the Mannerism movement
• Discuss The New Objectivity movement
• Pop-art in the 21st century
• An in-depth look at abstract impressionism
• The importance of the Gothic Era
• Talk about the Classicist movement
• Peculiarities of Cubism art
• What is Futurism in art?
• Discuss the great artists of the Baroque era
• Interesting facts about the Rococo period
• The Art Nouveau era

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

25 Arts Research Paper Topics

• Ancient Roman art
• African architecture
• The works of Lysippos
• Bauhaus movement
• The transition to the Renaissance
• The art of ancient Egypt
• Expressionists and their impact on modern art
• Fine art and folk art
• Gothic and Neo-Gothic
• Comparison of Nazi and Soviet art
• Surrealist movement
• Censorship in the works of art
• Art as propaganda
• Can abstract art be decoded?
• Photography as art
• The rise of digital art
• Venetian carnival as an art performance
• The history of the art of dance
• Hollywood and Bollywood
• The beauty standards in the art
• Rock music as neoclassical art
• The art of disgusting
• Computer games as art
• Art therapy

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• Open access
• Published: 23 June 2022

The role of expertise and culture in visual art appreciation

• Kohinoor M. Darda 1 , 2 , 3 &
• Emily S. Cross 1 , 2 , 4  

Scientific Reports volume  12 , Article number:  10666 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour

Is art appreciation universal? Previous evidence suggests a general preference for representational art over abstract art, and a tendency to like art originating from one’s own culture more than another culture (an ingroup bias), modulated by art expertise. However, claims about universality are difficult given that most research has focused on Western populations. Across two pre-registered and statistically powered experiments, we explore the role of culture and art expertise in the aesthetic evaluation of Indian and Western paintings and dance depicting both abstract and representational content, by inviting expert and art-naïve Indian and Western participants to rate stimuli on beauty and liking. Results suggest an ingroup bias (for dance) and a preference for representational art (for paintings) exists, both modulated by art expertise. As predicted, the ingroup bias was present only in art-naïve participants, and the preference for representational art was lower in art experts, but this modulation was present only in Western participants. The current findings have two main implications: (1) they inform and constrain understanding of universality of aesthetic appreciation, cautioning against generalising models of empirical aesthetics to non-western populations and across art forms, (2) they highlight the importance of art experience as a medium to counter prejudices.

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Introduction

Across millennia, humans have expressed themselves through the medium of art. Art is often considered to be a society’s collective memory, preserving what fact-based historical records may not be able to—how it felt to exist in a particular time and in a particular space. More recently, the function of art to communicate and soothe, and to bring people together has been emphatically highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Whether it is people singing to each other from their balconies 1 , musicians performing orchestral works over Zoom 2 , or artists tapping into their creativity to explain public health guidelines 3 , art has given hope and provided much-needed human connection, across geographic, racial, and cultural boundaries. In a world facing increasing societal stresses due to racism, political polarisation, xenophobia, and other geostrategic fractures, art proves its ability to bring people together.

In the words of Danish-Icelandic contemporary artist Olafur Eliasson, art “… helps us identify with one another and expands our notion of we—from the local to the global” 4 . Engagement with art is not always a solitary event. Instead, it represents one of the few areas in society where people can come together to share experiences even when they have radically different beliefs or worldviews. But to what extent can art really bind us together, and can it transcend boundaries of culture or country? Do we share much more than what divides us? Or do our in-group biases and preferences persist when watching dance performances or viewing paintings?

The degree to which aesthetic preferences are universal or shared across cultures, as opposed to being highly individual in nature and moderated by our in-group biases is an important question in empirical aesthetics. To date, however, little insight has been gained into the universality of psychological underpinnings of aesthetic appreciation, as most research has exclusively examined perceptions and preferences among Western European and North American populations 5 . Moreover, influence of the visual properties of the artwork (such as its content), as well as observers’ attributes (such as their culture or art expertise) on aesthetic preferences have been extensively studied for the fine arts (including paintings, drawings and sculpture), while our knowledge of such attributes for other artforms remains limited (e.g., 6 , 7 , 8 ). This is somewhat surprising, given the ubiquity and importance of a range of artforms beyond the fine arts, including music, theatre, poetry, and dance, across many cultures. The current work attempts to begin to bridge several of these considerable gaps in knowledge regarding the human aesthetic experience by one, evaluating whether universal primitives underpin people’s appreciation in fine and performing arts; and two, examining the extent to which cultural background shapes these preferences. To accomplish this, we have combined paintings and dance choreography under a common analytical framework, with exemplars from “western” (Anglo-European) and “eastern” (Indian) artistic practices. Addressing the universality of aesthetic preference, and its modulation by expertise and culture in paintings and dance should lead to a better understanding and a fresh and culturally inclusive reconceptualization of long-debated issues in empirical aesthetics such as the nature of aesthetic judgements and evaluations, and how a beholder’s attributes shape their aesthetic experience.

Theoretical accounts of aesthetic processing have proposed the influence of cultural contexts, as well as the differing meaning of beauty across cultures (e.g., 9 ). There is also some evidence to suggest cross-species universal aesthetic appreciation and perception of visual patterns such as symmetry 10 , and the universality of musical aesthetic processing (e.g., 11 ). However, our focus in the current empirical work is on cross-cultural differences (or similarities) in the visual (fine and performing) arts, specifically paintings and dance, and therefore we focus the following review of extant literature primarily on empirical cross-cultural investigations of paintings and dance.

The universality of the preference for representational art and its modulation by expertise

The creation and appreciation of art finds a place in all cultures, serving different social, religious, economic, and political functions 12 , 13 . If engagement with art is indeed universal, as has been argued, then it seems plausible that the processes underpinning aesthetic appreciation are also shared across cultures. Indeed, evidence suggests that people from different cultures base their aesthetic appreciation on a common set of features such as symmetry, contrast, colour, brightness, complexity, and proportion (for a review, see 5 ). Nevertheless, on face value, nothing seems more subjective than the human appreciation of art. People differ in their aesthetic preferences—some may like contemporary art, while others have intense negative feelings toward it 14 . Previous work also demonstrates how individual differences such as art expertise, understanding, and knowledge, as well as personality traits influence aesthetic evaluations 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 .

Aesthetic judgements and ratings of visual art have also been found to be highly idiosyncratic depending on the content depicted in the art 6 , 19 , or the contextual framing with which artworks are introduced 20 . Across a range of studies, a number of research teams report that paintings and images with representational content, i.e. those depicting landscapes, people, still life scenes, and so on, are preferred and assigned higher ratings of aesthetic qualities such as beauty and liking, compared to paintings or images with abstract content that do not represent anything concrete or figurative 6 , 8 , 17 , 21 , 22 , 23 . Preferences for representational content are also more reliable and consistent compared to abstract content. For example, Schepman and colleagues show greater agreement across people for representational compared to abstract paintings and images, and the semantic associations generated by viewers for these artworks are also more convergent across individuals for representational art compared to abstract art 6 , 23 . One proposed explanation for this preference and agreement across viewers for representational content focuses on the meaningfulness of the depiction: people may prefer art that they find meaningful, and semantic associations may be better shared for meaningful stimuli compared to abstract ones 21 .

The meaning drawn from the content of an artwork also depends on the observer’s experience, expertise, and knowledge of the artworks. Indeed, previous evidence has shown increased aesthetic ratings for abstract artworks among those with expertise and knowledge of art 24 , 25 , 26 . Therefore, although a general preference for representational artworks compared to abstract artworks seems to exist, evidence also suggests that art expertise modulates this preference such that the preference for representational (compared to abstract) artworks among art experts is more attenuated than that reported among art-naïve participants. However, the universality of this preference for visual art can be contested on the grounds that all previous research in this domain has focused exclusively on static paintings or images, and the evaluations of participants from western cultures (primarily Western Europe and North America).

It is important to note that representational and abstract artworks are not restricted to the fine arts. Dance forms across many cultures also have both representational and abstract content, such as dance that involves movements, tropes, or symbols to depict certain social or cultural themes and characters (representational dance), and dance that is purely for an aesthetic but non-symbolic, non-representative purpose (abstract dance; 27 , 28 , 29 ). Characteristics of a dance piece, such as its complexity, acceleration, predictability, uniformity, difficulty or reproducibility, movement amplitude, and evocativeness have been evidenced to predict the aesthetic ratings of dance 30 , 31 , 32 . A growing body of research has focused on the characteristics of the observer or spectator such as their visual and motor expertise with dance, and familiarity and competency with the dance movement vocabulary and how this affects aesthetic ratings 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 . Similar to paintings, the aesthetic ratings for dance are also higher for dance experts, and are modulated by similar features such as evocativeness, familiarity, and complexity. Yet, the representativeness of the content of dance and its modulation by dance expertise has to date received little attention in dance, even though, like paintings, dance can be representative or abstract 30 .

Therefore, in the current study, to address our first research question, we use mixed effects models to test whether preferences for representational art shows evidence for cultural as well as artform universality, and is modulated in a similar manner by expertise across participants from Indian and Western cultures across the domains of paintings and dance. If a universal preference for representational visual art generalises across art forms (paintings and dance), we would expect to find a preference for representational paintings and dance over abstract paintings and dance, modulated by art/dance expertise such that this preference is attenuated among painting/dance experts compared to painting/dance naïve participants. In addition, a universal preference for representational art should also emerge across cultures, and be modulated by expertise in a similar way across participants belonging to different cultures.

It is possible that a preference for representational art may be because of the familiarity or complexity of a representational artwork compared with an abstract artwork, as opposed to the abstractness of the content itself. To isolate the abstractness of the content of the paintings, we also investigated whether the universal preference for representational art and its modulation by expertise would further persist above and beyond subjective ratings of complexity, familiarity, evocativeness, reproducibility, and technical competency that have been demonstrated to influence aesthetic ratings and preferences for paintings and dance.

The universality of the ingroup bias for visual arts and its modulation by expertise

Art across the world can differ in its subject matter, production methods, the role(s) played by the artist and the spectator, and its categorisation into different art forms and styles. Cultural differences can perhaps also explain why some artworks are thought to be beautiful to some spectators and not to others. Artists from diverse cultures often report distinct aesthetic experiences when looking at the same visual art displays, and use varied geometric and metaphorical perspectives to represent the visual world in their artworks, employing specific ways to depict spatial and temporal information 7 , 38 , 39 . For instance, Western representational paintings can be very precise reproductions of the world at that time point, whereas in Indian and Chinese paintings, several periods of time can appear on the artwork at the same time 7 . Similarly, popular forms of Indian classical dance feature religious symbolism and depictions with a strong spiritual connection, whereas well-known western classical dance forms, such as ballet, do not 40 .

Previous studies investigating cultural differences in aesthetic appreciation of visual art have mainly focused on the visual processing of scenes and objects, and cultural similarities and differences in the processing of formal features such as colour perception and curvature 39 , 41 , 42 , 43 . In the domain of dance, research on cultural differences in dance appreciation is extremely sparse. One study to date has reported that Indian participants who had more visual experience or visual familiarity with Indian dance (Bharatanatyam) showed enhanced cortico-spinal excitability when viewing Bharatanatyam videos compared to Western dance (ballet) videos, whereas Western participants who have more visual experience with ballet showed higher cortico-spinal excitability when viewing ballet videos, suggesting enhanced motor resonance when watching a movement style that is more familiar 44 . However, the extent to which and how aesthetic preferences for dance might differ across cultures remains unstudied.

The few studies that have looked at the influence of cultural differences on aesthetic evaluations of artwork suggest that individuals show a preference for artworks that belong to their own culture, or correspond to their cultural traditions, compared to artworks that belong to another culture 7 , 43 . Specifically, Yang et al. 43 found that Western participants showed higher valence values when viewing Western paintings, but Chinese participants did not show this effect. Bao et al. 7 showed a double dissociation such that Chinese participants rated Chinese paintings higher on beauty compared to Western paintings, and Western participants rated Western paintings higher on beauty ratings compared to Chinese paintings. One explanation put forth for this double dissociation is a simple in-group bias 45 . Group biases (typically in-group favouritism and out-group dislike) are prevalent in day-to-day interactions wherein individuals show in-group favouritism for members of their own race, culture, ethnicity, and sex (e.g., 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ). In a similar manner, individuals looking at artworks from their own culture may feel a sense of cultural identity and belongingness, and therefore rate it higher on aesthetic ratings compared to artworks from other cultures 7 . This preference can be implicit, i.e., when individuals are not explicitly aware that the painting belongs to their own cultural background. In contrast, the preference may only exist or be heightened when individuals have explicit knowledge of cultural closeness and can identify the painting as belonging to their own cultures.

The feeling of cultural identity, however, may not be uniform across participants with different levels of art experience, sensitivity, expertise, or knowledge. While previous research has not directly investigated the modulation of ingroup bias by the expertise of the spectator, some evidence suggests that people who are interested in art agree on their aesthetic judgements irrespective of their individual cultural backgrounds 51 , 52 . These studies, however, systematically manipulate only either the cultural background of the participants or artworks belonging to different cultures, but not both in the same experiment. Therefore, an intriguing open question remains whether a sense of cultural identity is higher in art naïve participants who may show a higher ingroup bias compared to experts who may show an attenuated ingroup bias compared to non-experts.

Therefore, to address our second research question, we use mixed effects models to test the extent to which an ingroup bias exists for both cultures such that Western participants prefer Western paintings and dance, and Indian participants prefer Indian paintings and Indian dance, compared to paintings and dance belonging to the other culture. We predict that art/dance expertise should modulate this ingroup bias similarly for both Indian and Western participants, such that experts should show no (or a reduced) preference compared to non-experts for paintings or dance belonging to their own culture compared to another culture. This ingroup bias and its modulation by expertise should further persist above and beyond the subjective ratings of complexity, familiarity, evocativeness, reproducibility, and technical competency that have been known to have an influence on aesthetic ratings and preferences of paintings and dance.

Open science statement

Across all experiments, we report how the sample size was determined, all data exclusions, and all measures used in the study 53 , 54 . For both experiments, data pre-processing, statistical analyses, and data visualisations were performed using R (R Core Team, 2018), unless otherwise specified. Following open science initiatives 55 , all raw data are available online for other researchers to pursue alternative questions of interest, along with analysis scripts and stimuli used ( https://osf.io/vtw54/ ). Data analyses for both experiments were preregistered on AsPredicted.org (Experiment 1: https://aspredicted.org/65Y_W6X , Experiment 2: https://aspredicted.org/VBB_T2F ). The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Open Science Framework (OSF) repository [ https://osf.io/vtw54/ ].

For both Experiments 1 and 2, mixed effects model analyses were executed using the ordinal package (v.2019.12–10) in R v.1.3.1093. (R Core Team). Post-hoc tests were executed using the emmeans package (v.1.5.1). We used an alpha of 0.05 to make inferences, and controlled for multiple comparisons using Tukey-HSD in post-hoc tests. Model fit was compared using the anova() function (Chi-square test).

Experiment 1—Paintings

Sample size justification.

We determined the sample size based on a simulation-based power analysis approach using the simr R package 56 . First, we used pilot data (N = 22, 14 females, 10 art experts, Mean age  = 29.71, SD age  = 9.86) for beta weight estimation for the following linear mixed effects model: beauty ~ category*expertise + (1|subject) + (1|item). Second, we simulated data by extending along the sample size, i.e., as a function of different sample sizes. Our main focus was the interaction between the category of the painting and the art expertise of participants, and the power analysis suggested that we required a sample size of 50 participants (25 experts and 25 non-experts) with 35 items to have > 80% power to detect a significant category*expertise interaction (more details on the power analyses and the code can be found on OSF and in the supplementary material, see Figure S1 ). We therefore aimed to stop data collection when over 100 participants finished the entire survey, with an aim to recruit approximately 50 Indian participants and 50 Western participants with 25 experts and 25 non-experts within each culture.

Participants

Participants were recruited using the online data collection tool PsyToolkit 57 , 58 . Participants were primarily recruited from India and UK/Europe and classified into either Indian or Western culture participants (see Supplementary Table 2 for a geographic distribution of the sample) by advertisement on social media. All participants provided informed consent, and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Glasgow ethics review board (300190209), and all experiments were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Participants were reimbursed with an Amazon gift card of either 6 GBP or Rs. 550 INR.

A total of 145 participants started the online experiment, with 113 participants completing the full experiment. Participants were excluded if they did not pass our attention check questions (see section “ Tasks and Procedures ”; N = 19), or did not provide required demographic information (age, gender, and culture; N = 2). The final sample consisted of 92 participants (17 males, 75 females; Mean age  = 25.52, SD age  = 3.96) which included 45 Indian participants (21 experts, 24 non-experts) and 47 Western participants (21 experts, 26 non-experts). All participants provided informed consent, and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision (a geographic distribution of the participant sample is provided in Table S2 ). 

An independent sample of art naïve participants (N = 21, 13 females, Mean age  = 29.14, SD age  = 6.73) rated the first pool of images for abstract and representational paintings on familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness, and categorized them into ‘abstract’ or ‘representational’. A total of 120 paintings were selected and resized to 500 × 500 pixels: 60 by Indian painters, 60 by Western painters, out of which 30 each were abstract and representational paintings. Paintings were categorized by the experimenters as either ‘abstract’ or ‘representational’ depending on the content of the painting. That is, paintings depicting representational or figurative content (such as still life or landscapes) were categorized as ‘representational’ and paintings depicting content that was abstract (or not representative of anything concrete or figurative) were classified as ‘abstract.’ Participants also categorized the paintings into whether they thought the painting was abstract or representational. The final stimulus set consisted of paintings with ratings most similar to each other on the three variables of familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness. These paintings were also accurately classified as either ‘abstract’ or ‘representational’ i.e. the categorization by the participants matched the categorization made by the experimenters (more details along with the analysis code can be found here: https://osf.io/vtw54/ ). The final stimulus set consisted of 35 paintings—10 Indian abstract, 8 Western abstract, 8 Indian representational, and 9 Western representational paintings (see Fig.  1 ; note that the number of stimuli is unbalanced across categories because of the type of analysis we used to balance paintings on the variables of familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness. See the Supplementary material for more information). The paintings were resized to 500 × 500 pixels, and matched for mean luminance using the SHINE toolbox in MATLAB 59 . Therefore, the final stimulus set was closely matched across all four categories of paintings (Indian Abstract, Indian Representational, Western Abstract, Western Representational) on variables of luminance, familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness (for mean ratings for each painting category, please refer to Table S1 ).

Categories of paintings and dance (abstract/representational) across different sources of painting or dance style (Indian/Western). Note: All images used in Figs.  1 and 2 are in the public domain, and/or we have informed consent from individuals for publication of their image in an online open access publication. Images used to depict abstract and representational paintings and dance in Figure 1 are not images of the actual stimuli used. Stimuli used in the current study are available online on the OSF.

Tasks and procedure

Participants completed two tasks—a rating task and a categorization task (see Fig.  2 ). In the rating task, participants saw a painting on the screen, and were asked to rate it on a 5-point likert scale from low (1) to high (5) with ‘1’ corresponding to ‘not at all’, ‘2’ corresponding to ‘slightly’, ‘3’ corresponding to ‘moderately’, ‘4’ corresponding to ‘very’, and ‘5’ corresponding to ‘extremely’ on the following variables:

Familiarity (how familiar is the painting?)

Complexity (how complex is the painting?)

Evocativeness (how evocative or emotional is the painting?)

Abstractness (how abstract is the painting?)

Technical competency (how technically competent is the painting or the painter who made the painting?)

Beauty (how beautiful do you find the painting?)

Liking (how much do you like the painting?)

Graphical representation of the rating task and categorisation task for Experiments 1 and 2.

The order in which these questions were presented was randomized for each item, and the order in which the items (35 paintings) were presented was also randomized across participants. Two additional questions appeared randomly during the rating task which served as attention check questions: “how attentive are you while doing this experiment?” and “how honest are you while doing this experiment?” The 5-point likert scale remained the same as for the other variables. Participants who responded < 4 on the 5-point likert scale were excluded from the analyses.

In the categorisation task, participants categorized the same 35 paintings they saw during the rating task into either ‘Indian’ or ‘Western’ depending on whether they thought the painting was produced by a painter of Indian origin or a painter of Western origin. The order of the items (35 paintings) was randomized across participants. Participants also completed two questionnaires—the Art Experience Questionnaire 60 to gauge their art expertise, and (unrelated to the current study) the Vienna Art Interest and Art Knowledge (VAIAK) questionnaire 61 . They were also asked if they were art professionals or not—participants were categorized as ‘non-experts’ if they were art naïve or had no experience or qualifications related to the arts, and participants were categorized as art ‘experts’ if they worked as art professionals or had completed their Masters in an arts-related field (fine arts, or arts history; detailed data of arts expertise in participants based on academic and professional qualifications, as well as their scores on the Art Experience Questionnaire, can be found on OSF). The experiment started with some demographic questions, the Art Experience Questionnaire, and then participants completed the rating task, the categorisation task, and the VAIAK questionnaire. The order of tasks and questionnaires remained constant across participants, and the tasks were self-paced. The entire experiment did not last for more than 60 min for most participants (Mean timetaken  = 50.86 min, SD timetaken  = 39.25). The script used for online experiment presentation in Psytoolkit is provided on the OSF.

Data analysis

We recorded ratings for each item for each participant on all variables for the rating task. For the categorisation task, we recorded which items were classified as either Indian or Western by participants (source of painting as rated by participants). We also calculated accuracy by calculating the percentage of items that were correctly categorized as Indian or Western i.e. when the actual source of the painting matched the participant’s response.

RQ1: Do expertise and culture influence aesthetic judgements of representational and abstract art (preregistered and confirmatory)?

Beauty and liking ratings were analysed separately. The current analyses differ from our pre-registered analyses in three ways:

Our study was powered to detect a category*expertise interaction with N = 50. We aimed to collect N = 50 for both cultures, and include the category*expertise*culture interaction as a fixed effect in the current model. We were able to collect N = 45 Indian and N = 47 Western participants i.e. a total N of 92 participants. Therefore, while we are powered to detect the category*expertise interaction in the total sample, we are not sufficiently powered to detect the three-way interaction of culture*expertise*category. Therefore, any findings we report are suggestive and exploratory, and not confirmatory.

We pre-registered a linear mixed effects analysis using the ‘lme4’ package in R 62 . However, because the data were ordinal in nature, we decided to analyse the ordinal data using cumulative link mixed models by using the ‘ordinal’ package in R 63 . Analysing the data using ‘lme4’ yielded similar results.

In the preregistered analyses, we included category (abstract, representational) and art expertise (expert, nonexpert) as categorical fixed effects of interest, and the by-subject and by-item intercept as a random factor for the model. However, given recommendations for the “keep it maximal” approach to multilevel modeling 64 , we further included the maximal number of random effects that the design permitted.

The categorical variables were coded using a deviation coding style where factors sum to zero and the intercept can then be interpreted as the grand mean and the main effects can be interpreted similarly to a conventional ANOVA 65 . As such, the categorical variables of category, expertise, culture, and source of painting were coded as 0.5 (representational/expert/Indian/Indian) and − 0.5 (abstract/nonexpert/Western/Western). An ordinal logistic regression was employed in the form of a cumulative-link mixed model (ordinal package, “clmm” function; 63) using logit (log-odds) as link, and flexible thresholds between the ordinal scores. We chose this approach because the dependent or outcome variables ‘beauty’ and ‘liking’ ratings were ordinal in nature (ratings on a Likert scale 1–5). The model thus measures the probability of specific ratings being above certain thresholds without the assumption that the thresholds are symmetric or equidistant from each other. In order to address our first question of interest i.e. whether representational and abstract art judgements are modulated by art expertise, and whether this is similar for both cultures, we included the three way interaction of category (abstract, representational), expertise (expert, nonexpert), and culture (Indian, Western) as a fixed effect in the model. For random effects, we included the maximal number of random effects that the design permitted. The complexity of the random structure was reduced if the results showed failure in model convergence or a singular fit. The final model used was –

To test whether category, expertise, and culture modulated beauty and liking ratings above and beyond the subjective factors that participants rated the paintings on (familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, technical competency), we further added the subjective variables as fixed effects to the model.

RQ2: Does expertise shape the ingroup bias for aesthetic judgements (preregistered but exploratory)?

We preregistered the hypotheses for our second research question, but we note that the present study was not powered to detect a three-way interaction of culture, source of painting, and expertise. Therefore, any conclusions we draw from these analyses are exploratory and suggestive, and not confirmatory.

In order to investigate the ingroup bias in aesthetic judgements, we tested for an interaction between culture of participants and the source of painting, and how this was modulated by expertise. Beauty and liking ratings were analysed separately. The categorical variables were coded using a deviation coding style. As such, expertise, culture, and source of painting were coded as 0.5 (Indian/expert/Indian) and − 0.5 (Western/nonexpert/Western). In order to address our second question of interest i.e. whether the ingroup bias exists, and is modulated by art expertise, we included the three way interaction of source of painting (Indian, Western), expertise (expert, nonexpert), and culture (Indian, Western) as a fixed effect in the model. For random effects, we included the maximal number of random effects that the design permitted. The complexity of the random structure was reduced if the results showed failure in model convergence or a singular fit. The final model used was –

To test whether source of painting, expertise, and culture modulated beauty and liking ratings above and beyond the subjective factors that participants rated the paintings on (familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, technical competency), we further added the subjective variables as fixed effects to the model.

In the analyses above, the factor ‘source of painting’ was coded according to whether a painting was actually painted by an ‘Indian’ artist or a ‘Western’ artist. However, participants were not explicitly made aware while doing the rating task that the paintings were Indian or Western. If an ingroup bias does exist in this case, the preference for paintings from their own cultural background might be reported irrespective of whether participants can accurately identify the painting as Indian or Western in an explicit sense. In contrast, preferences for artworks from one’s own culture may only arise or may be heightened when participants themselves classify the painting as ‘Indian’ or ‘Western’ and have an explicit knowledge of cultural closeness, irrespective of whether or not the paintings were actually made by an ‘Indian’ painter or ‘Western’ painter. In order to test this, we repeated the mixed effects model analyses with the factor ‘source of painting—ppt’ coded as ‘Indian’ or ‘Western’ as categorized by the participants in the categorisation task.

Experiment 2—Dance

We determined the sample size based on a simulation-based power analysis approach using the simr R package 56 . First, we used pilot data (N = 21, 17 females, 12 dance experts, Mean age  = 29.71, SD age  = 9.86) for beta weight estimation for the following model: beauty ~ category*expertise + (1|subject) + (1|item). Second, we simulated data by extending along the sample size and plotted statistical power as a function of different sample sizes (see Figure S9 ; more details on the power analyses and the code can be found here: https://osf.io/vtw54/ ). Our main focus was the interaction between the category of the dance and the dance expertise of participants, and the power analysis suggested that we required a sample size of 50 participants (25 experts and 25 non-experts) with 38 items to have 80% power to detect a significant category*expertise interaction. We therefore aimed to recruit 50 Indian participants and 50 Western participants with approximately 25 experts and 25 non-experts in each culture.

Participants completed the experiment on Qualtrics. Participants were primarily recruited from India and UK/Europe and classified as either from Indian or Western culture (see the supplementary table S10 for a geographic distribution of the sample). All participants provided informed consent, and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Glasgow ethics review board (300190209), and all experiments were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Participants were reimbursed with an Amazon gift card of either 6 GBP or Rs. 550 INR.

A total of 161 participants started the online experiment, with 110 participants completing the full experiment. Participants were excluded if they did not pass our attention check questions (see “section  Tasks and procedure ”; N = 16), and did not provide required demographic information (age, gender, and culture; N = 2). Two participants were further excluded as they did not fit in either the ‘Indian’ or ‘Western’ culture group of participants (a geographic description of our participant sample is provided in the Table S10 ). The final sample consisted of 90 participants (79 females, 8 males, 3 non-binary; Mean age  = 25.94, SD age  = 7.51) which included 48 Indian participants (23 experts, 25 non-experts) and 42 Western participants (22 experts, 20 non-experts). All participants provided informed consent, and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision.

We invited a professional dancer trained in classical ballet and Bharatanatyam, Sophia Salingaros 66 , to record Bharatanatyam and ballet dance videos. We recorded both ballet and Bharatanatyam dance videos featuring movement sequences that either were intended to represent something in the external world (e.g. humans, animals, birds, nature, etc.) or not represent anything in particular (pure dance, referred to as nrtta  in Bharatanatyam, or non-representational abstract dance). The videos were edited in iMovie into 10–12 s clips, and the first 0.5 s of the video faded in, and the last 0.5 s faded out to a black screen. An independent sample of participants (all non-dancers, N = 13, 8 females, Mean age  = 28.85, SD age  = 8.93) rated the first pool of stimuli of abstract and representational dance videos on familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness. Out of a total of 91 videos (46 Bharatanatyam/Indian dance videos, out of which 18 were abstract, and 45 ballet/Western dance videos, out of which 25 were abstract), the final stimulus set was selected by selecting dance videos with ratings most similar to each other on the three variables of familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness (more details along with the analysis code can be found on the OSF). The final stimuli consisted of 38 dance videos—11 Indian abstract, 8 Western abstract, 11 Indian representational, and 8 Western representational dances, matched on the variables of familiarity, complexity, and evocativeness (see Supplementary Material for more details). Mean ratings for each video as rated in the pilot study are reported in Table S9 , and all videos are available on the OSF.

Participants completed two tasks—a Rating task and a Categorization task (see Fig.  2 ). In the rating task, participants saw a dance video on the screen, and were asked to rate it on a 5 point likert scale similar to Experiment 1 from low (1) to high (5) on the following variables:

Familiarity (how familiar is the dance?)

Complexity (how complex is the dance?)

Evocativeness (how evocative or emotional is the dance?)

Abstractness (how abstract is the dance?)

Technical competency (how technically competent is the dance?)

Reproducibility (how reproducible is the dance?)

Beauty (how beautiful do you find the dance?)

Liking (how much do you like the dance?)

Enjoyability (how much did you enjoy the dance?)

The order in which these questions were presented was randomized for each item, and the order in which the items (38 dance videos) were presented was also randomized across participants. Two additional attention check questions were also presented randomly during the task (same as Experiment 1) and participants who responded < 4 on the likert scale on these questions were excluded from the analyses.

In the categorisation task, participants categorized the same 38 dance videos they saw during the rating task into either ‘Bharatanatyam’ or ‘Ballet’ depending on whether they thought the dance was of Indian origin or Western origin (the instructions given to the participants were whether they thought the dance was ballet i.e., western classical dance/ of Western origin, or Bharatanatyam i.e., Indian classical dance/ of Indian origin). The order of the items (38 dance videos) was randomized across participants. Participants also completed a dance experience questionnaire similar to the Art Experience Questionnaire ( 60 , see the supplementary material for the exact set of questions used to measure dance experience). Participants were asked if they were dance professionals or not—participants were categorized as ‘non-experts’ if they were dance naïve or had no experience with or qualifications related to dance, and participants were categorized as dance ‘experts’ if they worked as dance professionals or had more than 8 years of training in either ballet or Bharatanatyam (a detailed distribution of dance expertise in participants and their scores on the dance experience questionnaire can be found in the supplementary material). The experiment started with some demographic questions, followed by the rating task and the categorisation task. The tasks and questionnaires were self-paced, and the order remained constant across participants. The experiment was self-paced but lasted ~ 120 min for most participants (Mean time  = 120.19 min, SD time  = 242.40). Results were similar when participants who were 3SD away from the mean time taken by participants to finish the experiment were excluded from the analyses.

The data analysis pipeline was the same as Experiment 1 with the following changes: 1) instead of categorizing paintings as Indian and Western, participants categorized dance as either Ballet or Bharatanatyam (labelled as ‘dance style’ instead of ‘source of painting’; 2) we added two additional variables: enjoyability as a dependent variable, and reproducibility as a subjective variable. Therefore, the model with subjective variables for Experiment 2 includes reproducibility along with other variables (the same as Experiment 1), and analyses are performed separately for beauty, liking, and enjoyability dependent/outcome variables.

Rating task

Mean ratings for familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, technical competency, beauty, liking, and abstractness across abstract and representational art for experts and non-experts of Indian and Western cultures and Indian and Western art are provided in Table S3 and in Figures S2 - S8 . To check whether participants perceived abstract and representational paintings as more abstract and less abstract respectively, participants were also asked to rate paintings on abstractness. Overall, a paired samples t-test suggested that participants rated abstract paintings (Mean = 4.08, SD = 0.52) higher on abstractness compared to representational paintings (mean = 1.94; SD = 0.55; t(91)  = 29.44, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [2.01, ∞]; see Fig.  3 ).

Abstractness ratings (on a 5-point likert scale where 1 = not at all abstract, and 5 = extremely abstract) for abstract and representational paintings (A; Experiment 1) and abstract and representational dance (B; Experiment 2).

Categorisation task

Accuracy on the categorisation task across category, source of painting, expertise, and culture are provided in Table S17 . One sample t-tests suggested that for both Indian and Western paintings, participants could accurately categorise paintings as “Indian” or “Western” greater than chance (Indian paintings: Mean = 0.55, SD = 0.20, t(91) = 4.18, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.53, ∞]; Western paintings: Mean = 0.70, SD = 0.24, t(91) = 14.06, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.68, ∞]; see Fig.  4 A). Accuracy for Western paintings was higher than Indian paintings (t (91) = 7.35, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.19, 0.11]).

Proportion of accurate responses for Experiment 1 ( A ) and Experiment 2 ( B ) of all participants for Indian and Western paintings and dance styles. Dashed line represents 50% accuracy (or chance).

RQ1: Do expertise and culture shape aesthetic judgements of representational and abstract art (preregistered and confirmatory)?

The results of a cumulative link mixed effects model for beauty and liking ratings showed that category (beauty: β = 1.32, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 1.01, p  < 0.001), culture (beauty: β = 1.09, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 0.91, p  < 0.001) the interaction between category and expertise (beauty: β = 1.12, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 1.14, p  < 0.001), the interaction between culture and category (liking: β = 0.60, p  = 0.04) and the three-way interaction between category, expertise, and culture (beauty: β = 1.41, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 1.26, p  = 0.04) had an effect on the ratings of beauty and liking (Table S4 ). Post-hoc tests revealed that all participants (except Western experts) showed higher ratings of beauty and liking for representational paintings compared with abstract paintings, and overall ratings by Indian participants were higher than Western participants (see Table S8 ). Specifically, to test our hypothesis whether the difference in beauty and liking ratings of abstract and representational paintings would be higher in non-experts compared to experts, we computed an interaction contrast for both Indian and Western culture participants separately. The contrast revealed that the difference between beauty and liking ratings for abstract and representational paintings was higher in non-experts than experts, but only for Western participants (beauty: M = 1.83, SE = 0.42, p  < 0.001; liking: M = 1.77, SE = 0.44, p  < 0.001) and not for Indian participants (beauty: M = 0.42, SE = 0.43, p  = 0.33, Fig.  5 A; liking: M = 0.51, SE = 0.43, p  = 0.24, Fig.  5 B).

The effect of category (abstract or representational paintings), expertise (art experts or non-experts) and culture (Indian participants or Western participants) on the ratings of beauty ( A ) and liking ( B ).

As our study was powered to detect a two-way interaction between category and expertise, we additionally ran a model to test for this interaction for Indian and Western culture participants separately:

Similar to the above findings, we found that beauty and liking ratings were modulated by an interaction between category and expertise only for Western participants (beauty: β = 1.76, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 1.66, p  < 0.001), and not for Indian participants (β = 0.44, p  = 0.32; liking: β = 0.53, p  = 0.25; see Table S7 ).

Additionally, we added the subjective variables of familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, and technical competency as fixed effects to our main model to investigate whether the three-way interaction modulated beauty and liking ratings irrespective of the contribution of the subjective variables. As expected, all subjective variables predicted ratings of beauty and liking, with higher familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, and technical competency predicting higher ratings of beauty and liking. Adding the subjective variables significantly improved our main models (beauty: AIC main  = 8492.53, AIC subj  = 7035.66, p  < 0.001; liking: AIC main  = 8893.61, AIC subj  = 7391.98, p  < 0.001) and the three-way interaction of category, expertise, and culture influenced ratings of beauty even when accounting for possible contributions of subjective variables. For liking ratings, the three-way interaction estimate confidence intervals partially overlapped with zero but still influenced ratings of liking even when accounting for possible contributions of subjective variables (see Table S4 ; Fig.  6 A,B).

For the outcome variables of beauty ( A ) and liking ( B ), beta estimates for the main model (in aqua blue) and the model with subjective variables (in purple) are plotted for each predictor variable along with their corresponding uncertainties (95% confidence interval width for a normal distribution for each estimate). Distributions are rescaled to match the height of each distribution. This figure (and other similar figures) is made using the plot_summs function in the jtools R package (v. 2.1.0; Long, 2020).

RQ2: Does expertise influence the ingroup bias for aesthetic judgements (preregistered but exploratory)?

The results of a cumulative link mixed effects model for beauty and liking ratings showed that source of painting (beauty: β = 1.05, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 1.01, p  < 0.001) and culture (beauty: β = 1.05, p  < 0.001; liking: β = 0.91, p  < 0.001) had an effect on the ratings of beauty and liking (Table S5 ). Specifically Indian paintings were liked more and rated as more beautiful than Western paintings by all participants. Indian participants (beauty: M = 0.43, SE = 0.23, 95% CI [− 0.03, 0.88]) showed higher ratings of beauty and liking for all paintings compared to Western participants (beauty: M = − 0.62, SE = 0.24, 95% CI [− 1.08, − 0.16]; p  < 0.001). There was no evidence of an ingroup bias or its modulation by art expertise: there were no other significant main effects or two-way or three-way interactions (see Table S5 , Fig.  7 A,B).

The effect of source of painting (A) and the source of painting as categorized by participants (B; Indian or Western paintings depicted in red and blue respectively), expertise (art experts or non-experts) and culture (Indian participants or Western participants) on the ratings of beauty and liking.

Similar to RQ1, we ran an additional model adding the subjective variables of familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, and technical competency as fixed effects. As expected, all subjective variables influenced the ratings of beauty and liking. Adding the subjective variables significantly improved our main models (beauty: AIC main  = 8636.42, AIC subj  = 7087.03, p  < 0.001; liking: AIC main  = 8893.61, AIC subj  = 7391.98, p  < 0.001). The main effects of culture (although marginally significant) and source of painting still influenced beauty and liking ratings even when accounting for the possible contributions of the subjective variables (see Table S5 , Fig.  8 A,B).

For the outcome variables of beauty and liking, beta estimates for the main model (in aqua blue) and the model with subjective variables (in purple) are plotted for each predictor variable along with their corresponding uncertainties (95% confidence interval width for a normal distribution for each estimate). Distributions are rescaled to match the height of each distribution. Figures A1 and A2 display models with source of painting as classified by the experimenter i.e., according to the origin of the artists. Figures B1 and B2 display models with source of painting as classified by the participants themselves.

Results were similar when the factor ‘source of painting’ was coded as either ‘Indian’ or ‘Western’ as categorized by the individual participants in the Categorization task (see Table S6 , Figs.  9 and 10 ). That is, source of painting and culture influenced beauty and liking ratings, but no other two-way or three-way interactions were found. However, a visual inspection of the data suggests that although a three-way interaction did not pass our statistical threshold (i.e. p  < 0.05), a trend for a three way interaction can be observed such that Western experts no longer showed higher ratings of beauty and liking for Indian paintings when paintings were categorized by the participants (see Figs.  7 A,B, 9 A,B).

For the outcome variables of beauty ( A ) and liking ( B ), beta estimates for the model with source of painting as categorized by the experimenter (in pink) and the model with source of paintings as categorized by the participant (in green) are plotted for each predictor variable along with their corresponding uncertainties (95% confidence interval width for a normal distribution for each estimate). Distributions are rescaled to match the height of each distribution.

The effect of dance expertise (experts or non-experts) and culture (Indian or Western participants) on beauty, liking, and enjoyability ratings of abstract (in purple) and representational (in yellow) dance videos.

Mean ratings for familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, technical competency, reproducibility, and abstractness across abstract and representational dance for experts and non-experts of Indian and Western cultures for Bharatanatyam and ballet dance styles are provided in Table S11 and in Figures S10 - S17 . To check whether participants perceived abstract and representational dance as more abstract and less abstract respectively, participants were also asked to rate the dance videos on abstractness. Overall, a paired-samples t-test suggested that participants rated abstract dance videos (Mean = 3.16, SD = 0.76) higher on abstractness compared to representational dance (mean = 2.59; SD = 0.79; t(89) = 4.81, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.37, ∞]; see Fig.  3 B).

Accuracy across dance style, category, expertise, and culture are provided in Table S18 . One sample t-tests suggested that for both Indian and Western dance styles, participants could accurately categorise dance videos as “Bharatanatyam” or “ballet” greater than chance (Bharatanatyam: Mean = 0.93, SD = 0.14, t(89) = 43.08, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.91, ∞]; ballet: Mean = 0.91, SD = 0.16, t(89) = 35.24, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [0.89, ∞]; see Fig.  4 B). There was no difference in accuracy for Bharatanatyam or ballet dance styles (t (89) = 1.13, p  = 0.26, 95% CI [− 0.01, 0.05]).

RQ1: Do expertise and culture shape aesthetic judgements of representational and abstract dance (preregistered and confirmatory)?

The results of a cumulative link mixed effects model for beauty, liking, and enjoyability ratings showed that culture (beauty: β = 0.75, p  = 0.004; liking: β = 0.46, p  = 0.07; enjoyability: β = 0.50, p  = 0.06), category (beauty: β = 0.41, p  = 0.06; liking: β = 0.51, p  = 0.01; enjoyability: β = 0.43, p  = 0.03) and dance expertise (beauty: β = 0.42, p  = 0.09; liking: β = 0.62, p  = 0.01; enjoyability: β = 0.63, p  = 0.01) had an impact on the ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability. Ratings by Indian participants (beauty: M = 1.22, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [0.84, 1.59]; liking: M = 0.745, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [0.37, 1.10]; enjoyability: M = 0.75, SE = 0.20, 95% CI [0.36, 1.14]) were overall higher than ratings made by Western participants (beauty: M = 0.46, SE = 0.21, 95% CI [0.04, 0.88], p  = 0.004; liking: M = 0.28, SE = 0.20, 95% CI [− 0.12, 0.68]; enjoyability: M = 0.25, SE = 0.21, 95% CI [− 0.16, 0.66]). Abstract dance videos (beauty: M = 1.04, SE = 1.87, 95% CI [0.68, 1.41]; liking: M = 0.76, SE = 0.18, 95% CI [0.41, 1.11]; enjoyability: M = 0.72, SE = 0.18, 95% CI [0.36, 1.08]) were rated as more beautiful, more enjoyable, and were liked more than representational dance videos (beauty: M = 0.63, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [0.26, 1.01], p  = 0.06; liking: M = 0.25, SE = 0.18, 95% CI [− 0.10, 0.61]; enjoyability: M = 0.28, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [− 0.08, 0.65]). Dance experts (beauty: M = 1.05, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [0.68, 1.43]; liking: M = 0.82, SE = 0.19, 95% CI [0.45, 1.18]; enjoyability: M = 0.82, SE = 0.20, 95% CI [0.43, 1.20]) rated all dance videos higher on beauty, liking, and enjoyability than non-dancers (beauty: M = 0.63, SE = 0.21, 95% CI [0.22, 1.04], p  = 0.09; liking: M = 0.20, SE = 0.20, 95% CI [− 0.20, 0.59]; enjoyability: M = 0.18, SE = 0.21, 95% CI [− 0.23, 0.59]). No other two-way or three-way interactions emerged for beauty and liking ratings (see Table S12 and Fig.  10 A–C). A two-way interaction between category and culture influenced enjoyability ratings (enjoyability: β = 0.51, p  = 0.05). Post hoc tests revealed that abstract dance videos (M = 0.59, SE = 0.23, 95% CI [0.13, 1.05]) were rated as more enjoyable compared to representational dance videos (M = − 0.09, SE = 0.24, 95% CI [− 0.57, 0.38], p  = 0.005) only by Western participants and not by Indian participants.

For Indian participants, dance expertise had a marginal effect on ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability, with expert dancers showing higher ratings than non-dancers (beauty: β = 0.59, p  = 0.08; liking: β = 0.68, p  = 0.04; enjoyability: β = 0.67, p  = 0.07), and for Western participants, abstract dance videos were rated as more beautiful, were liked more, and were rated as more enjoyable than representational dance videos (beauty: β = 0.58, p  = 0.04; liking: β = 1.01, p  = 0.005; enjoyability: β = 0.69, p  = 0.054; see Table S15 ). No two-way interaction between category and art expertise emerged.

Additionally, we added the subjective variables of familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, reproducibility, and technical competency as fixed effects to our full model to investigate whether the main effects of category, expertise, and culture modulated beauty, liking, and enjoyability ratings irrespective of the contribution of the subjective variables. As expected, all subjective variables predicted ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability with higher familiarity, complexity, evocativeness, reproducibility, and technical competency predicting higher ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability. Adding the subjective variables significantly improved our main models (beauty: AIC main  = 8469.90, AIC subj  = 7001.71, p  < 0.001; liking: AIC main  = 8862.6, AIC subj  = 7307.13, p  < 0.001; enjoyability: AIC main  = 8889.0, AIC subj  = 7366.1, p  < 0.001). Dance expertise influenced beauty, liking and enjoyability ratings, and category influenced liking and enjoyability ratings, even when accounting for possible contributions of subjective variables. In this particular analysis, we did not find that culture particularly influenced beauty, liking, and enjoyability ratings suggesting that the effects of subjective variables could perhaps explain the effect of culture seen in the main models (see Table S12 , Fig.  11 A–C).

RQ1: The effect of category, expertise, and culture. For the outcome variables of beauty ( A ), liking ( B ), and enjoyability ( C ) beta estimates for the main model (in aqua blue) and the model with subjective variables (in purple) are plotted for each predictor variable (fixed effect) along with their corresponding uncertainties (95% confidence interval width for a normal distribution for each estimate). Distributions are rescaled to match the height of each distribution.

The results of a cumulative link mixed effects model for beauty and liking ratings showed that culture (beauty: β = 0.70, p  = 0.006; liking: β = 1.01, p  = 0.09; enjoyability: β = 0.47, p  = 0.07), dance expertise (liking: β = 0.58, p  = 0.02; enjoyability: β = 0.60, p  = 0.02) the two-way interactions of dance style and expertise (beauty: β = 0.65, p  = 0.01; liking: β = 0.69, p  = 0.02; enjoyability: β = 0.53, p  = 0.06), and dance style and culture (beauty: β = 0.77, p  = 0.006) and the three way interaction of dance style, expertise, and culture (beauty: β = 1.32, p  = 0.01; liking: β = 1.30, p  = 0.02; enjoyability: β = 1.36, p  = 0.01) had an effect on the ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability (Table S13 ). Specifically, while the two-way culture by dance style interaction suggests that Western participants rated ballet as more beautiful than Bharatanatyam, and Indian participants rated Bharatanatyam as more beautiful than ballet, post hoc tests revealed than an ingroup bias was present such that only Western non-experts showed higher ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability for ballet (beauty: M = 1.01, SE = 0.34, 95% CI [0.34, 1.67]; liking: M = 0.46, SE = 0.35, 95% CI [− 0.24, 1.15] ; enjoyability: M = 0.27, SE = 0.34, 95% CI [− 0.39, 0.93]) compared to Bharatanatyam (beauty: M = − 0.18, SE = 0.35, 95% CI [− 0.86, 0.50], p  < 0.001; liking: M = − 0.35, SE = 0.37, 95% CI [− 1.08, 0.38], p  = 0.05; enjoyability: M = − 0.31, SE = 0.37, 95% CI [− 1.03, 0.42], p  = 0.05; see Table S13 , Fig.  12 A–C).

The effect of dance style (Bharatanatyam or ballet depicted in red and blue respectively), expertise (art experts or non-experts) and culture (Indian participants or Western participants) on the ratings of beauty ( A ), liking ( B ), and ( C ) enjoyability.

Similar to RQ1, we ran an additional model adding the subjective variables of familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, reproducibility, and technical competency as fixed effects. As expected, all subjective variables influenced the ratings of beauty and liking such that higher ratings of familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, technical competency, and reproducibility predicted higher ratings of beauty and liking. Adding the subjective variables significantly improved our main models (beauty: AIC main  = 8636.42, AIC subj  = 6977.28, p  < 0.001; liking: AIC main  = 8743.3, AIC subj  = 7241.4, p  < 0.001; enjoyability: AIC main  = 8814.7, AIC subj  = 7307.7, p  < 0.001). Importantly, the three-way interaction still influenced beauty, liking, and enjoyability ratings even when accounting for the possible contributions of the subjective variables (beauty: β = 0.84, p  = 0.06; liking: β = 0.99, p  = 0.05; enjoyability: β = 0.98, p  = 0.05); see Table S13 , Fig.  13 A–C).

RQ2: The effect of Expertise, Culture, and Dance Style. For the outcome variables of beauty ( A ), liking ( B ), and enjoyability ( C ) beta estimates for the main model (in aqua blue) and the model with subjective variables (in purple) are plotted for each predictor variable along with their corresponding uncertainties (95% confidence interval width for a normal distribution for each estimate). Distributions are rescaled to match the height of each distribution.

Results were similar when the factor ‘dance style’ was coded as either ‘Bharatanatyam’ or ‘ballet’ as categorized by the individual participants in the Categorization task (see Table S14 , Figures S19 - 21 ).

Art expertise and art experience questionnaires

We also computed art/dance expertise scores using the Art Expertise Questionnaire for paintings (art expertise, Table S19 ) and dance (dance expertise, Table S20 ) between Indian and Western experts and non-experts for Experiments 1 and 2. Independent samples t-tests suggested that experts (Experiment 1: Mean = 31.43, SD = 9.66; Experiment 2: Mean = 14.44, SD = 5.13) scored higher than non-experts (Experiment 1: Mean = 14.02, SD = 5.94; Experiment 2: Mean = 8.95, SD = 4.79) on the art expertise questionnaires (Experiment 1: t(90) = 10.58, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [14.14, 20.68]; Experiment 2: t(88) = 5.25, p  < 0.001, 95% CI [3.41, 7.57]). Expertise scores for Indian experts (Experiment 1: Mean = 31.19, SD = 9.65; Experiment 2: Mean = 14.48, SD = 4.91) and Western experts (Experiment 1: Mean = 31.67, SD = 9.91; Experiment 2: Mean = 14.41, SD = 5.47) were not significantly different from each other (Experiment 1: t(40) =  − 0.16, p  = 0.87, 95% CI [− 6.57, 5.62]; Experiment 2: t(43) = 0.04, p  = 0.96, 95% CI [− 3.05, 3.19]).

Demographic variables

For both Experiments 1 and 2, and RQ1 and RQ2, our findings were similar even when accounting for the demographic variables of age and education. That is, even when age and level of education were included in the models as control variables, our findings were similar to those reported above. We do not report these analyses in the main manuscript as they were not a part of our preregistered analyses but provide these data online for researchers to pursue related questions of interest.

The aim of the current work was to evaluate the extent to which people show universal aesthetic preferences across fine and performing arts, and to examine the extent to which one’s cultural background and experience with an art form shape these preferences. Across two experiments analysed using mixed effects models, we investigated whether the nature of aesthetic preference and the role of expertise in aesthetic judgements generalises across artforms (paintings and dance) and cultures (Indian, Western). As hypothesized, we found a preference for representational art (only for paintings) and an ingroup bias (only for dance), both modulated by painting/dance expertise. In both cases, however, the modulation by expertise emerged only among Western participants, and both the preference for representational art and an ingroup bias for aesthetic judgement did not manifest across artforms (paintings and dance) in a similar manner. In the following sections, we evaluate and position our findings within a broader context, and discuss implications for the field of empirical aesthetics in particular, and psychology more generally.

The preference for representational art and its modulation by expertise

In Experiment 1, we found that participants belonging to either Indian or Western cultures prefer representational paintings more than abstract paintings. Representational paintings were assigned higher ratings of beauty and liking compared to abstract paintings, consistent with previous research reporting a preference for representational compared to abstract images and paintings 6 , 8 , 17 , 21 , 22 , 23 . Furthermore, art expertise modulated beauty and liking ratings for representational and abstract paintings in the current study. As hypothesized, and in accordance with previous work, beauty and liking rating differences between representational and abstract art were smaller among art experts compared to non-experts 17 , 24 , 25 , 26 . This modulation, however, was present only among our Western participant sample. While both Indian experts and non-experts showed higher ratings of beauty and liking for representational paintings compared to abstract paintings, the difference between ratings for representational and abstract paintings did not differ across Indian experts compared to non-experts. In other words, the preference for representational paintings was more attenuated for Western experts compared to Western art naïve participants, but this attenuation did not emerge among the expert Indian participants.

While we expected a similar pattern of results across Indian and Western participants, to the best of our knowledge, all prior research investigating the modulation of art expertise on aesthetic ratings of abstract and representational art has solely examined participants from Northern America or Western Europe. The modulation of art expertise could represent a lower preference for representational art by experts compared to non-experts, a higher preference for abstract art by experts compared to non-experts, or a combination of both. Figure  5 suggests that the interaction between category of the painting (representational or abstract) and the expertise of the participants (experts or non-experts) in Western compared to Indian participants might be driven by lower ratings of beauty and liking for representational paintings by Western experts (or higher ratings for representational paintings by Indian participants).

One possible explanation for the three-way interaction between culture, category, and expertise could therefore be the familiarity and representativeness of the paintings for Indian and Western participants. It is possible that Indian participants are more familiar with the representative content of both Indian and Western paintings to a greater extent because of their exposure to Western culture in mainstream media 7 . Further, Western art forms a major part of the syllabus for art education in India, whereas exposure to Indian art and culture may be more limited in Western art education 67 . Indian participants may consequently report higher ratings for representational paintings from both Indian and Western painters compared to Western participants if we assume that higher familiarity with a painting leads to higher aesthetic ratings. While this explanation seems unlikely as the three-way interaction of culture, category, and expertise holds even when accounting for the contribution of the familiarity of the painting to the spectator, it remains possible that the meaningfulness of the representative content differs for Indian and Western art experts. Another possible explanation is that Indian experts do not show a preference for abstract art to the same degree as Western participants. Indeed, Fig.  5 suggests that the difference between Indian expert and non-expert ratings of abstract paintings is lower compared to Western participants. A key point of consideration here is the abstract-representational categorisation of paintings, which is not perceived similarly across cultures. In contrast to the Euro-American idea that abstraction is purely a formal phenomenon (related to the form and composition of a painting), abstraction in Indian art is considered more of a rupture in a narrative or a form of symbolism 68 . Therefore, it is possible that Indian experts might have perceived all abstract paintings differently than Western expert participants. An additional point of consideration here is the personality dimension of openness to experience. Previous evidence suggests an association between openness to experience and a preference for abstract art as well as novelty in art 69 . It is possible that some of our between-culture differences can be explained by this personality construct i.e., Indian art experts may score lower on the dimension of openness to experience, and therefore show a smaller preference for abstract art compared to western art experts who score higher on this dimension. However, previous research provides mixed evidence for cross-cultural differences in openness to experience 70 , 71 . Similarly, socioeconomic status and social class have been known to influence aesthetic preferences 72 . An important avenue for future research would be to explore the link between preferences for abstract art and their link to individual differences such as social class, socioeconomic status, and the personality dimension of openness to experience across different cultures.

In contrast to the findings from Experiment 1, we did not find a preference for representational dance in Experiment 2. Instead, participants from both Indian and Western cultures rated abstract Indian and Western dance videos higher on ratings of beauty and liking compared to representational Indian and Western dance videos. This preference for abstract dance was not modulated by expertise or culture, except for a modulation of enjoyability ratings by culture. Specifically, western participants enjoyed abstract ballet more than representational ballet (but Indian participants did not show this preference). Replicating previous findings that suggest experts show higher aesthetic ratings for artworks (e.g., 25 , 72 ), we also found a main effect of dance expertise such that dance experts belonging to either Indian or Western culture reported overall higher ratings for the dance videos than dance naïve participants (c.f. 16 ). Indian participants showed higher overall ratings of beauty, liking, and enjoyability for all dance videos compared to Western participants.

While we preregistered an expectation for similar findings be across both paintings and dance, our results are perhaps not that surprising, given differences between the fine arts and performing arts. Researchers have argued that “all visual art must obey the laws of the visual system” 73 implying common neurobiological underpinnings of perceiving paintings and dance 74 . However, painting is a static form whereas dance is dynamic, although both can convey cultural and social stories and contexts, and have the potential to evoke aesthetic responses 75 . Further, representativeness these two art forms is conveyed differently. Figure  3 A,B suggest that both abstract and representational paintings and dance videos were rated as significantly different from each other on abstractness ratings. But representational paintings can be a realistic representation of the visual world, and dance may convey objects or characters in the outside world using symbols and gestures, making its abstractness or representativeness more ambiguous, especially for dance-naïve spectators. Indeed, in our study, the difference in abstractness ratings between abstract and representational art was higher in paintings than in dance, suggesting a more clear-cut categorisation between abstract and representational paintings compared to abstract and representational dance. At the centre of much debate, especially in the context of Western ballet and modern dance, has been the distinction between abstract and representational dance 76 , 77 , 78 . While existing in theory, its mutual exclusiveness in actual practice (or performance) is more difficult for viewers to discern. In other words, even in the most narrative, dramatic, and expressive sequence, the structure of the choreography is driven both by formal, abstract features as well as its narrative content. In the same vein, any abstract dance will still involve some communication, representation, or expression, also because it involves a human body in motion (and the perception of the human body in motion by the spectators 79 ).

The ingroup bias and its modulation by expertise

Contrary to previous research and our predictions, we found no evidence of an ingroup bias for paintings in Experiment 1. Participants did not assign higher ratings to paintings belonging to their own cultural background compared to those belonging to another cultural background. Instead, overall aesthetic ratings assigned by Indian participants were higher than those assigned by Western participants, and Indian paintings overall were rated higher on beauty and liking compared to Western paintings by both Indian and Western participants. Findings were similar when the source of painting was categorised by the participants themselves. However, Fig.  7 shows that while all participants rated Indian paintings higher on beauty and liking, the difference in ratings between Indian and Western paintings among Western participants reduced when participants themselves categorised the paintings as ‘Indian’ or ‘Western.’ This observation suggests an attenuation of the preference for Indian paintings among Western participants when cultural background is explicitly referenced (although it remains important to note that an interaction between culture and source of painting was not statistically significant). The current results overall point toward an absence of the ingroup bias when aesthetically evaluating paintings, both when participants were not explicitly aware that the paintings belonged to their cultural background, and when they identified the painting as belonging to their own cultures.

Our results contradict previous (albeit limited) research that suggests people prefer artworks belonging to their own culture or country 6 , 43 , 80 . Indian paintings used in the current study were more contemporary than Western paintings. Therefore, it is possible that more recent paintings were perhaps more relatable and therefore showed higher ratings of beauty and liking. However, all paintings were matched on mean luminance, and the absence of ingroup bias persisted even when controlling for other subjective variables such as familiarity, evocativeness, complexity, and technical competency, and accounted for within-participant and within-item variance in our mixed effects models. While it is unlikely that an absence of an ingroup bias, and higher overall ratings for Indian paintings compared to Western paintings by both Indian and Western participants, were due to differences between Indian and Western paintings on luminance or subjective variables, it remains possible that other low-level features such as contrast, symmetry, and so on may explain differences between Indian and Western paintings.

We further speculate that Indian participants assigned overall higher ratings because they have more experience with both Indian and Western paintings (compared to Western participants for whom the content and style of the Indian paintings is relatively less familiar; 67 ). It is however also possible that overall higher ratings for Indian paintings by both Indian and Western participants can also be a result of more openness toward Indian culture by Western participants. Given the growing multicultural natures of western societies, it is plausible that Western cultures in general are more open or exposed to non-western cultures 81 . Another possible explanation is the “uncertainty-identity” hypothesis proposed by Mastandrea and colleagues 80 . In their recent study, Mastandrea and colleagues propose that national identity may be used to a greater extent as a heuristic to evaluate art when there is uncertainty about oneself. That is, when participants are less experienced or less familiar with art but still need to form an artistic opinion, they resort to group identification to resolve their uncertainty. In the current work, it is possible that participants in the first experiment (both experts and non-experts) were more familiar and experienced with art (and therefore had more information to form their evaluation) compared to participants in previous research that show an ingroup bias in art evaluation. Moreover, eastern artworks are also often considered more “exotic”, a symbol of splendour and opulence, compared to their western counterparts 82 . This could in part explain the bias toward Indian paintings in general found in the current work. Overall, however, the absence of an ingroup bias in Experiment 1 suggests that individuals share aesthetic preferences and experiences when evaluating artworks belonging to different cultures, and are not reliably biased by ingroup favouritism when viewing paintings.

In contrast to findings from Experiment 1, but in line with our hypotheses, in Experiment 2, we found an ingroup bias such that Indian participants preferred Bharatanatyam more than classical ballet, while Western participants preferred ballet over Bharatanatyam. This ingroup bias was modulated by dance expertise. Consistent with our preregistered hypotheses, non-experts showed an ingroup bias in the predicted direction (ingroup favouritism), while this bias was absent among expert participants. This modulation by expertise, however, was only present among our Western participant sample, and did not emerge among the Indian participants. The modulation of expertise in Experiment 2 may be explained by the uncertainty-identity hypothesis where national or cultural identity may be used as a heuristic to evaluate art when one is uncertain about one’s opinions due to a lack of experience or familiarity. Therefore, experts do not show an ingroup bias as they do not need to use an additional heuristic to base their evaluations on, whereas non-experts identify with a group and show ingroup favouritism to resolve their uncertainty 80 .

Similar to the first research question, while we expected the modulation of expertise to manifest similarly across cultures, we only found expertise modulation among our Western participant sample. In order words, both dance naïve and dance expert participants among our Indian participant sample preferred Bharatanatyam to ballet. No difference emerged in the ingroup bias between the two expertise groups. If we assume that non-experts identify with a group and show ingroup favouritism to resolve their identity, a lack of modulation by expertise in our Indian participants suggests that our Indian experts may continue to use an identity heuristic to evaluate artworks, and therefore prefer Bharatanatyam over ballet. Whether this is because of more experience in Bharatanatyam and/or lower experience with ballet is a question for future research. Another possible but less likely explanation for the discrepancy between cultures relates to the dancer featured in the stimuli we created for the current study. Our dancer (who is trained in both Bharatanatyam and ballet dance styles) wore Indian clothing (a kurta and leggings) but is of western origin. It is possible that even at this very subtle level, ingroup judgement by participants of Indian or Western origin might have been reinforced to different degrees. Future research should investigate this possibility with multiple dancers.

An important point of consideration is the multi-dimensional nature of aesthetic ratings. For instance, how “beauty” is defined may differ between cultures, and liking something because one feels a sense of national/cultural identity may be different to liking something that feels exotic. That is, even with similar Likert ratings for liking, the aesthetic experience of Indians when liking an Indian painting might be different to the aesthetic experience of Western participants when liking an Indian painting. A considerable but important challenge for future investigations into multicultural aesthetic experiences will be to tease apart different kinds of aesthetic experiences by using indicators that overcome limitations of the Likert-type scales used in the current work.

The modulation of the ingroup bias by dance expertise has important implications for the field of social psychology more generally. As we become increasingly more aware of ingroup biases and prejudices, attempts are being made to counter them. This is especially the case in professional settings and areas where such biases may lead to overt discrimination and poor outcomes in healthcare, law enforcement, education and additional contexts (see 83 for a review). The modulation by dance expertise of an ingroup bias that we report here highlights the importance of knowledge-based and educational interventions, training, and exposure to different art styles (or cultures, languages, or practices) to help reduce biases against the less familiar. One exciting avenue for future research could be to investigate whether expertise in arts (or training in arts knowledge, or exposure to art) transfers to other domains and leads to a reduction of ingroup biases in non-art contexts. Given that the arts create a snapshot about a culture and society in a particular point in time, place, and context, multicultural art education holds great potential to reduce stigmatisation of other cultures, groups, positions and worldviews, a position advocated by researchers in previous work on art education (e.g., 84 ), and further supported by the current findings.

It is further important to note that no significant difference between Indian and Western participants emerged among the scores on the painting/dance experience questionnaires across both experiments. Thus, a lack of modulation by expertise in both Experiments 1 and 2 in the Indian context cannot be explained by a difference in expertise between the two cultures.

More than a decade ago, in a seminal paper titled “The Weirdest People in the World?”, Heinrich and colleagues highlighted the variability in populations across the world in major domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of motivation, behaviour, and psychology 85 . Samples drawn from Northern America and Western Europe (which is the case for most previous research in empirical aesthetics) are hardly reflective of the entire population and cannot be used to justify that a behavioural phenomenon is universal. The current cross-cultural investigation thus begins to illuminate which features and aspects of aesthetic experience endure across culture (in this case, primarily Western European and Indian cultures). Across these two cultures, we found a preference for representational fine arts and abstract performing arts. We also found that ingroup biases emerged between cultures when evaluating the performing arts but not the fine arts. Both the preference for representational fine art and an ingroup bias for dance were modulated by prior relevant artistic expertise only for Western participants. Thus, the evidence reported here highlights that both cultural specifics and anthropological universals of human art creation and appreciation exist, and are aesthetically relevant across the fine and performing arts, as well as Indian and Western cultures. In an increasingly divided and fractured world where many seek to fortify boundaries based on culture, race, and country, our results point to the potential of art and art experience as a unique equaliser that can bind people together.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Social Robots team and the Social Brain in Action Lab for helpful discussions throughout this project and gratefully acknowledge funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement number 677270 to E. S. C.), and the Leverhulme Trust (PLP-2018-152 to E. S. C). We also thank Bharatanatyam and ballet dancer Sophia Salingaros for help with stimuli creation for this project.

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K.D. and E.C.: Conceptualization, Methodology; K.D.: Data curation and analysis, Writing- Original draft preparation. K.D.: Visualization, Investigation. E.C.: Supervision. K.D. and E.C.: Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

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Darda, K.M., Cross, E.S. The role of expertise and culture in visual art appreciation. Sci Rep 12 , 10666 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-14128-7

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What Is Art Good For? The Socio-Epistemic Value of Art

Aleksandra sherman.

1 Department of Cognitive Science, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, United States

Clair Morrissey

2 Department of Philosophy, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, United States

Scientists, humanists, and art lovers alike value art not just for its beauty, but also for its social and epistemic importance; that is, for its communicative nature, its capacity to increase one's self-knowledge and encourage personal growth, and its ability to challenge our schemas and preconceptions. However, empirical research tends to discount the importance of such social and epistemic outcomes of art engagement, instead focusing on individuals' preferences, judgments of beauty, pleasure, or other emotional appraisals as the primary outcomes of art appreciation. Here, we argue that a systematic neuroscientific study of art appreciation must move beyond understanding aesthetics alone, and toward investigating the social importance of art appreciation. We make our argument for such a shift in focus first, by situating art appreciation as an active social practice. We follow by reviewing the available psychological and cognitive neuroscientific evidence that art appreciation cultivates socio-epistemic skills such as self- and other-understanding, and discuss philosophical frameworks which suggest a more comprehensive empirical investigation. Finally, we argue that focusing on the socio-epistemic values of art engagement highlights the important role art plays in our lives. Empirical research on art appreciation can thus be used to show that engagement with art has specific social and personal value, the cultivation of which is important to us as individuals, and as communities.

“What art does is to coax us away from the mechanical and toward the miraculous. The so-called uselessness of art is a clue to its transforming power. Art is not part of the machine. Art asks us to think differently, see differently, hear differently, and ultimately to act differently, which is why art has moral force.” — Jeanette Winterson (Winterson, 2006 )

Introduction

Traditionally, discussion of the nature of the arts and their role in our daily lives and communities lay within the purviews of criticism, art history, and philosophy. Within the last century, there has been a growing interest by psychologists and more recently, neuroscientists, to scientifically investigate art experiences and appreciation. Broadly, questions central to this investigation include:

• What happens when we experience a work of art? Specifically, what are the perceptual, emotional, and cognitive processes mediating our responses to art?
• Can one account for variations in taste? And if so, how does one's psychology and biology contribute to those preferences?
• What is common about the experiences one has across different forms of art? What is distinct?
• Are our responses to art universal or culturally and historically situated?
• Are art experiences pleasurable and how is the response distinct from other pleasurable experiences?

To scientifically investigate these questions, psychologists often ask viewers to rate the aesthetic appeal of an artwork, to rate their preferences for it compared to other artworks, and to indicate their emotional responses to various works. Typical questions might include: how much do you like the artwork; how aesthetically pleasing is the artwork; and how emotionally moving is the artwork? Researchers might then analyze the extent to which ratings reflect the formal features of that artwork—e.g., how balanced the composition is, how prototypical the depictions are, or perhaps how much the statistical structure within the image parallels natural scene statistics. As such, psychologists have identified a variety of formal features that seem to influence aesthetic and preference scores, including symmetry, color, contrast, aspect ratio, prototypicality, natural scene statistics, and complexity (e.g., Berlyne, 1971 ; McManus, 1980 ; Taylor et al., 1999 ; Shortess et al., 2000 ; Graham and Field, 2008 ; Schloss and Palmer, 2011 ). Similar questions have been explored in other domains of art including music and literature (e.g., Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003 ; Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ). Furthermore, many researchers have demonstrated that individual differences, be they stable or transient, can influence preferences and judgments. For instance, culture and experience (e.g., Reber et al., 2004 ; Bullot and Reber, 2013 ), expertise and knowledge (e.g., Winston and Cupchik, 1992 ; Silvia, 2006 ) and current emotional state (e.g., Eskine et al., 2012 ) shape judgments. Additionally, individual differences in perceptual capacities, such as visual-object working memory (VOWM) are associated with preferences for formal features such as visual complexity within visual artworks (Sherman et al., 2015 ). These findings aim to illustrate the importance of accounting for the between and within subject variability in preferences, emotional responses, or beauty judgments.

A complementary approach, neuroaesthetics, is concerned with investigating the neurobiological substrates of aesthetic experience. For example, studies employing fMRI often task participants with making aesthetic or emotion-related judgments, and have demonstrated that art appreciation activates a distributed network in the brain subserving three core neural systems: sensory-motor, emotion-valuation, and meaning-knowledge. Important regions linked to aesthetic evaluation and preference for art include areas related to domain-specific processing such as the visual system for visual art (e.g., the lingual gyrus, middle occipital lobe), memory recognition (e.g., fusiform gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus), higher-order conceptual integration (e.g., anterior temporal lobe), emotion and reward (e.g., the anterior insula, caudate/striatum), valuation (e.g., anterior and ventromedial prefrontal cortices), and more recently metacognition (e.g., structures within the default mode network such as posterior cingulate cortex) (for reviews and meta-analyses, see Di Dio and Gallese, 2009 ; Brown et al., 2011 ; Chatterjee and Vartanian, 2014 ; Vartanian and Skov, 2014 ).

Notably, although the aesthetic sciences broadly concern themselves with explaining art appreciation 1 , what can be gleaned from the above findings is that they have, up to this point, primarily investigated experiences of the aesthetic. That is, scientists have privileged investigating individual judgments of beauty or preference, many times ignoring socially-relevant outcomes of art appreciation or the social context of art creation and art appreciation. This is the the case within both the psychological and neuroaesthetics literatures. For example, neuroaesthetics research typically uses art (paintings, music, poetry, dance performance) as a stimulus to determine the neural mechanisms associated with preference, beauty, sublimity, and pleasure-based responses (e.g., Blood and Zatorre, 2001 ; Kawabata and Zeki, 2004 ; Vartanian and Goel, 2004 ; Jacobsen et al., 2006 ; Ishizu and Zeki, 2011 ; Lacey et al., 2011 ; Brattico, 2015 ).

Empirically investigating art appreciation in this way, however, risks conflating the arts with aesthetics. That is, it risks reducing the study of the nature of the arts to their ability to cause a particular feeling of disinterested joy or pleasure in a beholder. This reduction is reflected in (i) the way neuroaesthetics frames and understands art—namely, as an object that one contemplates and experiences in a disinterested manner, (ii) in the focus researchers place on measuring judgments related to beauty, liking, and pleasure as primary “outcomes” of the art experience, and (iii) in the contexts in which aesthetic experience is studied, often in labs on computers, removed from social and historical contexts, and in the visual arts, over short viewing times rarely exceeding 15 seconds.

The prevailing use of these measures and contexts implies that what defines an art experience is the pleasure caused by interacting with something aesthetically pleasing, and that the primary scientific task is describing the perceptual and emotional processes related to, or which constitute, a moment of liking or joy. Such a reduction limits the range of human experiences and capacities identified as appropriate objects of scientific investigation in this field. Moreover, “able to cause aesthetic experience” is a philosophically dubious conception of the nature of the arts, and can be particularly problematic in cases where “beauty” or “disinterested pleasure” is not a productive theoretical framework for evaluation of an artwork, as in some modern and contemporary art forms (e.g., see Carroll, 2012 for review). Similar methodological critiques have been presented within music as well as other domains of art (e.g., Sloboda et al., 2001 ; Brown and Dissanayake, 2009 ). For instance, within the domain of music, much of the research investigates individuals' cognitive and emotional responses to passively listening to a musical piece (as well and the perceptual features that prompt such a response) discounting the social functions of the work.

Frameworks from the history of philosophical aesthetics and contemporary methodological discussion within empirical aesthetics can be particularly instructive for psychologists and neuroscientists interested in investigating the arts. As indicated above, philosophical attempts to define the nature of art by appeal to the kind of experience often studied by aesthetic science have been criticized for failing to fully capture or appreciate the social, cultural, or historical situatedness of the art-object or the person whose experience is being studied. Some empirical contextualist theories take a similar stance, recommending scientific investigations that go beyond the “basic exposure” mode of art appreciation, noting that the kind of knowledge one would gain from perceptual exploration removed from historical understanding is “shallow at best” (Bullot and Reber, 2013 ). Rather, psychology must embrace an enriched understanding of art appreciation by investigating how, for example, an individual causally reasons about the observable features and attributions of an artwork, “mindreads” or attempts to cognitively model the artist and her intentions, experiences discovery or understanding-based emotions, and generates theories about the relevant content, form, and function of the artwork (Bullot and Reber, 2013 ).

Relatedly, we suggest that the current scientific research on art appreciation discounts what many would consider the very essence of art: its communicative nature, its capacity to encourage personal growth, its ability to reveal deep aspects of the human condition, to challenge preconceptions, to help us reconceptualize a question we are grappling with, and to provide clarity on ambiguous concepts or ideas. A host of philosophical, art-historical, and critical theories of the nature of the arts, art appreciation, and artistic creative practice suggest a more general theoretical shift away from the project of empirically studying art-objects by focusing on individuals' phenomenological experiences, and toward one which recognizes that individual psychological experiences or habits are shaped by engaging with the arts as part of our communities and social fabrics (e.g., see Carroll, 2012 for review). For instance, some philosophers and scientists alike have claimed that the arts, broadly conceived, have moral value, suggesting that engaging with art can be potentially transformative, for it encourages us to consider the welfare and good of other people, enhancing both our moral compass and self-knowledge (e.g., Nussbaum, 1990 ; Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ).

Our primary goal here is to argue that a systematic scientific study of art appreciation must explain the potentially broad-ranging and diverse social outputs of arts engagement, and thus, must go beyond measurements of aesthetic pleasure or liking. We advocate for the need to embrace an expanded empirical research program characterized by reframing the arts as socio-epistemically valuable —that is, specifically useful for gaining knowledge and insights about oneself and society. Importantly, we suggest that an empirical research program that recognizes the arts as social practices (which we expand in Section Arts-Appreciation as Socio-epistemically Valuable) can potentially unify prior research and more clearly specify the types of investigations needed to achieve a fuller understanding of art appreciation.

For instance, information-processing accounts of art appreciation aim to understand the relationship between inputs (e.g., formal features, transient individual differences like emotional or mood states, and more sustained individual differences in personality, culture, historical contexts, or expertise), processing mechanisms unfolding related to the art experience (e.g., the psychological and neurobiological substrates of perceptual, cognitive, and emotional processes, or disruptions to one's self-schema), and outputs (e.g., appraisals/judgments of liking, epiphany/transcendence, self/other-understanding; well-being). Fitting to our art-as-social-practice view, we suggest that researchers might begin to investigate the information-processing system through the lens of socially-related outputs, such as self and other understanding, rather than through the lens of aesthetic outcomes of art (see Table ​ Table1). 1 ). That is, how do brain structures like the default mode network, which is recruited during art appreciation, contribute to socio-epistemic outcomes of art appreciation like self-understanding? This focus may reveal the need to develop experimental approaches better suited to evaluating the nature of the arts which recognize how creative practices and appreciation are cultivated socially, over long periods of time, and sustained both at the community and the personal level.

Factors influencing art appreciation.

An information processing account of art appreciation denoting self and other referential processing as well as the immediate and longitudinal socio-epistemic outcomes. Note that this table lists factors and processing mechanisms relevant to art appreciation but does not highlight the temporality or connectivity between the factors. For a review of models that differ on these dimensions, see Pelowski et al. ( 2016 ) .

Below, we start by framing the arts as social practices that are embodied, enactive, and communicative. Although our art as social practice organization is not in contrast to information processing accounts, it importantly allows us to focus empirical evaluations on the cluster of skills that are developed through art appreciation. Among these skills, we focus specifically on those we refer to as socio-epistemic, and demonstrate that self- and other-understanding are both socially relevant and meaningfully cultivated through sustained art engagement.

Arts-appreciation as socio-epistemically valuable

We begin by situating arts engagement, and specifically art appreciation, as a communicative, dialogic, dynamic, and transformative practice rather than as passive contemplation of beautiful, pleasurable, or otherwise aesthetically interesting objects. We argue that an “art as social practice” framing like this raises more relevant, interesting, and psychologically rich questions about the arts than does the traditional framing of art appreciation as reducible to aesthetic experience.

The arts as social practices

In Art Rethought: The Social Practices of Art (2015), Wolterstorff argues that we should adopt MacIntyre's account of social practices as a framework for understanding the nature of the arts (Wolterstorff, 2015 ). MacIntyre ( 1984 ) defines social practices as:

…coherent and complex form[s] of socially established cooperative human activity through which goods internal to that form of activity are realized in the course of trying to achieve those standards of excellence which are appropriate to, and partially definitive of, that form of activity, with the result that human powers to achieve excellence, and human conceptions of the ends and goods involved, are systematically extended (p. 187).

As forms of human cooperative activity, they exist within social groups, both large and small, and persist through time. Consider, for example, the social practice of portraiture, a genre of painting which depicts a human subject, often in which the face is the main theme. This genre has existed historically across many, varied communities, and the genre develops and is shaped by the cultural, economic, and moral commitments of various social groups, in addition to the artistic styles and technological developments within these communities. “Painting a portrait” is done with respect to norms, standards, and expectations of the genre that are, in an important sense, public. Moreover, these norms and standards constitute criteria for having created an excellent portrait. That is, we can individually and collectively deliberate and debate about whether some particular artwork is a portrait, or is a good portrait. Furthermore, accomplishments such as ‘mastering the ability to depict a complex emotional expression in a two-dimensional medium’ (Leonardo DaVinci's Mona Lisa ), or ‘successfully communicating the cruelty of poverty and dignity of poor people by rendering sympathetically and beautifully the humanity of someone who is poor’ (e.g., Dorothea Lange's, Migrant Mother ), are goods that can only be achieved through the practice of portraiture. Finally, the genre, itself, develops throughout time, within different communities. There are innovations in portraiture with respect to artistic style and with respect to technology. Consider, for example, how Henri Matisse's Green Stripe (Portrait of Madame Matisse) both radically departs from and conforms to the norms of the practice, or how the invention of photography changes and informs the meaning of “creating a portrait.” Matisse's innovation and the development and use of photography for artistically depicting human faces, both enrich our understanding of the aims of art and the possibilities of human experience.

By following this emphasis on the arts as practices, we mean to shift attention to art creation and art appreciation as activities “we do,” from the conception of art appreciation as passive reception of perceptual information from art-objects. In doing so, we do not commit ourselves to any particular theory or definition of art, be it the institutional view (Danto, 1964 ; Dickie, 1974 ), which holds that artworks are artifacts that have been identified as such by persons appropriately situated with respect to “the artworld,” 2 or the historical (Levinson, 1979 ) or narrative views (Carroll, 1988 ), which hold that artworks can be identified by relationships to existing artworks. Instead, we follow these traditions, and others in anthropology and sociology (e.g., Becker, 1982 ; Dissanayake, 1990 ; Gell, 1998 ; Harrington, 2004 ), in their recognition that both arts appreciation and art creation, whatever they may be, are culturally situated within human communities 3 . We contend that this very foundational and basic recognition is largely absent or significantly downplayed in current empirical work, and it is this sense of social—longstanding practices, embedded in the fabric and life of communities—that is foundational to our proposed framework.

The arts and socio-epistemic skills

One model for how to understand art appreciation as active engagement in a practice can be found in Kieran ( 2012 ). There, he argues that art appreciation is an intrinsically valuable skill that allows one to cultivate “excellences of character,” because practiced arts engagement allows one to better imagine and critically examine not only aesthetic qualities of artworks, but also “artistic originality, emotional expression, insight and moral understanding.” (p. 23) This notion of skill has a few different features that matter a great deal to an expanded empirical research program: (1) art appreciation is learned through sustained practice, suggesting its intrinsic relationship to the culture and community, or, at least, to other people; (2) is a capacity that is developed over non-trivial lengths of time; and (3) may be relevant to other domains, as skills can be transferable.

Drawing from other philosophical literature on art appreciation, we see a focus on what we refer to as socio-epistemic skills. Included in this category may be capacities like good judgment, richer sensitivity to detail, or, following Hume, “delicacy of imagination, good sense, comparative experience, and freedom from prejudice” (Kieran, 2012 , p. 23). What makes these skills social is their relationship to one's ability to better understand oneself and other people, and to potentially revise one's own moral, political, or social commitments 4 . Although the mechanism for enhanced understanding of self and others is not fully theorized in the philosophical literature, it is often taken to be developing a kind of sensitivity to detail, context, or nuance (e.g., Murdoch, 1970 ; Nussbaum, 1990 ; Carroll, 1998 ).

Empirical research complements the philosophical framework above by helping us understand the mechanisms that underwrite the particular socio-epistemic skills of other-understanding and self-understanding 5 . We choose to highlight self-understanding and other-understanding because they align well with what many think of art appreciation as doing: helping them see others and the world from a different point of view, altering their perspectives, and helping them to understand more about themselves (e.g., what moves them, or what makes them uncomfortable). At the same time, we do not mean to commit to any specific or direct causal pathways between cognitive processes, art appreciation, and other- or self-understanding. Rather, we mean to identify this as an open area of much needed investigation.

Before turning directly to this discussion, we also note that embracing this theoretical shift toward understanding the arts as social practices would allow us to explain how art appreciation is partially constitutive of living a flourishing human life. A longstanding empirical program has been to connect the arts (both appreciation and creation) to happiness, well-being, or flourishing. For instance, Cuypers et al. ( 2012 ) demonstrate through a large-scale population study that both art appreciation and art creation are associated with increased well-being (as measured by perceived health, life satisfaction, and anxiety and depression scores). Philosophical conceptions of eudaimonia contend that a flourishing human life centrally involves, at least, the use of skills or excellences of character the development of which are intrinsically rewarding, and the exercise of which are, thereby, pleasurable. Thus the shift we are recommending does not discount previous research, but rather, locates and explains the liking, preference, and pleasure responses to art-objects as well as the experience of being moved, as important aspects of the skill-based conception of art appreciation. This also allows us to strengthen arguments for the value of the arts that does not embrace crass instrumentalism, but rather, is capable of explaining the central role of the arts in human life (Kieran, 2012 ). Moreover, regardless of whether one is committed to the broader eudaimonistic theory of well-being, or the claim that the development of human excellences and skills is central to that flourishing, those who hold that art appreciation is capable of developing the capacities and related skills of other-understanding and self-understanding are making empirical claims that empirical aesthetics can evaluate. To that end, a complete model of aesthetic appreciation will also need to contend with these claims and find a place for these socio-epistemic “outputs” in their models.

In the sections that follow, we use philosophical discussions to frame and suggest two lines of empirical inquiry within this theoretical orientation of the arts as social practices. The first, self-understanding, discussion of which is nascent in both the psychological and philosophical literatures, asks whether and how art appreciation as a practice can lead to a richer understanding and appreciation of one's own moral values, commitments, and conception of who and what one is. The second, other-understanding, more fully developed in both literatures, asks whether and how art appreciation as a practice can lead to a better understanding of the emotional and cognitive states of others, and the potential moral and social value of such an understanding. We conclude with a discussion of how such a research program may be envisioned and developed moving forward.

Art engagement as a path to self-understanding

As discussed above, in this section we attempt to lay a foundation for a line of inquiry into how self-understanding may be enhanced by engaging in practices of art appreciation, as part of our suggestion that conceptualizing the arts as social practices would be an appropriate and fruitful framework for psychologists and neuroscientists to embrace.

Philosophical conceptions of the relationship between art appreciation and self-understanding

In philosophy, the term “self-knowledge” often refers to knowledge of one's own mental states—that is, knowledge of our own beliefs, thoughts, or sensations. In contrast, “knowledge of the self” can refer to knowledge or understanding of one's “self” and its nature. Following Gertler ( 2015 ), we may include under this heading four different debates about our understanding of ourselves, as selves: the nature of self-identification (i.e., one's ability to distinguish one's self from others); whether self-awareness is a mechanism for grasping the nature of the self; whether self-awareness is a means to grasping one's personal identity over time; and, whether and what sort of self-understanding is necessary for rational or moral agency.

Insofar as engagement with the arts is able to enhance some notion of self-understanding, it fits most comfortably within this final debate: the sort of self-understanding necessary for rational or moral agency. Martin ( 1985 ), providing one way of enriching this “necessary for agency” conception, claims that self-understanding is an achievement . He explains that developing a “justifiable and meaningful perspective on our lives” often calls for “appropriate adjustments in attitude, emotion and conduct,” and realizing these things is something that we work for, or that we strive to accomplish. (p. 2) Relevant to this kind of self-understanding is what we may refer to as “self-identity”—“individuals' subjective senses of who they are—their own self-images” (Martin, 1985 , p. 5). Further, we may consider the heart of self-identity as a set of commitments or values—be they intellectual, artistic, moral, or religious—that organize individuals' behavior, attitudes, and beliefs. Someone who has proper self-understanding not only recognizes and affirms her central commitments and values, but also acts and feels according to these commitments and values. In this way self-understanding is a socio-epistemic skill because one's ability to recognize and act on her central values (e.g., feel and act compassionately) concerns a social ability. The content of the values or commitments substantially refer to other people, institutions, histories, and communities, and the attitudes and behaviors indicated are learned and exhibited within communities and relationships.

Philosophers who defend the view that art appreciation is a form of moral understanding can inform our conception of how art appreciation may enhance self-identity and self-understanding. A particularly influential view is Noël Carroll's clarificationism (Carroll, 1988 ). Unlike the sciences, which allow individuals to acquire new propositional knowledge, Carroll argues art appreciation is capable of deepening our existing knowledge, something he refers to as “understanding.” Carroll suggests that the narrative arts, in particular, encourage us to apply our moral knowledge and emotions to a specific case, which aids in the development of our capacity to manipulate, refine, or clarify what we know, and to then intelligibly apply that knowledge. Carroll uses the example of Crime and Punishment to explain this point. It would be absurd to claim that the reader learns the truth of the proposition “murder is wrong” from her reading of the novel. In fact, it may be that a reader would already need to have this bit of propositional knowledge in order to make sense of the novel in the first place. Yet, engagement with the novel can be a source of moral understanding and self-development. Engagement may help give shape to, clarify, or deepen one's understanding of the horror of killing, and of the nature or importance of guilt, redemption, and moral character. Moreover, insofar as these moral beliefs and values are part of the central commitments and values that constitute your self-identity, engagement with the novel can help you know yourself better.

That art is a context for deepening understanding rather than gaining propositional knowledge is also taken up by Lopes ( 2005 ). There he argues that the kind of seeing (“seeing-in”) cultivated by practiced visual art engagement enriches moral sensibility by enriching the suite of intellectual resources that make the viewer reliable at discriminating morally relevant features of situations. (p. 180) Part of the moral sensibility Lopes describes includes what he refers to as a repertoire of moral concepts (e.g., solidarity, grief, violation). Some visual art, though not all according to Lopes, can be used to deepen and understand those concepts. In this way, some visual art can communicate moral ideas in new or challenging or poignant ways that cause one to revise an important or closely held moral value, and thus, can be important to developing one's self-understanding.

Although the philosophical discussion of self-understanding or transformation through engagement with the arts primarily concerns moral or social knowledge, we see no reason to believe it must be limited to these contexts. The focus on moral knowledge in the philosophical literature may be occasioned by the felt need to distinguish the arts from the sciences as a means of knowing, as the latter tend not to have this moral or social focus 6 . However, we may think of the arts as a path to non-moral self-understanding as well, or, as above, as about non-moral yet central commitments and understandings important to our self-identity. For example, the works displayed during the 2013–2014 Los Angeles County Museum of Art retrospective of the work of Light and Space artist James Turrell, were described by many (critics and lay people alike) as transformative . The immersive light environments cause one's own perception to become the object of reflection, and led many to a deeper understanding of themselves and their relationship to the external world, deepening their conception of themselves as embodied beings whose access to the world is mediated by a visual perceptual faculty with particular features, limitations, and abilities, and of light, itself, as a physical substance. This fact (that perception is mediated by light) is not one that people learn from this exhibit; people learn that in middle school science classes. But being confronted with artistic works that exploit and make manifest this fact nevertheless affords viewers an understanding of the significance of this fact.

Enhanced self-understanding through art appreciation: empirical evidence

As in the philosophical literature, there also seems to be limited work in the psychological literature focused on the importance of art engagement in cultivating self-understanding, although research on self-reflection may speak to the psychological mechanisms that make possible the socially-relevant conception of self-identity as described above. Following Koopman and Hakemulder ( 2015 ), self-reflection refers to “thoughts and insights on oneself, often in relation to others and/or to society” (p. 82). This type of introspection often relates to one's emotions (e.g., monitoring current states and/or comparing those states to prior states), memories, values, and beliefs, and is associated with positive consequences (e.g., better mental health, well-being, increased capacity for self-regulation).

The literary arts are a domain in which self-reflection has received more comprehensive attention. Koopman and Hakemulder review evidence suggesting that self-reflection is elicited when one reads literary texts characterized by unconventional syntax or semantic features. Specifically, they review empirical work showing that self-reflection occurs in scenarios in which “(i) [reader's] previous personal experiences are evoked by descriptions of characters, places and events, (ii) [in which] readers experience emotional responses to the characters, and (iii) [in which] readers perceive the text itself, the artifact, as striking” (p. 95). Self-reflection elicited through reading in these contexts is likely to relate to one's self-understanding and identity both in moral and non-moral contexts. Similarly, some members of the medical community have embraced the idea that the literary and narrative arts facilitate self-reflection. Brady et al. ( 2002 ) posit that practicing self-reflection outside of a clinical context, and particularly through art appreciation, could lead to better doctor-patient relationships and, thereby, better patient outcomes.

With respect to visual art, research in neuroaesthetics has also suggested that when engaging with artworks that are emotionally moving and potentially transformative, individuals may have an inward, self-reflective focus. Here, being moved refers to “intensely felt responses [such as tears or chills] to scenarios that have a particularly strong bearing on attachment-related issues—and hence on prosocial bonding tendencies, norms, and ideals—ranging from the innermost circle of one's personal life … to higher-order entities of social life (one's country, social and religious communities)” (Menninghaus et al., 2015 , p. 8; see also Hanich et al., 2014 ; Wassiliwizky et al., 2015 , 2017a ). Recent work by Wassiliwizky et al. ( 2017b ) suggests, for example, that poetry containing a socio-cognitive component (e.g., prose addressing other people or personifying nature) is particularly moving, leading to chills and a response in brain areas involved in self-reflection (e.g., precuneus). When an artwork moves a beholder, she likely experiences an intense emotional response as well as explicitly reflects on her experience, potentially exercising self-understanding (as well as other-understanding, which we expand on in the next section). In this way, understanding the experience of being moved (rather than just focusing on aesthetic evaluation) indicates a promising avenue of research for neuroaesthetics to develop in line with our recommendation to adopt a social practice model.

Indeed, Vessel et al. ( 2012 , 2013 ) have demonstrated that during intensely moving aesthetic experiences, the default mode network—a network of brain areas including the precuneus, medial frontal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, and medial temporal cortex known to be involved in self contemplation, self reflection, and self-referential thought—is recruited. In Vessel et al.'s ( 2012 , 2013 ) studies, participants were tasked with attending to a set of visual artworks and judging how moving each one was while their brain activity was recorded in a scanner. Their finding that DMN activity was higher for artworks rated as highly moving relative to those rated lower on the scale may be interpreted as an inward, self-reflective focus that co-occurs with or is prompted by being emotionally moved. Additionally, this finding is consistent with research demonstrating that the DMN is recruited during other self-referential types of tasks involving self-identity (namely, making judgments about yourself or close others), moral decision-making, and theory of mind attributions (Northoff and Bermpohl, 2004 ; Northoff et al., 2006 ).

Psychologists have also described models that center the idea that art appreciation recruits metacognitive processes and promotes self-reflection and transformation. For example, Pelowski and Akiba ( 2011 ) (see also Pelowski, 2015 ; Pelowski et al., 2017 ) argue that influential empirical studies of aesthetic experience focusing on understanding the processes which lead to cognitive mastery of an artwork along with perceptual pleasure are “often divorced from a viewer's personal beliefs and identity” and “preclude the possibility for art to [truly] mark and transform lives” (p. 81) namely because they do not directly address discrepant experiences during an art encounter. According to Pelowski and Akiba's account, the self-reflective processing that occurs when a beholder's expectations have been violated (e.g., confusion about meaning) marks the beginning of a meta-cognitive re-assessment of an artwork, eventually leading to self-schema transformation. Similarly, Lasher et al. ( 1983 ) argue that the arts are central for mental and emotional growth because they offer opportunities for representational conflicts that, when resolved (in their case, often unconsciously) provide a way to restructure and unify initial mental representations. The process of defamiliarization, “becoming unsettled,” and self-reflecting, then may be crucial to deepening self-understanding.

In a more recent paper, Pelowski ( 2015 ) offered an empirical approach to studying art experiences as they relate to self-transformation and understanding. Specifically, Pelowski suggests that feeling like (or actually) crying during an art experience is a physical indicator of self-reflection, shifted perspectives, and self/schema changes. As a first foray into testing his model, Pelowski conducted a series of exploratory studies at several museums collecting both physiological data and self-reports from museum-goers. He demonstrated that feeling like crying while viewing art is correlated to increased self-awareness, feelings of epiphany and insight, as well as to mixed emotions corresponding to being moved. Although his empirical findings are specific to the visual arts, his model broadly appeals to all arts, as tears or chills responses are pervasive across all arts domains (Pelowski, 2015 ). Pelowski's approach is particularly instructive as it offers a means to frame socio-epistemic skills such as self-understanding within information-processing accounts, arguing for the importance of empirically investigating how each processing stage corresponds to self-related outcomes.

Importantly, these ideas are markedly different from the more typical information-processing accounts of aesthetic experience (e.g., Leder et al., 2004 or Chatterjee, 2004 ), which focus more on successful assessment of an artwork's formal information (perceptual and cognitive mastery) in the service of emotional appraisals. This traditional approach de-centers the importance of self-reflection or cognitive growth as an outcome or aspect of art appreciation. In contrast, the paradigm we suggest (which parallels Pelowski's) posits that although detached, the contemplative pleasure, which may be an outcome of art appreciation, is not valuable merely for its own sake, but also instrumentally valuable for deepening one's self-understanding.

Although the reviewed studies are not direct evidence that self-understanding is developed by art appreciation, they suggest, at least, that self-reflection, a process relevant to cultivating self-understanding, is prompted by moving art experiences. More research will be needed to understand the extent to which and how neural mechanisms correlated to self-referential processing are recruited during art appreciation. Candidate regions for investigation are those within the cortical midline structures including the orbitomedial prefrontal cortex (OMPFC) implicated in the continuous representation of self-referential stimuli and in processing emotional stimuli independent of sensory modality, the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC) implicated in evaluation of self-referential stimuli, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) implicated in monitoring of self-referential information, and the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and adjacent precuneus thought to be involved in self-reflection and the integration of self-related representations (e.g., Northoff and Bermpohl, 2004 ). The partially overlapping default mode network as described above will also be critical to evaluate in the context of art appreciation.

Art engagement as a path to understanding others

Turning away from self-understanding, in this section we lay a foundation for a line of inquiry into how other-understanding may be enhanced by engaging in practices of art appreciation. Though here we highlight self- and other-understanding as separate socio-epistemic skills, we also point to the importance of investigating these “outcomes” as highly related. As before, the aim of this section is to build our suggestion that conceptualizing the arts as social practices would be an appropriate and fruitful framework for psychologists to embrace.

Philosophical conceptions of the relationship between art appreciation and other-understanding

Philosophers of art commonly contend that art appreciation enables us to understand others better by encouraging us to take on their viewpoints, to metaphorically take a walk in their shoes, to feel their pain. Through art appreciation we can understand ourselves as connected to one another, by recognizing others' emotions, actions, and perceptions as fundamentally similar to our own, or, more dramatically, by feeling others' emotions. For instance, in Cohen's ( 1993 ) discussion of his ambivalence toward ontological questions about the nature of art and the distinction between high and low art, he describes a memorial service in which his friend's favorite musical selections were played. Reflecting on the meaningfulness and appropriateness of this practice of playing music that someone cared for at their funeral, Cohen writes:

My friend has died and is not present. I listen to music I know he cared for. It is a fact about my friend that he cared for this music, perhaps even a constitutive fact about his sensibility: it partially defines who and what he was. It is, thus, an entrance into that sensibility. I sit listening, not merely thinking that this music meant something to my friend, but bending my imagination to the task of reaching and comprehending an aspect of my friend which responded to this music, that is, feeling what it was to be my friend (p. 154).

Here, Cohen understands artistic appreciation not only as (appropriately) playing a central role in an important social ritual of mourning, but also, or perhaps because it is one way of being in community with someone else. In this case, the mind, sensibility, or self of the person who is no longer present is accessible through attending closely to the music he loved. Similarly, Joseph Conrad characterizes the emotional sharing involved in artistic activity as:

the subtle but invincible conviction of solidarity that knits together the loneliness of innumerable hearts; to the solidarity in dreams, in joy, in sorrow, in aspiration, in illusions, in hope, in fear, which binds men to each other, which binds together all humanity—the dead to the living and the living to the unborn (cited in Goldie, 2008 , p. 192).

This notion, that the arts are an arena for interaction and potential emotional sharing between artists, beholders, and other past, present, and future beholders has an important history stretching back to at least Tolstoy ( 1899 ), if not to Aristotle.

The kind of interaction or connection art facilitates has been thought to lead to a fuller and morally important understanding of others and oneself. Kieran ( 1996 ) develops a notion of “imaginative understanding,” a skill promoted by the arts, as striving to “appreciate what the appropriate way of looking at and acting in the world is…typically…the appropriate way to feel for, to regard, and to respond to others” (p. 341). In this way, art appreciation, by promoting imaginative understanding, facilitates good moral judgment by enhancing our moral perception and sensibilities, especially with respect to the lived experiences of other people 7 .

Developing a similar line of thought, some scholars have suggested that reading literary fiction creates aesthetic distance, which “allow[s] [readers] to experiment more freely with taking the position of a character different from themselves, also in moral respects” (Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 , p. 92). That is, the dynamic process occurring during art appreciation is a form of socio-cognitive and emotional training, granting viewers the “time and privacy to learn to deal more strategically with” real life scenarios in a safe, “distant” space (this idea has been discussed by Oatley, 1999 , 2016 ; Robinson, 2005 ; de Botton and Armstrong, 2013 ; Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ; Menninghaus et al., 2017 ). Despite this “distance” or, perhaps because of it, one can become deeply invested in fictional characters, emotionally engaging with them, and generating cognitive models of character's minds, just as one does in real social scenarios 8 .

That arts appreciation can deepen one's moral landscape by cultivating other-understanding is an empirical claim with potentially far-reaching consequences 9 . This idea has served as a theoretical foundation for arts-based therapies aimed at developing, for example, autistic children's social skills and theories of mind (see: arttherapy.org). Perhaps most robustly, as we briefly mentioned, in recent decades medicine has increasingly turned to the arts to help students and professionals cultivate proper self- and other-regarding dispositions (Shapiro et al., 2009 ). For example, Columbia University's Masters of Science curriculum in Narrative Medicine uses the arts and humanities to “imbue patient care and professional education with the skills and values of narrative understanding” (see: http://ce.columbia.edu/narrative-medicine ). Some have suggested that arts-based interventions help physicians become more empathic and culturally-sensitive, which then leads to better patient health outcomes (e.g., Novack et al., 1997 , pp. 502–509), whereas others have focused on the importance of reflection and imagination for developing insight, emotional understanding of patients, or other valuable “patterns of knowing” (e.g., Berragan, 1998 ; Rodenhauser et al., 2004 ; Averill and Clements, 2007 ).

These theoretical applications demonstrate the importance of reviewing the available empirical evidence that aligns with an argument that art appreciation cultivates other-understanding, the importance of understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying other understanding, as well as the importance of establishing norms for empirically investigating more fully the socio-epistemic outcomes and values of art appreciation.

Enhanced other-understanding through art appreciation: empirical evidence

Psychological research suggests that there are (at least) two related ways we can come to understand other people and their experiences: (i) cognitively, and (ii) emotionally “resonating” with others' experiences. Cognitive empathy, also often called “cognitive perspective-taking,” “theory of mind,” “mentalizing,” or “mindreading,” 10 refers to an individual's capacity to model others' experiences by making inferences about their intentions and predictions about future actions based on that mental representation. Although this cognitive process reflects one's capacity to model other people's minds, it crucially does not require emotional investment (e.g., I may understand that you are anxious but I do not feel that way myself).

Another way, then, to understand other people is to have an “insider” view by actually experiencing what the other person is experiencing. This “catching” of another person's experience is what most scholars refer to as empathy. Although there are many definitions for empathy in the psychological and philosophical literature (see Batson, 2009 ), most scholars broadly agree that there are two key criteria characterizing empathic responses. Firstly, empathy involves an affective capacity to recognize and resonate with others' emotions (also widely called “emotional contagion” or “affect sharing”). The affective response should be isomorphic with another person's affective state (Eisenberg and Fabes, 1990 ; De Vignemont and Singer, 2006 ). That is, one must experience the same emotion as another person, rather than simply respond emotionally to someone else's emotion (e.g., happiness in response to someone else's misfortune would not be isomorphic). This isomorphism is emphasized in the literature as distinct from related phenomena such as sympathy, which may be emotionally powerful but is usually thought of as feeling “for” rather than feeling “with.” Secondly, empathy should involve an awareness of the source of one's affective response; that is, a mechanism to distinguish between self and other. Imitation or emotional contagion alone, seen even in young infants, does not then reflect empathy (e.g., De Vignemont and Singer, 2006 ), as true empathy requires a more developed sense of self, agency, and other. Here, we will refer to this process as affective empathy.

Echoing the philosophical discussion above, a wide empirical research program has suggested the social and moral importance of both affective empathy and cognitive empathy, arguing that they are critical for social development and successful social interaction. Individuals with impaired (or a lack of) affective empathy are often characterized as psychopathic (e.g., Hare, 1991 as cited in Blair, 2005 ), and individuals with impaired theory of mind, a characteristic of autism, exhibit a host of social deficits including difficulties communicating, understanding others' thoughts and desires, recognizing and imitating others' facial expressions, among other issues (e.g., Blair, 2005 ). Moreover, although there might sometimes be negative consequences of increased empathy (e.g., favoring social “in-groups”; in Bloom, 2017 even goes to suggest that empathy has more costs than benefits), cognitive and affective empathic capacities in many ways provide a foundation for moral behaviors (Decety and Cowell, 2015 ). For instance, even short-term manipulations of cognitive perspective-taking can lead to increased feelings of social affiliation, perceived similarity, perceived closeness, intergroup understanding, desire to engage in intergroup contact, and to prosocial behaviors such as increased cooperation, sharing, comforting, and helping even in situations where prosocial attitudes might be more difficult to adopt (e.g., Stephan and Finlay, 1999 ; Bodenhausen et al., 2009 ; Wang et al., 2014 ) 11 .

In addition to its social importance, empathy provides an individual with knowledge about the environment without having to actually experience it oneself; for example, seeing someone get burned when they touch a hot stove or get bruised when they fall on a pavement is informative enough to attach appraisals to those situational contexts without having to experience the pain oneself (De Vignemont and Singer, 2006 ). This characteristic of empathy resonates with the aesthetic distance conception of fiction above, explaining how art appreciation could be a “safe space” for understanding others' difficult or taxing emotional experiences.

If art appreciation indeed enhances other-understanding, it would be reasonable to expect that we would find evidence, at least in some contexts, that engaging with art, be it viewing visual art, reading literature, or listening to music, recruits mechanisms associated with cognitive and affective empathy. For example, there may be evidence demonstrating that the neural mechanisms implicated in affective or cognitive empathy during real social interactions are also engaged when “interacting” with visual art or with fictional characters. Furthermore, art appreciation should mirror findings within the social interaction literature, such that after art-appreciation-based manipulations, we may find increases in self-reported perceived similarity and closeness, and perhaps increased degree of prosocial behavior exhibited toward an individual. Finally, we should expect that repeated “practice” or engagement with arts would develop empathy, perhaps changing aspects of one's disposition, personality, and capacity to empathize in future situations. Below, we review empirical evidence in line with each of these predictions, with the aim of demonstrating the promise and possibilities of the shift to a social practice framework in neuroaesthetics.

Simulation, embodiment and arts-engagement: neural mechanisms

Some researchers within neuroaesthetics have begun to reconsider arts engagement as a fully embodied, enactive experience (e.g., Freedberg and Gallese, 2007 ; Nadal et al., 2012 ), with empirical evidence suggesting the involvement of neural processes related to both perspective-taking and affective empathy during art appreciation. One such model of the role of embodied responses to visual arts is presented by Freedberg and Gallese ( 2007 ). They suggest that embodied responses occurring during art appreciation are forms of cognitive and affective simulations and, as such, play a role in facilitating an understanding of both the representational content of an artwork and of the intentions of the artist. Freedberg and Gallese provide several examples demonstrating that viewers have physical, “felt” responses to visual representations, even if those representations are abstract. For instance, the authors speculate that viewing a painting like Caravaggio's Incredulity of Saint Thomas , in which a man is poking at someone else's wound, or experiencing Michelangelo's Prisoner's , in which the figures appear “trapped” in the material out of which they are sculpted, leads to embodied responses of physical pain in the beholder. Moreover, elements within a visual artwork that simply imply the gestures used by the artist (e.g., canvas cuts as in artist Lucio Fontana's work, or Jackson Pollock's drip paintings) can also strongly activate the motor cortex, and are thus felt by beholders as actions (Battaglia et al., 2011 ; Umilta et al., 2012 ).

More evidence for action simulation during art viewing is provided by Leder et al. ( 2012 ) who demonstrate that we covertly simulate actions produced by a visual artist while we engage with the work. That is, when viewing work by Georges Seurat, for example, we may covertly “stipple” our hands, whereas while viewing art by Vincent Van Gogh, we may covertly create broader strokes with our hands. Interestingly, when the researchers experimentally manipulated participants motions to either be explicitly aligned or misaligned with painting style, preference scores were affected. That is, participants in congruent groups (stippling while viewing works in the Pointillist tradition or stroking while viewing works with strong brushstrokes) reported liking the artworks more than those in incongruent groups suggesting that incongruent motions interfered with motor resonance (Leder et al., 2012 ). Researchers have similarly discussed the role of embodiment with respect to music as well as the literary arts. For instance, research has demonstrated that we develop embodied understanding of characters within a literary text (for comprehensive reviews see Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ; Oatley, 2016 ). One such example is seen in Hsu et al. ( 2014 ) who demonstrate that immersion or “getting lost in” emotion-laden literary text—in their case, fear-inducing compared to neutral excerpts from the Harry Potter series—leads to increased activation of the medial cingulate cortex, a structure associated with affective empathy.

Together, this research suggests that engagement with visual art may prompt beholders to mentally simulate artists' actions, and to “feel” the actions and emotions depicted in a work. Although we do not mean to suggest that simulation alone implies social understanding, as is evidenced by the fact that even very young infants (or primates) imitate without a developed theory of mind (e.g., Heyes, 2001 for review) it seems to have clear social value . Thus, embodied responses (what some refer to as “feeling into” art) may prompt meaning-making and explicit reflection (e.g., Pelowski, 2015 ). Importantly however, the extent to which mirroring, simulation, and empathy affect art appreciation and even aesthetic evaluation remains understudied.

The neural processes that are implicated in embodied emotion and action simulation, namely a medial frontotemporal network involving recruitment of the bilateral anterior insula, the dorsal and middle anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), as well as a mirror-neuron system (MNS), are implicated in empathy and theory of mind, and are important for representing both our own and others' actions (e.g., Decety and Grèzes, 2006 ). For example, Wicker et al. ( 2003 ) show that overlapping areas of the ACC are activated when one is imagining, observing, and expressing a disgusted facial expression. Similarly, Morrison et al. ( 2004 ) showed overlapping activation in the anterior insula and ACC both when a person was in physical pain and when she was viewing someone else in pain 12 . These responses can be modulated by a variety of factors, including dispositional/trait empathy, relationship between empathizer and target, situational context, and emotional context (e.g., De Vignemont and Singer, 2006 ). For example, in one study, electromyography was used to demonstrate that people with high affective trait empathy were more likely to automatically imitate happy and angry pictures of faces during passive viewing than people with low affective trait empathy (Rymarczyk et al., 2016 ).

With respect to visual art, a recent study similarly showed that trait empathy correlated to both physiological (facial electromyography and skin conductance responses) and behavioral responses to art (valence, preference, interest) (Gernot et al., 2017 ). Specifically, they showed that individuals who are high in emotion contagion are more moved by, interested in, and enjoy visual art. These high emotion contagion individuals also reacted more strongly to emotion congruent aspects of the visual art (e.g., they smiled while engaging with positive valence work and frowned when engaging with negative valence works). Similar findings have been reported within music, in which individual differences in empathetic capacities relate to understanding and interpretation of emotional expressivity and intentionality in music (Wöllner, 2012 ; Baltes and Miu, 2014 ). In this way, the empirical evidence points to a role for empathy in synchronizing emotion-relevant perceptions and actions among individuals, perhaps for understanding others more effectively, a skill art engagement may facilitate.

Another important set of neural structures—specifically within a lateral frontotempoparietal network (relevant regions include: lateral and medial PFC, lateral and medial parietal cortex, and medial temporal lobe, temporoparietal junction, and posterior superior temporal sulcus)—have been shown to correlate with tasks related to cognitive empathy such as action observation, imitation, self-recognition, impersonal moral and social reasoning, reappraisal by focusing on physical events, and categorizing affect in facial expressions (e.g., Lieberman, 2007 ). There is also a connection between this network and the mirror neuron network discovered in primates. In primates, mirror neurons activate both when the primate performs a goal-directed action and when it observes the experimenter performing the same action (Gallese et al., 1996 ). In humans, homologous regions of cortex (premotor cortex, LPFC, LPAC, DMPFC) similarly respond both to action observation and to imitation (e.g., Carr et al., 2003 ). Along with the regions that are implicated in embodied emotion and action simulation described above, these structures may be target regions of interest for neuroaesthetics.

The evidence linking neural processes recruited during other-understanding to art appreciation as reviewed above is promising. Perhaps the mirror neuron system (and other neural processes related to mentalizing as reviewed above) play an important role in enabling an experiential understanding of the content of a visual artwork as well as some of the artist's intentions (Freedberg and Gallese, 2007 ). Though more research is crucial, the findings up to this point suggest that engaging with art involves processes relevant to the attribution of mental states to others (Steinbeis and Koelsch, 2009 ; Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ), and this suggests that art appreciation is deeply connected to other-understanding.

(Pro)social effects of art appreciation

Based on the presented evidence, if cognitive and affective empathic processes are recruited during art appreciation, just as is observed for empathy manipulations, we should observe increases in measures such as self-reported perceived similarity, closeness, or degree of prosocial behavior exhibited toward an individual after arts-appreciation-based manipulations. Again, the literary arts are an example domain where research has been particularly comprehensive. The effect of reading literature, and more specifically, narrative fiction on empathy and other-understanding has recently received widespread attention (see Koopman and Hakemulder, 2015 ; Oatley, 2016 for comprehensive reviews). For example, Kotovych et al. ( 2011 ), find that the “challengingness” of the text, operationalized as the complexity of characters and number of ambiguities in a text, helps readers better identify with, feel more connected to, and understand a character more deeply. One explanation for such an effect is that when a literary text leaves more information about the narrator's mental life implicit and ambiguous, readers may be more likely to draw from their own experiences, resulting in a seemingly stronger connection with and understanding for an individual.

Further, psychologists have demonstrated both correlational and causal effects of reading narrative on various measures of empathy. Measures of empathy in these cases include the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test,” which probes one's ability to discern another individual's thoughts from their eyes alone (RMET; Baron-Cohen et al., 2001 ), or the Yoni test, which asks participants to identify others' affective and cognitive states from facial expressions (Shamay-Tsoory and Aharon-Peretz, 2007 ). Researchers have demonstrated that individuals who spend more time reading literary or narrative fiction compared to non-fiction tend to score higher on such tests suggesting that extended “practice” reading narrative fiction may cultivate one's capacity for understanding others (e.g., Mar et al., 2006 ; Panero et al., 2016 ). And, a recent series of experiments by Kidd and Castano ( 2013 ) demonstrated that individuals who were tasked with reading a “literary” short story that is characterized by unconventional syntax, ambiguity, and semantic features scored higher on the RMET and Yoni tasks after the reading exercise compared to those who read a popular fiction or nonfiction short story. This finding demonstrates that even brief exposure to the arts might promote other-understanding.

Importantly, empathy-related processing during arts appreciation across domains (e.g., beyond just the literary arts) also seems to lead to increased prosocial behavior. For example, Sze et al. ( 2012 ) demonstrated that after watching film clips that induced empathetic concern, individuals tended to be more charitable. Interestingly, these prosocial effects were partially mediated by age such that older participants were more charitable than their younger counterparts. Although not directly related to film appreciation per se (as film in this case was merely a stimulus meant to elicit empathetic concern), it is suggestive both of the power of film and the cultivation of prosocial tendencies with art experience. Film's power to move the viewer in this way has also been associated with increased feelings of intergroup connectedness and understanding (Oliver et al., 2015 ). Likewise, some research suggests that chills induced by music lead to more altruistic behavior, though more research is needed to tease apart the influence of factors like mood (Fukui and Toyoshima, 2014 ). Taken together, these findings suggest the importance of a continuing research program on the (pro)social implications of arts engagement.

Although these effects seem promising, many of the claims about empathy cultivated through art appreciation are contested. For instance, some researchers have been unable to replicate the causal effects (most recently, Panero et al., 2016 ), noting, like Bullot and Reber ( 2013 ), that a brief encounter is typically “shallow” and is unlikely to have significant impacts on cognitive or affective empathy. This is not altogether surprising as measures like the RMET are likely relatively stable across time. And, even if it appears that art engagement increases state empathy—that is, empathic responses during the interaction—the single engagement may not cultivate empathy in the long term in real-life scenarios the way that researchers hope. It is not inconceivable that an individual connects to fictional characters described as in a particular situation, but would not connect to real people in that same situation 13 . Furthermore, it is theoretically unclear why individuals who read a story just once, or even those who are well-read, should be better attuned to discriminating facial expressivity per se . Rather, it might be that narrative fiction develops imaginative capacity. In fact, research by Johnson ( 2012 ) finds that reading fiction can actually lead to decreased perceptual accuracy in discriminating fearful emotions. Johnson speculates that such reduced discriminability is likely due to a bias in attributing emotions, particularly ones congruent with a prosocial behavior, to ambiguous expressions. Similarly, research attempting to quantify the effects of both brief and longer-term art encounters on empathy and patient outcomes for medical professionals is contested and still underdeveloped (e.g., Perry et al., 2011 ; Yang and Yang, 2013 ; Kelm et al., 2014 ). Finally, there is conflicting evidence on the extent to which thrills-like responses affect schemas and behavior. For instance, the physical chills response that some individuals report in response to music as well as to visual art and literature does not always seem to differentially affect prosocial behaviors or self concept, relative to artworks that do not elicit chills (Konecni et al., 2007 ). Thus, more empirical studies are needed to systematically address how art appreciation actually affects other-understanding.

We began this section by reviewing philosophical views that hold or imply that art appreciation is socio-epistemically valuable insofar as it cultivates other-understanding through processes like emotional sharing or imaginative understanding. Following these ideas, psychologists and neuroscientists have begun to empirically assess whether and how art appreciation deepens other-understanding. Empirical research has up to this point demonstrated that art appreciation engages similar psychological processes that are involved in social interaction, such as emotional resonance, mental state attribution, and cognitive perspective taking. Furthermore, we reviewed evidence that showed that increased “practice” appreciating the arts, arts-appreciation “interventions” (as in medical school curricula), and even “basic exposure” to the arts (as in Kidd and Castano, 2013 ) increased individual's capacities for other-understanding. Although it is promising, the empirical and philosophical research centered on the relationship between art appreciation and other-understanding is still limited in its scope, quantity, and specificity. Particularly important will be to develop robust (perhaps more longitudinal) methodologies that demonstrate the processes by which arts appreciation cultivates other-understanding as well as its relationship to self-understanding, leading a flourishing life, and other socio-epistemic skills.

Looking ahead

In this paper, we aimed to highlight how understanding the power of the arts in our lives requires going beyond the current aesthetics-focused conception of the outcomes of art appreciation. Rather than neuroaesthetics models which focus nearly exclusively on judgments of beauty, preference, or liking as the primary outcomes of art appreciation, we should set ourselves to better understanding the range of socio-epistemic outcomes of such engagement. Here, we have focused on self-understanding and other-understanding as such outcomes, but do not intend to limit the potential of this framework shift to just these outcomes. Rather, we aimed to provide evidence for the fruitfulness of neuroaesthetics adopting a more comprehensive approach to the outcomes of art appreciation that mirror the richer conceptions of art engagement found in philosophy, art history, and art criticism, which understand art as an embodied, enactive, social practice.

Importantly, such an approach does not discount prior empirical research, but refocuses its aim around socio-epistemic skills developed within arts practices. In thinking of the arts as social practices that people engage in, we can come to better understand how they serve a variety of social and cultural values. We hope this approach inspires empirical research to more fully investigate the specific ways in which the processes underlying art engagement cultivate socio-epistemically valuable skills. That is, how do specific emotional experiences lead to self-understanding? To other-understanding? And to other socio-epistemic values? How does engagement with different art forms relate to distinct socio-epistemic values? Does engagement with literary art, for example, more promote a particular set of values, compared to practiced engagement with the visual arts or music?

To answer these questions, researchers will need to go beyond the typical unitary measures of preference after a single exposure, and instead employ more longitudinal designs incorporating both state and trait based measures. Take for example a researcher interested in whether and how engaging with particular form of visual art (e.g., art depicting minority groups such as American Indians) may deepen ones cultural understanding and appreciation. To go beyond standard designs, one might consider (a) encouraging viewers to engage with each artwork for longer periods of time (e.g., at least 1 minute), (b) comparing lab findings to naturalistic settings (e.g., conducting experiments in both settings to determine generalizability of lab results) and (c) combining methodologies (e.g., eye tracking, physiology, EEG, subjective self-reports such as being moved, interest, emotional state, and written reflections). Possible individual difference measures that researchers may employ include tests that measure capacity for cognitive and affective empathy [e.g., the Empathy Quotient (EQ; Lawrence et al., 2004 ), the Interpersonal Reactivity index (IRI; Davis, 1980 ), or the questionnaire of affective and cognitive empathy (QCAE, Reniers et al., 2011 )], tests that measure state and dispositional aspects of self-awareness [e.g., the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown and Ryan, 2003 ), self concept clarity questionnaires, tolerance for uncertainty, Webster and Kruglanski, 1994 ], tests that measure emotion perception and regulation (e.g., the scale of subjective emotion experience (See; as in Pelowski et al., 2017 ), and subjective self reports relevant to one's art experience including art expertise, interest, reflections and insights. Furthermore, researchers may adopt experimental techniques from the mindfulness and meditation literature, which similarly aims to demonstrate the perceptual, cognitive, and emotional effects of mindfulness practices as compared simply to mindful states. Thus, we see our reframing as an exciting opportunity for researchers to be creative in designs (see Table ​ Table2 2 for examples of open questions).

Open questions.

Outstanding questions for investigating the psychological and neurobiological relationships between self-understanding, other-understanding, and art appreciation .

Further, this kind of “art as social practice” approach encourages scientists to view art engagement, generally, be it appreciating or creating, as a form of knowledge acquisition and production. Although we focused here on art appreciation, we believe our approach generalizes to art creation. Like art appreciation, art making involves practices which integrate embodied and “mental” activities so as to render the two inseparable. In fact, the philosophical and psychological research on creation and creativity recognizes and investigates such processes of creative practice associated with individual development more so than does the research on art appreciation.

Finally, we believe that focusing on the socio-epistemic skills cultivated through art engagement highlights the important role art plays in our lives, and the need to advocate for arts education programs. Through this kind of research program, we should come to better understand the arts as socially valuable. We suggest that empirical research can be used to show that engagement with art has social and personal value, rather than monetary or economic value, the cultivation of which is important to us as individuals, and as communities.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made substantial, direct, intellectual contributions to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Anjan Chatterjee, Simon Penny, Dylan Sabo, Sarah Ostendorf, Ainsley LeSure, Santiago Mejia, and the two reviewers for their helpful feedback on earlier drafts of this argument.

1 Recent arguments by influential researchers such as Pearce et al. ( 2016 ) suggest that neuroaesthetics is often concerned not with explaining art appreciation, but rather with understanding the aesthetic qualities of objects that include the arts. However, findings within the aesthetic sciences are often used to explain art appreciation, specifically (e.g., Pelowski et al., 2016 published a review article titled “Visualizing the Impact of Art: An Update and Comparison of Current Psychological Models of Art Experience” in which they do just that).

2 While it may be that the kinds of social practices we are talking about relate to “artworld” institutions, practices are logically independent of and prior to institutions (see MacIntyre, 1999 for the relationship between practices and institutions).

3 The kind of theoretical shift we recommend—toward understanding the arts as practices—is also related to Noë's ( 2015 ). There, he develops an account of the arts as organized activities , insofar as they are: (1) natural or primitive, (2) “arenas for the exercise of attention, looking, listening, doing, undergoing” (p. 6), (3) structured and organized in time, (4) emergent, and which (5) have a function and (6) are a source of pleasure for those who engage in them (pp. 4–5). This approach is similar to the social practice account in that it is interested in the role of the arts in structuring a well-functioning or flourishing human life. It differs on the strength of the emphasis placed on the embodied nature of the arts, and in the expressed biological and “natural” interpretation it gives to these practices through the notion of “organizing” that it employs.

4 See Stolnitz ( 1992 ) for discussion of the philosophical debate about aesthetic cognitivism, which is concerned with whether we can learn from or know through art appreciation.

5 In doing so we do not claim that these are the only valuable socio-epistemic skills developed by the social practices of the arts or arts appreciation. For example, the “Seven C's” identified by Koelsch ( 2014 ) (social contact, social cognition, co-pathy, communication, coordination of actions, cooperation, social cohesion) is a taxonomy of what the author refers to as social functions of music. Similarly, other researchers including Panksepp ( 2009 ) highlight the social importance of music evolutionarily, particularly in its capacity to evoke social emotions.

6 Another hypothesis about this focus on moral knowledge may come from the overlap in moral and hedonic processing, evidence for which may be found in Tsukiura and Cabeza ( 2010 ).

7 Kieran's argument draws on the rich discussion of moral understanding and art appreciation, especially that of Iris Murdoch and Martha Nussbaum. Iris Murdoch argued that engagement with and creation of art (especially painting and literature) hone moral perception by tuning the perceiver to the salient features of moral reality; the arts make one's moral perception more discriminating and discerning. That is to say, engagement with the arts develops one's ability to see the world as it truly is, making art “the most educational of all human activities.” (1970) In Love's Knowledge Nussbaum contends that moral imagination, necessary to good moral judgment (and seeing the world as it truly is), is similar to artistic imagination (1990). She explicitly links the type of fine-grained attention to detail and ability to “see” the world in morally complex and nuanced ways cultivated by arts appreciation with the development of self and other-understanding.

8 There is some disagreement among philosophers about what cognitive process best characterizes this emotional-engagement, theorists variably refer to identification, empathy, sympathy, and mental simulation (see Giovannelli, 2005 ).

9 Some researchers have gone so far as to speculate on the socio-cultural benefits of arts engagement in relation to other-understanding. In his book, The Better Angels of our Nature , Pinker ( 2012 ) speculates that a decrease in contemporary violence can be partially attributed to increased literary consumption, relying on the notion that perspective-taking is fundamental to reading literature and that it leads to increased empathy and other-understanding.

10 We gloss over here some of the nuances that distinguish each of these terms. For instance, theory of mind is most often discussed in a developmental context, in contrast to cognitive perspective-taking and cognitive empathy. However, for the most part, they refer to the same/a very similar process.

11 Heyes ( 2001 ) provides an analysis of theories and evidence describing the relationship between imitation, theory of mind, and social cognition. Heyes points out “although it is plausible that the experience of imitating and being imitated contributes to the development of theory of mind, there is not currently a well-supported theory specifying the nature of the contribution” (p. 260).

12 Additionally, Singer et al. ( 2006 ) demonstrated that the proposed neural networks subserving empathy indeed represent “true” empathizing with another person, rather than just imagining one's own emotional experience. They first engaged participants in a game in which confederates played either fairly or unfairly. They then showed the same participants videos of their fair and unfair partners experiencing pain, while simultaneously measuring participants neural activity. Interestingly, all participants empathized with fair players, but only female participants empathized with the pain felt by unfair players experienced. In contrast, males seemed to experience more joy (evidenced by activation of reward circuitry), indicating their seeming desire for revenge against unfair players.

13 Philip Sidney wrote a sonnet about just this point in the 1580s: http://www.bartleby.com/358/46.html

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187 Unique Art Research Paper Topics Ideas of 2023

Art Research Paper Topics 

Art is a vast and diverse field with many different styles, mediums, and techniques to explore. As such, there are countless potential research paper topics to choose from when studying art.

In this article, we offer a list of relevant and exciting art research paper topics students will find easy to research and fun to write.

What is Art Research Paper?

An art research paper is a written document that presents an in-depth analysis and interpretation of a specific aspect of the visual arts. It typically includes a thesis statement, background information, critical analysis, and a conclusion.

How to Write a Good Art Research Paper?

• Start with a clear thesis statement that states the main argument or focus of the paper.
• Conduct thorough research using reliable sources, such as scholarly journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Analyze and interpret the artwork, artist, movement, or period using specific research examples.
• Use appropriate art historical terms and concepts to support your analysis.
• Incorporate primary sources, such as the artwork itself and any relevant archival materials, into your analysis.
• Use proper citation format and include a list of references at the end of the paper.
• Consider the historical and cultural context of the artwork and how it relates to the broader themes and issues of the time period.
• Use visual aids, such as images of the artwork, to supplement your analysis and help engage the reader.
• Write clearly and concisely, and make sure your argument is well-organized and easy to follow.
• Revise and proofread your paper for accuracy and clarity before submitting it.

List of Art Research Paper Topic Ideas of 2023

Top 10 art history research paper topics.

Art history is an interesting topic to explore, and it can be used in a variety of ways.

• The role of symbolism in the art of the Renaissance.
• The impact of Impressionism on the development of modern art.
• The influence of political and social movements on the art of the 20th century.
• The role of gender and race in the representation of the human figure in art.
• The impact of new technologies on the creation and dissemination of art in the 21st century.
• The influence of non-Western art on the development of modern art.
• The role of patronage in art production during the Baroque period.
• The history of Art Fairs
• The role of the philosophy of art in art history
• The Art of Ancient Egypt: A Look at the Ancient Egyptian Art Forms.

10 Most Art Research Paper Topics on Ancient Civilization

• The role of art in the religious and cultural practices of ancient Egypt.
• The influence of Greek art and architecture on the Roman Empire.
• The impact of Buddhism on the art and architecture of ancient India.
• The role of art in the political and social structures of ancient Mesopotamia.
• The influence of Chinese art and culture on the art of the Silk Road.
• The impact of the Islamic Golden Age on the development of Islamic art and architecture.
• The symbolism and iconography in ancient Indian art
• The role of art in the daily life of ancient societies
• The evolution of Greek sculpture during the Archaic and Classic periods
• Ancient Greek Art: A Study of the Correlation between Art and Religion

10 Best Art Research Paper Topics on Artist Bibliography

• An analysis of the self-portraits of Frida Kahlo and their role in her artistic identity.
• A study of the influence of Japanese art on the works of Vincent Van Gough.
• An examination of the role of surrealism in the works of Salvador Dali.
• A critical analysis of the use of symbolism in the works of Gustav Klimt.
• An investigation into the impact of Abstract Expressionism on the works of Jackson Pollock.
• A study of the influence of African art on the works of Pablo Picasso.
• An examination of the role of feminist theory in the works of Judy Chicago.
• The impact of Japanese culture on the art of Hokusai and Hiroshige
• The use of symbolism in the art of Edvard Munch
• A Biography of the Life and Artwork of Joaquin Sorolla

10 Interesting Art Research Topics on Different Epochs

• The role of art in the political and social climate of the Renaissance period.
• The Age of Enlightenment’s influence on Neoclassicism’s development in art.
• The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the art and architecture of the 19th century.
• The role of art in the cultural and political landscape of the Baroque period.
• The influence of the Gothic era on the art and architecture of the middle ages.
• The impact of the cold war on contemporary art
• The influence of the French Revolution on the 19th Century art
• The role of art in the Gothic period
• The Impact of Impressionism on 19th-Century French Art
• The Impact of Minimalism on Late 20th-Century Art

10 Most Popular Art Therapy Research Topics

• The effectiveness of art therapy in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• An examination of the impact of trauma-informed art therapy on individuals with PTSD.
• A study of the use of art therapy in treating addiction and substance abuse disorders.
• An investigation into the effectiveness of art therapy for children with autism.
• An examination of the impact of art therapy on reducing symptoms of stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• A study of art therapy’s effectiveness in promoting self-esteem and self-awareness.
• The use of art therapy in promoting emotional regulation in individuals with PTSD
• Exploring the Benefits of Art Therapy for Trauma Survivors
• Examining the Role of Art Therapy in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
• Research on Art Therapy and Its Effectiveness in Treating Depression

10 Unique High School Art Research Paper Topics

• An analysis of the role of symbolism in the art of the Renaissance.
• A study of Impressionism’s influence on modern art development.
• An examination of the impact of political and social movements on the art of the 20th century.
• A critical analysis of the use of colour in the works of Claude Monet.
• An investigation into the Industrial Revolution’s impact on the urban landscape’s representation in art.
• A study of the influence of African art on the art of the colonial period.
• The Influence of Abstract Expressionism on Contemporary Art
• The Role of Street Art in Social Change
• The Impact of Technology on Art Education
• The Impact of Graffiti on Urban Development

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10 Great Art Research Topics on different Cultures

• The role of art in the religious and cultural practices of ancient China.
• The influence of African art on the development of contemporary art.
• The impact of Islamic art and architecture on the development of Islamic culture.
• The role of art in the political and social structures of ancient Greece.
• Mesoamerican art’s influence on the Aztec civilisation’s art and architecture.
• The representation of women in the art of diaspora communities
• The influence of Hinduism on the art of India
• The use of art in spiritual practices of indigenous Australian cultures
• Ancient Indian Art in the Context of Rituals and Religion
• Japanese Ukiyo-e Prints and their Influence on Contemporary Art

10 Brilliant Art Research Topic Ideas for College Students

• The impact of social media on contemporary art
• The use of found objects in sculpture
• Street art and graffiti as a form of rebellion
• The representation of marginalized communities in art museums
• The role of technology in digital art and animation
• The influence of political and historical events on art movements
• The influence of feminist movements on contemporary art
• The role of graffiti in shaping contemporary urban landscapes
• The role of street art in political activism
• The Impact of Expressionism on 20th-Century Art

10 Finest Art Research Topic Ideas for University Students

• The influence of psychoanalysis on modern art.
• The representation of gender and sexuality in contemporary art
• The impact of postcolonial theory on art historical narratives.
• The role of the artist as a political activist.
• The use of new media in contemporary art practices.
• The relationship between architecture and site-specific art
• The intersection of art and artificial intelligence.
• The Impact of Art Education on Social Development
• The Significance of Music in Contemporary Art
• The Impact of Gender on Art and Artistic Expression

Also Read:   Best Economics Research Topics and Ideas for Students in 2023

Top 10 Art Research Paper Topics on Debate

• The impact of political correctness on art censorship
• The role of technology in contemporary art
• The commercialization of the art industry
• The representation of marginalized groups in art museums
• The preservation of cultural heritage in art
• The use of public art as a form of social and political commentary
• Is the commercialization of art good or bad?
• The definition of good art: Is there a universal standard, or is it subjective?
• Does the Controversy Around Street Art Undermine Its Credibility?
• Is Street Art and Graffiti an Act of Vandalism or a Form of Art?

10 Modern Art Research Paper Topics

• The role of abstract expressionism in the development of modern art.
• The influence of cubism on 20th-century art.
• The impact of surrealism on the art and culture of the 20th century
• The significance of pop art in the post-war era
• The role of feminist art in the modern art movement
• The influence of minimalism on contemporary art
• The impact of the LGBTQIA+ rights movement on modern and contemporary art.
• The role of street art in shaping contemporary urban landscapes
• The Influence of Postmodernism on Modern Art
• The Role of Technology in Modern Art

Top 10 Theater Research Paper Topics

• The impact of social media on the theatre industry.
• The representation of marginalised groups in theatre
• The role of technology in contemporary theatre
• The influence of political and social movements on the development of theatre
• The impact of globalisation on theatre.
• The role of education in theatre.
• The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the theatre industry
• The influence of Samuel Beckett’s works on contemporary theatre
• The Impact of the Theater on Social Change
• Exploring the Development of Theater Technology

Topmost Fascinating Photography as Art Ideas

• The evolution of photography as a fine art medium
• The impact of digital technology on the art of photography
• The role of photography in contemporary art movements
• The use of photography in documentary and photojournalism
• The representation of marginalized groups in photography
• The influence of social media on the photography industry
• The role of curation in the presentation of photographic art

10 Excellent Architecture Research Paper Topics

• The impact of technology on modern architectural design
• The influence of sustainable design on architecture
• The role of psychology in architectural design
• The impact of urbanization on architecture
• The influence of cultural and historical context on architecture
• The relationship between architecture and the environment
• The impact of the environmental movement on architecture and design.
• The influence of the Art Nouveau movement on architecture
• The Role of Technology in Contemporary Architecture
• The Influence of the Bauhaus School on Modern Architecture

10 Awesome Contemporary Art Research Paper Topics

• The commercialization of the contemporary art industry
• The representation of marginalized groups in contemporary art
• The impact of globalization on contemporary art
• The influence of contemporary art on popular culture
• The role of curation in the presentation of contemporary
• The Impact of Postmodernism on Contemporary Art
• The Use of Technology in Contemporary Art
• The Relationship between Contemporary Art and Popular Culture
• The Evolution of Contemporary Art from the 1960s to the Present

Also Read:  Top Most 240+ Interesting Sociology Research Topics Ideas

10 Latest African Art Essay Paper Topics

• The impact of colonialism on traditional African art
• The representation of African art in Western museums
• The role of women in traditional African art
• The influence of religion and spirituality on African art
• The impact of globalization on contemporary African art
• The use of African art as a form of political and social commentary
• Exploring the Role of Women in African Art
• How African Art Has Evolved Through the Ages
• The Influence of Traditional African Culture on Modern African Art
• Exploring the Symbolic Meanings of African Art

10 Art Research Paper Topics on Compelling Renaissance

• The impact of the Renaissance on the development of Western art
• The role of humanism in Renaissance art
• The influence of classical art and architecture on Renaissance art
• The representation of women in Renaissance art
• The impact of the printing press on the dissemination of Renaissance art
• The influence of the Catholic Church on Renaissance art
• Visual Representations of the Human Figure in Renaissance Art
• The Role of the Patron in Renaissance Art
• The Influence of Alchemy in Renaissance Art
• The Impact of Reformation Movements on Renaissance Art

10 Most Difficult Art Research Paper Topics

• The impact of the art market on artistic expression and integrity
• The role of the art critic in shaping public perception of art
• The relationship between art, power and politics
• The impact of digital technology on the authenticity and preservation of art
• The use of art as a form of cultural appropriation
• The representation of gender, race, and sexuality in art
• Postmodern Art as a Response to Modernism
• Abstract Expressionism: The Impact of the First Avant-Garde Movement
• Art and the Representation of Gender
• Constructivism and Its Influence on the Arts

10 Trending Art Research Paper Topics

• The Rise of Street Art : A Study of Its Impact on Urban Spaces
• Art and Identity : Exploring the Role of Art in Forming Cultural Identities
• The Power of Pop Art : A Study of Its Influence on Modern Visual Culture
• The Impact of Digital Art on Contemporary Art Practices
• The Relationship Between Art and Politics : Exploring the Influence of Art on Politics
• The Role of Social Media in the Development of Art : Exploring Its Impact on the Art World
• Exploring the Role of Art in Social Movements : How Art Can Spark Social Change
• The Role of Art in the Representation of Gender : How Art Has Shaped Our Understanding of Gender
• A Study of the History of Art : Examining the Development of Art Styles and Movements
• The Impact of Graffiti on Contemporary Art : Exploring Its Influence on Art Practices

In conclusion, art research paper ideas can be diverse and varied, covering many topics that focus on specific art movement ideas. However, following all the rules and selecting a good topic can help a student write a good art research paper.

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Prediction and Art Appreciation

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• Published: 22 August 2023

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• Ancuta Mortu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7194-918X 1  

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Every art encounter requires making predictions given that art is rife with uncertainty. What is it to appreciate art while relying on predictions, and to what consequences? I argue that art appreciation involves engaging our predictive systems in such a way as to correct predictive failure at least at some levels in the processing hierarchy of information that we receive from art works. That art appreciation involves predictive processing best explains the mechanism for cognizing art works in categories, cases of appreciative failure, and why art appreciation is a form of valuing. To articulate the explanatory value of predictive processing for cognizing art works in categories, I introduce a sub-type of predictions that I call art-historical estimates – i.e., predictions that take as their object the temporal relationships between works and their place in art history – and identify their features within a broader typology of predictions and related mental structures such as schemas and scripts. I examine the way predictive processing explains the correction of predictive failure, and its consequences for the affective value that we attach to the appreciation of art.

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1 Introduction

Every art encounter requires making predictions given that art is rife with uncertainty. Whether we make guesses with respect to the source of light in a painting or whether we anticipate the thrills of gradually figuring out a melodic line while listening to a piece of music, predictions are all-pervading in our acts of art appreciation. What is it to appreciate art while relying on predictions, and to what consequences? Are predictions necessary constituents of art appreciation?

I argue that art appreciation involves engaging our predictive systems in such a way as to correct predictive failure (Van de Cruys 2011 ; Ransom 2022 ) at least at some levels in the processing hierarchy of information that we receive from art works, for instance when we try and discern representational features in a Cubist work or its stylistic features. Making predictions and revising them at different levels in the information processing hierarchy in order to correct predictive failure helps enhance our experience, possibly through amplifying our understanding of art works. That art appreciation involves this predictive dynamic is an inference to the best explanation that best explains the mechanism for cognizing art works in categories, cases of appreciative failure, and why art appreciation is a form of valuing.

To articulate the explanatory value of predictive processing for cognizing art works in categories, I introduce a sub-type of predictions that I call art-historical estimates – i.e., predictions that take as their object the temporal relationships between works and their place in art history – and identify their features within a broader typology of predictions and related mental structures such as schemas and scripts (Gombrich 1960 ; Wollheim 1990 ). I examine the way predictive processing accounts for the correction of predictive failure, and its consequences for the affective value that we attach to the appreciation of art.

2 Features of Predictions

There is no single unitary account or consistent terminology regarding predictions or prediction-related phenomena. For our purposes, I will retain a general definition of predictions as hypotheses generated by our sensory and cognitive systems with respect to states of the world or internal states of the body (Hohwy 2013 ; Friston 2013 ; Barrett et al. 2015 , 6).

Several features of prediction will help understand the process of correcting predictive failure in art appreciation. A first feature that helps explain this process through cognizing art works in categories is that predictions are hierarchical (Ransom 2022 ), meaning that they are processed at different levels by our sensory and cognitive systems. We generally distinguish between first-order and second-order predictions. Thus, first-order predictions arise at a sub-personal level of processing, which translate a property of the human visual system to automatically organize into categories the perceptual input that we receive from the environment, while second-order predictions engage higher-order processes and arise when we become aware of anticipating some external or internal stimulus (Ransom et al., 2021 , 119–120). This generally happens when we face ambiguous stimuli that pose physical or mental challenges; we are more likely to notice our anticipations in such cases, for instance, when we have a feeling of gaining insight into the meaning of an intricate work (Koelsch et al. 2019 , 63; Van de Cruys 2017 , 10; Muth et al. 2015 ). The possibility of gaining ultimately an insight into the meaning of the work is a guarantee that the encounter with the work endures in the first place, although, as we shall see later in this paper (§V), predictive failure need not be ruled out entirely from episodes of appreciative response.

The process of correcting predictive failure can be explained by a further feature of predictions, which is their iterative character (Ransom et al. 2021 , 120). That predictions are iterative means that there is an ongoing process of generation and revision of hypotheses at different levels in the informational processing hierarchy, with each additional level holding more specific information. There are multiple layers of information available that will help organize our predictions differently and narrow down our guesses with respect to how we can structure our environment.

A feature that helps explain cases of appreciative failure is that predictions serve different purposes. They may serve to represent the world accurately, orient selective attention or enhance the quality of one’s experience (Ransom et al. 2021 ; Huron 2006 ). Predictions thus come with success conditions: they can be accurate, leading to faithful representations of the world and states of the body or lead to errors. As we shall see, when it comes to predictions in art, what counts as successful prediction or, on the contrary as predictive error (§V), will depend on a series of pre-existing states in the history of art rather than on mere perceptual knowledge.

Finally, predictions have different origins; they are formed and accessed differently, being likely to vary among individuals or to be tied to particular cultural contexts (Ransom 2022 ). This feature of prediction is especially relevant for understanding why art appreciation is a form of valuing and the diversity of forms of valuing art works. Two broad distinctions are in place here. We can distinguish between 1.1 predictions relying on personal and historically contingent circumstances, which are proper to subjective experience, and 1.2 predictions based on prior knowledge, which are accessible to a broader community or group. Regarding predictions organized around individual experience, 1.1, they are contingent first and foremost upon personal developmental trajectories, rather than upon features in the perceived environment. When it comes to predictions available collectively, 1.2, they are indexed either upon objective environmental properties or upon a set of knowledge shared within a group or community.

This distinction allows us to further identify two subclasses, namely perceptual learning (1.1.1), a process through which we develop a sensitivity to “prototypical categories” (Ransom 2022 ) based on exposure to learning samples in our environment, and the psychoanalytic mechanism of projection or projective identification (1.1.2), through which we externalize our emotions and beliefs. In the latter case, we experience the world according to our desires. This may happen, for instance, in some children’s games, but many visual hallucinations can be included here. A famous movie scene from Chaplin’s The Gold Rush , with Jim looking rapaciously at Chaplin as if he were an inviting roast chicken, is a good example of projective prediction (Gombrich 1960 , 157–158; 1963 , 7–8). In contrast, implicit predictions (1.2.1) – i.e., predictions we form through mere exposure to learning samples in our environment – and guided predictions (1.2.2) – i.e., predictions we form through explicit training, education etc., for instance when we learn to make hypotheses with respect to the light source in a painting – are stabilized against a perceptual, cultural or interindividual background (Wollheim 1990 , 83–84, 266; 1994 , 151; 1983 , 94–96; Budd 2008 , 241–242, 248).

The differentiation between subjective and objective factors in predictions could be a response to the lingering suspicion that predictions render art appreciation elusive. While we generally accept that a work is open to completion from our experience and find pleasure in this process of filling in the gaps, we still want the work to be the primary source upon which we build our experience. But only the self-oriented projective subclass of prediction (1.1.2), would be subject to such suspicion. Some predictions are more than just biasing factors for art appreciation, that is, they impact art experience in a relevant and meaningful way. The features compiled in the taxonomy here below (Fig.  1 ) will serve to illuminate what those predictions might be.

Types of predictions

I suggest that reliable predictions in art appreciation that serve to apprehend art works in categories take the form of art-historical estimates, which point to an important characteristic of our appreciative acts, namely, the fact that we don’t just assess works of art in isolation, as self-contained, but we also factor in the place such works occupy in a tradition of art when forming our appreciative evaluations. To get a better grasp on art-historical estimates –i.e., predictions that take as their object the temporal relationships between works and their place in art history, we need to determine the conditions under which they are formed. A hypothesis is that such predictions may be built upon mental structures that we already have in place, namely schemas and scripts.

3 From Schemas to Art Scripts

The claim is that art appreciation involves engaging our predictive systems in such a way as to correct predictive failure at least at some levels in the information processing hierarchy. That art appreciation involves predictive processing best explains the mechanism for cognizing art works in categories, cases of appreciative failure, and why art appreciation is a form of valuing. Regarding the first explanandum, schema- and script-based predictions provide the framework for getting our categories right in art appreciation. In cognitive psychology, schemas and scripts are defined as mental structures that play an important role in organizing experiences occurring frequently by arranging them into conventionalized conceptual units or “knowledge-structures” (Schank and Abelson 1977 ; Bartlett 1995 , 199–201; Clegg 1977 , 22). We make hypotheses with respect to the sensory world based on these mental structures that are already in place (Gombrich 1960 , 59–60; Davis 2011 , 191–192; 2017 , 10), then we adjust and correct our hypotheses by comparing them to the actual input that we receive from the world. In time, we also adapt our schemas and scripts as a result of cumulative processes of hypothesis-testing as we take in new information.

The two notions are closely related; what distinguishes scripts from schemas is the dynamic character of the former: scripts capture key features of standard sequences of expected events connected by causal chains (Schank and Abelson 1977 , 38, 41), whereas schemas generally capture key features of broad categories of discrete objects or events. Rather than designing mental images or thought concepts of particular objects in the world, schemas are abstract mental constructs or templates (Clegg 1977 , 23; Davis 2017 , 331) that act as classifiers for generic categories. In this respect, schemas can serve to classify art, given that most works “cluster around recognizably distinct models or mental templates” (Wright 1977 , 111). For instance, we can impose an Impressionist schema on a multitude of Impressionist paintings based on a type of brushstroke style. As for scripts, they also have varying degrees of accuracy and fineness. If we have well-formed scripts for our routine experiences (e.g., going to the supermarket), scripts may be poorly-formed for unexpected situations (e.g., coping with pandemic). Ultimately, schemas and scripts serve to build learned models of the world, and they concern a wide range of responses, from organic responses to everyday situations (e.g., crossing the street) to experiences connected to art such as museum experiences (Bartlett 1995 , 201).

Generally stored in long-term memory, schemas and scripts can reach conscious reflection or be engaged automatically (Gombrich 1960 , 60–61; 159–160,180, 289–290; Ucko 1977 , 17; Holly 2002 , 451; Huron 2006 , 235–237; Bar 2009 , 1239; Jacobsen 2010 , 248–249, 254). For instance, works or characteristics of works experienced frequently in the past may be absorbed unconsciously and stored in long-term memory; we can think here for example of the musical expectations we form with respect to pitch relations (Tillmann et al. 2011 , 378) or of pictorial expectations regarding the illusion of recession and laws of perspective (Gombrich 1960 , 289–290); genre conventions also qualify, if we move up in the hierarchy. Schemas and scripts are historically determined, being active and cumulative, which means that they can be adjusted in time (Bartlett 1995 , 203; Davis 1986 , 207; 2018 , 786). Moreover, schemas and scripts can be perspectival, that is, they can be activated from a point of view (Schank & Abelson, 1977 , 42) and are subject to cultural difference.

Several attempts have already been made in art theory to conceptualize how we apprehend art works in categories based on schema and script predictions. Thus, in Art and Illusion , a book that aims to explain the development of the history of Western painting, Gombrich has pointed to the importance of predictions in art, conceiving of creating and interpreting art as a grid with empty spaces that are filled in with images from one’s own experience (i.e. script-, or schema-based images); reading brushstrokes is, according to Gombrich, like playing a game of 20 Questions (Gombrich 1960 , 159–160), in which we adjust and rectify our guesses with respect to the depicted representational features through what he calls a particular mechanism of trial and error or “making and matching”. The upshot of playing this game of predictions while we engage with art may be gaining a clear, accurate representation of factual features – “matching” objects and events as they unfold in the represented reality –, but it doesn’t necessarily have to be so (Gombrich 1960 , 52–53;146–147, 153, 178–179; Forge 1977 , 29; Layton 1977 , 34–35). What is at stake in art engagement is something more than identifying representational patterns and illuminating some causal interaction with the perceptual world. Predictions based on schemas and scripts that organize our apprehension of art in categories are tailored for a wide range of purposes (§II) and may guide appreciation in different ways; for instance, instead of aiming at realism, such predictions might be determinant for style recognition or for the detection of stylistic change in art (Gombrich 1960 , 68–69).

A way to show how predictions might lead to an accurate appreciation of art works in categories is to say that they are formed on the basis of internalized art scripts. There is a minimal sense in which we rely on scripts to form expectations about how we should act when engaging with art. For instance, when we rely on a museum experience script, we expect to follow a series of conventional actions such as going to the museum, buying an entry ticket, navigating through the exhibition space, lingering in front of artworks, avoiding touching them, paying attention to the works etc. However, the internalized sequences of acts that I’m interested in are different. What I define as art scripts are sequences of acts of art-making that we expect to be connected by particular causal relations. We expect art works to be part of an internally orchestrated art history, resulting from a set of ordered actions that are possible at a given time. My hypothesis is that such art scripts provide rules for our predictions when we appreciate art. Given that we try to answer the question of what it is to appreciate art works in categories, script-based predictions – or what I call art-historical estimates – will be my main focus here.

In the light of the distinctions established above between various types of predictions (§II), we can now draw the line and identify the main features of art-historical estimates. Thus, art-historical estimates are first-order and second-order script-based predictions, stabilized within a community or group (§II, 1.2.), that impact art appreciation in a non-arbitrary way.

4 Appreciation and Art-Historical Estimates

To articulate the explanatory value of predictive processing for cognizing art works in categories, we need to further elaborate on script-based, art-historical estimates, namely predictions that take as their object the temporal relationships between works and their place in art history. How exactly do we bring art-historical estimates to bear in art appreciation? If such estimates must take as their object causally linked events occurring in a specific temporal or logical order, surely it would be far-fetched to say that we appreciate artworks as causally linked in the exact order in which they were made and became part of a history of art. And yet, art-historical estimates cannot entirely be ruled out from the appreciation of art. More specifically, when we appreciate art, we compare script-based, art-historical estimates to the art works we experience to form comparative judgements based on salient similarities (e.g., when we notice Cubist tendencies in an Impressionist work and make assessments such as “Picasso is a bit like Cézanne” as opposed to assessments in terms of resemblance or representational properties, e.g., “this patch of color looks a bit like a mountain”). This is to say that in art appreciation we assess predictions for their validity against a shared, script-like (§II, 1.2), art-historical background, in which works are sorted into sequences according to their art histories, namely according to the place they occupy in a tradition of art and the way they relate to other works (Walton 1970 , 334–335; Carroll 2001 , 86–87). Had the history of art been different, our appreciation of art would be different as well since we would be appreciating different works.

Art history can shape the appreciation of art if a minimal art-historical reflexiveness is prevalent in an artistic culture. We live in an anthropological environment that privileges or facilitates art-historical exposure, in which we are constantly primed with art stories (through art education, guided exhibitions but also through media exposure, art billboards or subway art posters, to give just a few examples). Such exposure allows us to form a minimal internalized art-historical knowledge (Holly 2002 , 451) – or art scripts – that would orient us in the space of the art world. I leave open the question whether the propensity to make predictions based on an art-historical background is a matter of historical contingence, or whether this hypothesis could be advanced with respect to different traditions of reception in different periods and cultural contexts. Given that scripts are culturally permeable, the tendency to place works in a tradition of art might be a peculiarity of our “Euro- artistic cultures” (Lopes & Ransom 2022 ; Davis 2010 , 712; Currie 2021 , 272, 275–276), built around a European developmental model of art. In any case, it is safe to say that in our artistic cultures, there is a built-in assumption that artistic value or merit is to be determined in relation to past artistic continuities and innovations. The propensity to respond to art-historical features such as artistic technique, style or execution has become internalized to a greater or lesser extent as a default mode of appreciating art. Notions such as “secondary attractors”, or a culture-specific art instinct, among others (Matthen 2015 , 175, 177; 2017 , 20) serve to capture this learned propensity to respond to art-related content.

There are several competing models that try and explain art appreciation in terms of categories or a minimally internalized art-historical knowledge. The question of how we cognize art works in categories and appreciate them qua art was initially addressed by Kendall Walton in his seminal paper “Categories of Art”, which has had a significant impact in philosophical aesthetics. The main thesis in Walton’s paper is that art appreciation is based on an implicit assessment at the perceptual level of the category membership of works (i.e., media, genre, style, and any other relevant category which would impact the perception of art in a significant way, e.g., paintings in the style of Cézanne, Brahmsian music etc., Walton 2020 , 80).

Two psychological models push forward the question raised by Walton regarding art categoricity, namely the model of perceptual learning and the model of cognitive penetration. One way to articulate the role of art-category expectations is to say that they figure in perceptual experience as a result of perceptual learning (§II, 1.1.1). Perceptual learning is an acquired capacity, defined in terms of “structural and functional changes in the perceptual system due to repeated exposure to a stimulus that result in a change in perceptual experience. This change must make a difference to how or whether something is perceived, and it must be brought about as a result of learning” (Ransom 2022 , 12). According to Ransom, perceptual learning allows us to understand our facility with art categories. We learn to perceive through exposure to art, in a social environment which is rife with learning samples (Ransom 2022 , 21). This happens through the construction of perceptual prototypes (Ransom 2020 , 69)– or schemas (§III) – which would allow us to detect features typical of art categories (e.g., an Impressionist brushstroke). In sum, the perceptual learning model seeks to explain how it is that we perceive a work differently once we have assigned to it a category.

Another way to account for art-category expectations is through cognitive penetration, which occurs when cognitive states (e.g., background beliefs with respect to art-historical facts) impact or alter perceptual experience in a causal way (Ransom 2020 , 67; 2022 , 5–6), by triggering a shift in the way we attend to categorial features. In other words, according to this model, art-historical knowledge would alter our perceptual experience by shifting our attention toward aspects of the work that are relevant for its art-categoricity (Ransom 2022 , 9).

Perceptual learning and cognitive penetration are two models of learning that try and provide an answer to the question of how we internalize art-historical knowledge and how such knowledge affects our perception of artworks (i.e., via implicit exposure to learning perceptual samples or, respectively, via cognitive inferences and high-order representations, possibly formed through explicit training). Both models are used for explaining the perception of the categoricity of art (Waltonian categories can be understood here in terms of schemas, §III). But the models aren’t fully satisfactory. Several aspects of these models can be questioned.

A first question that arises is how we come to form the categories in which we appreciate works of art in the first place. Is there, for instance, a place for temporal relationships when we establish the membership of a category (e.g., art-historical relationships, understood here in terms of scripts, that would get us from a genre or art style to another, say, from Impressionism to Cubism)? Can temporal features be diagnostic of category membership? Can we experience art histories of works or art-historical relations? According to many art theorists, art-historicity is an essential feature of art-making and art appreciation (Levinson 1979 , 242–243, 249; Wollheim 1980 , 95–97; Davis, 1993 , 331–332; 2011 , 9–10; 2013 , 207). We rarely appreciate works in isolation, as self-contained; we rather appreciate the ways in which such works relate or diverge from a tradition of art (e.g., through “repetitions, amplifications, or repudiations of acknowledged artistic tendencies in the tradition”, Carroll 2001 , 71). Importantly, this means that the appreciation of a work is not confined to assessing the contextual circumstances and art-historical facts that were available to the artist at the time of producing the work (Walton 2021 , 403), and that subsequent developments and innovations in the tradition of art also have an important part to play. The scripts available to present-day observers will always differ from those of the audiences intended by the artist. These will generate different expectations and different strategies for establishing the category membership of works.

Another important question is how far we can go with a perceptual explanation of art categories. Art appreciation overflows perception, it is more than just a matter of detecting perceptual categorial features. We use broader cognitive strategies, not just perceptual cues, to appreciate art. Making script-based predictions is one such strategy, with scripts pointing to generalizations about developments and innovations in a tradition of art against which we make hypotheses about individual works of art. These hypotheses are the ground for comparative judgements about individual pieces of art.

The proposal based on predictive processing better explains apprehending art works in categories than the above-mentioned competing models. While the account in terms of script-based predictions (or art-historical estimates) explores further the psychological aspects of Walton’s theory, namely understanding the psychological mechanisms that are related to how we establish the category membership of art works, it departs from it in many respects. For Walton, cognizing art works in categories amounts roughly to determining the permeability of perception by the historical circumstances of a work of art (such as its origin or history of making or its relation to internalized art norms within the community to which the artist belongs, Walton 1970 , 364–365; 2020 , 80–81; Davies 2020 , 77–78; Ransom 2020 , 80). The prediction account shifts the emphasis from perception to appreciation, that is, from perceiving works of art in mere art categories (Walton 2020 , 80–81) – or schemas –, to appreciating works of art by making predictions with respect art-historical categories – or scripts –, that encompass temporal or logical sequences in which such works occupy a place. The account explains appreciation in terms of prediction formation, where predictions are compatible with correct appreciation. An accuracy condition on predicting is that predictions have to be related to the art historicity of the work, to relevant art-historical facts. One significant advantage of the prediction model over its competing models is that it offers a dynamic approach to establishing category membership.

Regarding Walton’s compatibility with the prediction approach, there are further notable differences. For Walton, the identification of categories amounts to detecting Gestalt-like, static configurations (Walton 1970 , 340–341) through exercising our perceptual skills or sensitivity (Ransom 2020 , 2022 ), whereas art-historical estimates are weighed in appreciation rather than in perception only. In other words, Waltonian categories are not determinable in terms of non-perceptual considerations, whereas art-historical estimates are (i.e., such estimates can be made based on extra-perceptual information, for instance based on implicit beliefs with respect to artistic continuities and innovations). The account in terms of script-based predictions suggests that one internalizes art-related scripts (i.e., works as ordered in standard sequences, however coarse), which will enable us to discern causal relations among works. What a script-based explanation best captures is appreciating the dynamics of artistic innovations and change over time and a work’s position in this dynamic. Such temporal aspects are overlooked by Waltonian models.

Moreover, art-historical estimates are not cashed out in terms of art-historical expertise. This view is endorsed for instance by some recent, strong contextualist models (Bullot and Reber 2013 ) and is one that Walton wanted to rule out from the outset: “‘Categories of art’ does not take appreciators’ perceptual experiences to be cognitively penetrated by art-historical knowledge. And drawing inferences about a work’s categories from such knowledge would not be perceiving it in them” (Walton 2020 , 81). Nevertheless, Walton does acknowledge that art-historical knowledge still can influence aesthetic judgments but the exact nature of this influence – beautifully captured by the question “how guilty is the beholder’s eye?” (Walton 2020 , 84) – remains problematic. As Walton rightfully remarks, often one does not purposely seek to acquire information about the art-historical context of a work (for instance, about its specific causal history, its provenance, by whom it was commissioned, in what context it was presented etc., Walton 2020 , 82). Perceiving works in categories does not seem to be a matter of voluntary cognitive achievement, of painstakingly forming a mature art-historical judgment (Nanay 2018 ). The prediction approach is compatible with the idea that inferences about art-historical categories may be activated automatically in the process of appreciation; they don’t necessarily have to be reflexive. It differs from strong cognitive approaches in that it allows for coarse-grained, poorly-formed art-historical inferences – namely, inferences about what a work is in virtue of the position it occupies in an art tradition – to play a meaningful role in appreciation.

On the proposed prediction account, we internalize art-historical scripts (through exposure to both perceptual and extra-perceptual information) which enable us to get a sense of coarse relationships between works, styles, or periods of art. Such scripts enable us to apprehend works in a logically ordered sequence as if in a narrative structure.

That comparative judgments are a significant component of art appreciation is also a thought that Gombrich expressed, as one can read in the following passage:

Modern art and primitive forms are not the same as their primitive models. For that strange precinct we call art is like a hall of mirrors or a whispering gallery. Each form conjures up a thousand memories and after-images. No sooner is an image presented as art than, by this very act, a new frame of reference is created which it cannot escape. It becomes part of an institution as surely as does the toy in the nursery. If Picasso would turn from pottery to hobby horses and send the products of this whim to an exhibition, we might read them as demonstrations, as satirical symbols, as declarations of faith in humble things or as self-irony but one thing would be denied even to the greatest of contemporary artists: he could not make the hobby horse mean to us what it meant to its first creator. That way is barred by the angel with a flaming sword.” (Gombrich 1963 , 11; Holly 2002 , 452).

The passage seems to suggest that appreciation of art relies on something like script-based art-historical estimates. Every form of art keeps in the background a tradition of art, even if to subvert it. An objection that may arise is that the account of art appreciation in terms of art-historical estimates is only restricted to self-conscious art that explicitly keeps the art-historical tradition in the background; only works which display overtly an attitude toward art would require their audience to acknowledge the actual historical development of art. In other words, art-historical estimates would be triggered by a work only if it was the artist’s intention to generate such predictions through his or her work. And we can think here of many examples from modern art, or even more eloquently of John Baldessari’s Painting for Kubler , which consists of a text on a canvas that reads as follows:

This painting owes its existence to prior paintings. By liking this solution, you should not be blocked in your continued acceptance of prior inventions. To attain this position, ideas of former paintings had to be rethought in order to transcend former work. To like this painting, you will have to understand prior work. Ultimately this work will amalgamate with the existing body of knowledge.

While the question remains open whether there are paradigm cases or boundary cases of art appreciation in which art-historical estimates play a more prominent role than in others, we cannot exclude them from the way we appreciatively engage with artworks. The problem of serialized appreciation of modern works is just as applicable to other art forms outside the canonical space of modernism; there is no need for a special pleading for modernist art-historical estimates. Irrespective of whether specific works may succeed conspicuously in embodying art history (i.e., relevant art-historical facts, a tradition of doing things etc.) and temporal relations to cognate works, it is unlikely that we experience art configurations in complete isolation.

5 Predictive Failure

A further phenomenon explained by the fact that art appreciation involves predictive processing is appreciative failure. The prediction model of art appreciation accounts for the fact that in every art encounter we systematically mispredict (§II), that predictions in art are often inaccurate, leading to errors. Prediction errors appear when there is a mismatch between the hypotheses generated by our perceptual and cognitive systems and what we get when we attempt to match them to the world (Ransom et al. 2021 , 120). Art exploits a variety of prediction errors and failures, disrupting our perceptual or cognitive processing habits and capitalizing on our liability to err (Spolsky 2004 , 24; 2015 , 35–36; Davis 2018 ). What are the boundaries of such failures? What systems are engaged in trial and error, to employ again Gombrich’s expression, and who errs in the first place? What happens to appreciation when prediction goes wrong?

Art encounters are set more often than not in stereotypical settings such as museums, concert halls and exhibition spaces, creating conditions for minimizing prediction errors (Gombrich 1960 , 162, 164). Yet, experiencing art does not generally lead to the formation of perceptual routines (although see “aesthetic fatigue”, arising when we are confronted too often to the same art forms, Kubler 1962 , 73–75) since artworks do not generally display statistical formal structures or causal regularities, as ordinary stimuli in our perceptual environment do (De-Wit et al. 2010 , 8702; Williams 2018 , 153). On the contrary, with a specific content and their own intrinsic conditions of reception, artworks seem to be preventing the formation of perceptual habits (Spolsky 2016 , 50–51; Huron 2006 , 358–359) and the facilitation of perceptual predictions to the extent that ordinary stimuli do. Even where there seems to be little or no novelty, if we think, for instance, of various forms of geometric art, predictions are still violated at some level (e.g., illusions of movement as first-order prediction errors (see §II above) generated by op art).

There are distinctive ways in which prediction failure may arise in art appreciation. This is related to the fact that predictions in art are driven both by internalized scripts and patterns of works (§IV). According to the level of processing, errors may arise for instance in the sensory systems, in which case we would have a first-order prediction error. Sometimes our perceptual predictive systems may fail to categorize the perceptual content of works; here the errors concern perceptual categorization. Often, artworks are prone to prediction errors when their meanings collide with the sensory evidence they convey or when they provide no stable perceptual references (Kesner 2014 , 4). Yet, even when perceptual predictions fail systematically, some works may still trigger positive appreciation. Take for instance a still life by Braque, which fragments the perceptual space on the canvas into a myriad of scattered pieces. The more we try to integrate the various pieces into a perceived whole, the more the scene eludes our grasp. In this case, our ordinary perceptual habits to automatically categorize the depicted elements into discrete entities are turned into a handicap, but this only reinforces our appreciative response. Predictive failure at one level in the information processing hierarchy may be more important in some cases of art appreciation than predictive success. On this view, our responses to the discrepancy rather than correspondence Footnote 1 between what we predict and what we actually get from works (i.e., our responses to prediction failure) may be more positively valenced than in ordinary perception. Artistic success depends in many cases on eliciting predictive failure, on confounding our expectations, on entertaining curiosity, and uncertainty (Ransom 2022 , 17). With many Cubist paintings, the uncertainty that is entertained is with respect to the distribution is space of elements that should normally be grouped together into a perceptual whole.

There can also occur prediction errors in appreciation when we fail to reliably categorize works and misattribute art categories. Sometimes something in the object may cause failure (for instance, something like Waltonian contrastandard properties, which hinder categorization, Ransom 2022 , 17), or errors might be triggered when we base our hypotheses on the wrong scripts (§II. 1.2). Given that art-historical knowledge has a causal power on appreciation, our hypotheses might fail when guided by the wrong art-historical facts. This happens, for instance, with works in traditions we are not familiar with, upon which we impose the scripts that we already have in place. Modernist primitivism is a good example, where indigenous artefacts were seen exclusively through an aestheticizing lens, as embodying the natural expression a human creativity that eluded time.

When it comes to art-historical estimates (§IV), what counts as successful prediction or, on the contrary as representational error, will depend on a series of pre-existing states in the history of art. Disconcerting art forms that do not give rise to perceptual discrimination or categorization, start to make sense when placed in a relevant art context: thus, what counts as predictive error in the perceptual world may count as predictive success in the art environment. This view is compatible with the idea that there may be more than one correct scripts written in the objective art history itself. Art-historical narratives change continuously, helping us conceive art differently, and allowing us to play fast and loose with our art scripts, but even then, we have to be selective with respect to the scripts we summon in appreciation. Following this line of thought, in a sense, art-historical estimates help overturn the trope of strangeness associated with art. What counts as striking or strange in visual terms, can become predictable when considered in a script-like, organized setting (see §II. 1.2 above). Thus, art-historical estimates help strike a balance between contradictory cognitive and perceptual states. Moreover, art-historical estimates may reach awareness precisely because of perceptual predictive failure, that is, when one’s perceptual predictions are confounded. For instance, Braque’s Violin and Palette (1909), which initially allows coarse perceptual discrimination, starts making sense as soon as it summons latent assumptions about what a Cubist painting is. In appreciating this work, we rely on script-based predictions to resolve perceptual prediction-errors: the violin looks malformed until we process the painting as a Cubist work.

Another particularity is that in the art environment, we are more likely to cope with enduring states of uncertainty before correcting prediction error to reach perceptual categorization. The limits put by art on our expectations may be less constraining than those of the perceptual world, since there are no pressing real-world consequences, which would explain error-tolerant behavior and the delay in error correction. This delay would be driven more specifically by affective anticipations (e.g., the pleasure we anticipate experiencing after an active attempt at making sense of something) (Huron 2006 , 7–8, 11; Van de Cruys 2011 , 1035–1036). For instance, we may patiently linger in front of a Cubist painting until we start discerning meaningful patterns.

Arguably, script-based predictions can create a space for affective illusions (Hohwy 2013 , 243; Van de Cruys 2017 , 7–8), for instance a bias of confirmation with respect to the anticipated affective states likely to accompany a museum experience (etc. pleasure, surprise, expecting the unexpected etc.). We can think of many situations in which we mistakenly attribute our affective states to specific artworks whereas it is the art context which essentially orients our responses. The museum display induces specific expectations by framing our experience: features that would otherwise be unremarkable gain in significance when appreciated qua artistic, when framed as part of an artwork (Pelowski and Specker 2020 ; Leder and Pelowski 2021 ).

In the light of the distinctions established above, I propose that art appreciation involves engaging our predictive systems in such a way as to correct predictive failure at least at some levels in the information processing hierarchy. With script-based predictions generally counterbalancing or helping us revise predictive errors at various information processing levels while apprehending art works in categories. Making predictions and revising them at different levels in the processing hierarchy helps enhance our experience, possibly through amplifying our understanding of artworks. It remains to determine the affective consequences of making predictions in art appreciation, that is, the effect that obtains at the experiential level when engaging in a prediction dynamics.

6 Affective Valence and Prediction

That art appreciation involves predictive processing also explains why art appreciation is a form of valuing. Several questions arise here: to what extent does the implicit engagement with the art-historical tradition have an affective impact on art appreciation (Hopkins 2006 , 20, 24, 33)? What is the role that script-based predictions or predictions tout court play in eliciting affective responses?

It is generally accepted that affect serves as feedback for predictions, signaling value. More specifically, affective experience provides information about the prediction error dynamics (i.e., the change in prediction error over time) that is, about whether we progress or regress in predicting incoming stimulations. For instance, in a peek-a-boo game (Van de Cruys 2011 , 1056), surprise and excitement come at the end of a process of uncovering thrilling evidence about the presence of a loved one nearby. It can be argued that it is precisely in this dynamic of correcting prediction errors that we find the affective value that we attribute to our engagement with art (Van de Cruys 2011 , 1039, 1058). According to recent studies in cognitive psychology, in interacting with art, we make the best of this prediction error dynamics (Van de Cruys 2011 ; Van de Cruys 2017 , 7–8; Huron 2006 , 39), which may include, as we have seen, both first-order and second-order predictions (§II).

On a phenomenological account, second-order, experiential prediction errors reach affective awareness as they register contrasts that result from the transition between successive psychological states (for instance when we go from higher uncertainty to lesser uncertainty while trying to identify a movement in a musical composition). We can lively experience prediction errors and moments of introspective surprise (Van de Cruys 2011 , 1038; Hohwy 2013 , 245–246) when there is an increase and then a decrease over time in prediction errors. We experience thus a transition from a negative response to a positive response (e.g., the so-called Aha moments). When all prediction error is removed, the capacity for pleasure also seems to be diminished (Huron 2006 , 39, 364–365, 373–374). This is likely to happen with works that have an obvious compositional structure, which eventually lead to boredom.

Moreover, apart from the dynamic of prediction error, the effect a work has on us depends also on which type of predictions are engaged. A tentative proposition formulated here is that script-based predictions, or art-historical estimates, shared within a community or group, play an important part in experiencing and cognizing art works in categories, which will equally impact our affective response. For instance, appreciating the qualities of the pictorial composition of a Picasso masterpiece in the development of early 20th century European painting has an affective impact at least just as significant as the pleasure generated by identifying mildly representational qualities of such a painting. Finally, introducing the notion of script-based predictions (§§III, IV) is a step toward reconciling affective states and a minimal sense of normativity of the appreciative response.

7 Conclusion

Prediction impacts art appreciation in a meaningful and non-arbitrary way. The account proposed here in terms of a prediction dynamic which fine-tunes our response to art through a continuous process of correction of predictive failure at various levels in the information processing hierarchy best explains the way we understand art appreciation as involving cognizing art works in categories, cases of appreciative failure, and why art appreciation is a form of valuing. The account equally outlines a more inclusive conceptual framework for predictions by considering art-historical estimates, a subclass of script-based predictions pointing to an internalized disposition to make inferences with respect to the position a work occupies in a tradition of art, which help articulate the explanatory value of predictive processing for cognizing art works in categories.

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Acknowledgements

For useful suggestions and stimulating discussion, I am grateful to Dom Lopes, Jakub Stejskal, Mark Windsor, and the audience of the Czech Society for Aesthetics. I also thank an anonymous referee for very helpful comments. This work was supported by the Grant Agency of Masaryk University, MASH JUNIOR - MUNI Award in Science and Humanities, MUNI/J/0006/2021.

Open access publishing supported by the National Technical Library in Prague.

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Mortu, A. Prediction and Art Appreciation. Rev.Phil.Psych. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-023-00696-8

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1.1: What Is Art Appreciation?

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What Is Art Appreciation?

Appreciation of the visual arts goes beyond staring at a painting hanging on the wall of a museum—art is in everything and everywhere you look. Opening your eyes to the world of art is essential in understanding the world around you. Art is more than pretentious museums; only a few enter and comprehend. Instead, art appreciation is:

• Gaining the knowledge to understand the art.
• Acquire the art methods and materials to discuss art verbally or by the written word.
• Ability to identify the movements from ancient cultures to today's contemporary art.

Learning how to appreciate art is a necessary cultural foundation enabling people to critically analyze art, art forms, and how cultures used art. All it takes to understand the art is just to look!

Art appreciation centers on the ability to view art throughout history, focusing on the cultures and the people, and how art developed in the specific periods. It is difficult to understand art without understanding the culture, their use of materials, and a sense of beauty. Art is conveyed by the simple act of creating art for art's sake. Every person is born with the innate desire to create art, and similar to other professions, training is essential in honing skills to produce art. Art education broadens a person's comprehension, development, and visions of art. Art brings an understanding of diversity, how people lived in the past, and connects the issues concerning contemporary life and art today.

The history of the world is similarly the history of art, continually intertwined. For millions of years, as humans roamed the earth, evolution, and environment shaped many different cultures depending on location, weather, natural resources, and food. These cultures formed the foundation of all art today. Art appreciation analyzes art using the methods and materials, allowing people to make connections to the context of art and the interactions of societies.

It is difficult to understand the art without understanding the culture.

112 Modern Art Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on modern art, 👍 good modern art research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting modern art research titles, 💡 simple modern art essay ideas, ❓ questions about modern art.

• Modern Operating System: Concept and Design
• Interpretation of Supernatural Representation in Modern Art and Media
• Bauhaus and Modernism as Art and Design Movements
• Pop Art and Modern Technology in Artworks
• Photography as a Contemporary Art Form
• Influence of the Greek Art on Contemporary Artist Works
• Introduction to Modern Art: Stylistics
• Modern Art by Pam Meecham and Julie Sheldon The book “Modern Art: A Critical Introduction” by Pam Meecham and Julie Sheldon discusses various aspects of the contemporary art and the factors that influence its evolution.
• Modernism in Hemingway’s “Big Two-Hearted River” Hemingway’s “Big Two-Hearted River” possesses a number of traits that are characteristic of the modernist literature, namely, perspectivism, the art of omission, and fragmentation.
• Ancient Roman Roads and Their Influence on Modern Road Designs The author of the article Ancient Roman roads and their influence on modern road designs is Rowyn Lea. There is no reliable information about this writer.
• Tracey Emin as a Post-modernist Feminist Artist The main characteristic of a postmodern artist, like Tracey Emin, is anything that anyone does which has a profound effect on somebody or something else.
• Analyzing Modern Art: Works Comparison Artists may choose their path, inspiration, style, models, and general aim. Viewers can select what creative works they value and appreciate.
• Race and Ethnicity in Contemporary Art The artists of the late 20th focused on domestic racialized hierarchies, but the 21st century brought a global outlook of racial and ethics problems.
• Major Contemporary and Modern Art Movements Art is a dynamic field that encompasses various movements and artists. The modern art movement encompasses creative work created between the 1860s and the 1970s.
• The Dada Art Movement and Its Influence on Contemporary Art The present paper argues that the Dada art movement and its ideas of rejection of art and organized chaos significantly influenced contemporary design and art.
• The Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles: The Financial Crisis of 2008 The economic downturn of 2008 forced MOCA to transform its institutional roles, typology, exhibition approaches, and planning and implement a suitable managerial structure to achieve its future goals.
• Contemporary Islamic Art: Hojat Amani’s “Fallen Angels” One of the artists who made a visible impact in contemporary Islamic art is Hojat Amani, whose work “Fallen Angels” is inspired by the concept of angels in Muslim culture.
• Modern Art: Paintings and Representatives This paper examines several paintings, created by Pablo Picasso, Umberto Boccioni, Kazimir Malevich, Henri Matisse, Wassily Kandinsky, and Salvador Dalí.
• Contemporary Artists: Andrea Zittel, Cindy Sherman, Krzysztof Wodiczko The paper discusses contemporary artists who will end up being published in history books. It includes Andrea Zittel, Cindy Sherman, and Krzysztof Wodiczko.
• Artwork Collections in the Museum of Contemporary Art The paper discusses the Museum of Contemporary Art in North Miami. Some artistic works date back many years, while others date as recently as 2020.
• Conceptualization of Modern Art The paper states that today’s art appreciation is directly connected with exclusive creations aimed at changing the traditional perception of art.
• African Culture and Non-Western Modern Art Culture is seen extensively in how the African people work, dance, worship, communicate, and make arts, clothing, and music.
• Observer of Contemporary Art in Abu Dhabi This presentation aims to explore the perspective of an observer in the context of contemporary art in Abu Dhabi.
• Modern Art History Based on Picasso and Cezanne This paper is an annotated bibliography of the five books related to the topic of art history and the thematic analysis of some works of art.
• Contemporary Religious Art: Visual Art Art has always been an integral part of religion, and visual art is especially effective in conveying religious values.
• Modern Art Surrealists and Abstract Surrealists and abstract expressionists explored notions of the artists’ subconsciousness, while pop and most postmodern art are appropriate from the outside popular culture.
• The Record Contemporary Art and Vinyl The exhibition “The Record Contemporary Art and Vinyl” in the Miami Art Museum can be evaluated as a nice event of the local cultural life.
• Photography’s Effects on Modern Art Photography has been hailed by the masses as one of the best means of bringing the rest of the world to the public, affording them views of far-away places and peoples.
• The Tempest and the Contemporary Arts The Tempest is one of the most famous plays of the final period of Shakespearean creative work. The problems that the author revealed in this play to be rather topical for the present day.
• The Making of Modern Life: Art and Design in the Nineteenth Century This work will examine from the perspective of visual and comparative analysis what methods of art prevailed in different centuries and the paradox between techniques and moods.
• Weimar Culture Through Escapism in Modern Art This essay briefly analyzes the root reasons for the prevalence of Weimar Culture through the prism of escapism in modern art.
• Ancient Greek Tradition and Influence on Modern Art Ancient Greeks can be regarded as one of the groups which have made the most significant contributions to the development of different types of art.
• Salem Witch Trials and Modern Counterparts It is essential to observe that both witches in Salem in 1692 as well as communists during the Red Scare period of the 50s were scapegoats of the society.
• Contemporary Design: Evolution Queen Wall Bed Peculiarities of contemporary design can be easily seen in the Evolution Queen Wall Bed. At the first gaze, it is possible to say that the bed looks very elegant and even exquisite.
• Contemporary Artists in Culture This paper discusses the specific features or factors that interest people in contemporary artists’ works and what questions they pose.
• Tish Jones as a Contemporary Artist Tish Jones is an influential artist, poet, emcee, and a master of the spoken word. This paper highlights how he interacts with the society and his contribution to the world.
• Theory of Modern Art Matisse tries to expose the fact that art cannot be clearly expressed in its pictorial form, without essentially encompassing the artist’s thoughts.
• Modernism and Global Modernity: What Can Modern Art Offer to Global History?
• Weathervane and American Modern Art
• Was Modern Art Greater Influenced by the Invention of the Camera or Kindergarten
• Late Nineteenth Century Modern Art Transformation
• Egyptian Architecture and Art and Their Modern Art Influence
• The European Modern Art in the Period of WWI
• Art Expertise Modulation of Emotional Response to Modern Art
• “Why Beauty Matters” Documentary: Standardized Degradation of Modern Art
• Modern Art Desserts: From Mondrian Cake to Matisse Parfait
• Good Picasso vs. Pollock: Comparing Two Great Artists of the Modern Art Era
• Repeated Image and Transformation in Modern Art
• Banksy and Picasso’s Representations of Postmodern and Modern Art
• Modern Art and Its Relation to Graphic Design
• How Women Were Depicted in Modern Art in the 1860s-1960s
• Modern Art and “The Painted Word” by Thomas Wolfe
• “The Three Musketeers” and the Effect This Had on Modern Art
• Cubism and the 20th Century Modern Art
• Lillian Schwartz and Tracey Moffat: Modern Technology and Modern Art
• Factors That Have Influenced the Modern Art Movement
• The Use of Technologies and Social Media in Modern Art
• Modern Art and Design in the Novel “Babbitt” by Sinclair Lewis
• Creating Modern Art: The Changing Careers of Painters in France From Impressionism to Cubism
• The Food From Ancient to Modern Art: The Image of the Satyr With the Grapes
• The Concept of Modern Art From the Perspective of a Renaissance
• History and Current Situation of Modern Art in the Philippines
• Why Do Some People Hate Modern Art?
• The Role Movie Making Has Played in the Development of Modern Art and How This Advances Into the Future
• Activism as a Platform for Modern Art
• How Obscenity Has Crept Into Modern Art and the Challenge It Poses to the Future of Art
• Impressionism and Its Influence on Modern Art
• The Great American Thing: Modern Art and National Identity
• Are People Scared of Modern Art?
• The Major Factors That Influenced the Development of Modern Art in the World Today
• Merging the Traditional and Modern Art
• Modern Art Museums and Their Role in Transforming Societies
• Technology Impact Upon Modern Art
• One Hit Wonders: Why Some of the Most Important Works of Modern Art Are Not by Important Artists
• The Peculiarities of Modern Art in Comparison With Previous Art Periods
• The Multiplicity of Forms in Modern Art
• Is Contemporary Art Merely a Way for Greedy Capitalists to Make Money?
• Modern Art and the Impact of the Russian Revolution
• What Makes Modern Art Modern?
• The First Modern Art Movement of the Twentieth Century
• Political Cartoons as a Modern Art Form
• What Is Modern Art? A Guide to Modern Art History
• The ‘Isms’ of Modern Art: Belgium, Netherlands, and Beyond
• Modern Art in the Eyes of Today’s Youth
• Is Modern Art Dead? An Overview of Modernism and Its Aesthetics
• Modern and Contemporary Art of South Asia
• Why the Feminist Movement Is Important for Modern Art
• Why Was Modern Art Heavily Criticized?
• Is Modern or Contemporary Art Better?
• What Does Modern Art Reject?
• Why Is Modern Art Difficult?
• How Did Modern Art End?
• Why Do Modern Arts Have an Impact on Culture and Society?
• Why Do People Like Modern Art?
• Does Modern Art Tell a Story?
• Why Is Modern Art Better Than Traditional Art?
• What Is Modern Art in Art Appreciation?
• Are We Still in the Modern Art Era?
• Who Invented Modern Art?
• What Is the Opposite of Modern Art?
• How Does Modern Art Affect Your Daily Living?
• What Is the Oldest Modern Art?
• Who Is Most Famous for Modern Art?
• How Is Modern Art Different From Earlier Styles?
• What Are the Characteristics of Modern Art?
• Is Modern Art Difficult to Understand?
• What Is the Difference Between Modern and Contemporary Art?
• Is Modern Art Personal Expression?
• What Is the Main Point of Modern Art?
• Why Is Modern Art Useful in the 21st Century?
• How Does Modern Arts Affect the New Generation of Artists Today?
• Why Is Modern Art So Overpriced?

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These essay examples and topics on Modern Art were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning

(58 reviews)

Pamela Sachant, University of North Georgia

Peggy Blood, Savannah State University

Jeffery A LeMieux, Brunswick, GA

Copyright Year: 2016

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Eddy Mora, Faculty, Johnson County Community College on 5/8/22

Very comprehensive touching on subjects required not only to understand art but design as well. Topics were related to visual communication, visual literacy, and meaning. I love that the author does not stop at aesthetics but follows with cultural... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Very comprehensive touching on subjects required not only to understand art but design as well. Topics were related to visual communication, visual literacy, and meaning. I love that the author does not stop at aesthetics but follows with cultural and societal values.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Having studied art for the last 30 years I can recognize the subject in reference and it appears to be accurate.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Very relevant. I loved the introduction to the text because it makes it relevant to current and future generations of students, linking image use to cultural context and meaning.

Clarity rating: 5

Very clear and easy to follow and understand.

Consistency rating: 5

I like the sequential consistency of the text.

Modularity rating: 5

Very easy to pick up were left off.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The book is very relevant in the progression of topics. I love how is organized. The organization logic could help teachers focused on specific topics.

Interface rating: 5

Beautiful interface put together and easy to follow. Very well documented with images and captions.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors that I found.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is very inclusive culturally. I liked how it helps the reader travel through continents with different styles, modes, histories, and artists.

I would recommend this book not only for its relevance to art history or fine art students but also to use with graphic design students. The many topics touched such as art structure, materials relevancy, communication, art analysis, and design formalities are more needed in design now more than ever, especially in face of the open cultural globalization our youth is experiencing.

Reviewed by Monika Meler, Assistant Professor of Art and Foundations Coordinator, University of Saint Francis on 12/30/21

This book is a good and comprehensive text outlining themes and ideas. I see the audience for this text being complete beginners. It focuses less on formal principles and elements and tackles larger, more comprehensive themes like defining art,... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This book is a good and comprehensive text outlining themes and ideas. I see the audience for this text being complete beginners. It focuses less on formal principles and elements and tackles larger, more comprehensive themes like defining art, audience, and really large and complex ideas like identity, and power. Because it is a large survey textbook, these topics are not discussed in depth but do offer a brief introduction. The text does have a lot of questions at the end of chapters that would spark great conversation about these topics from beginning students. I don't mean to suggest that the book doesn't discuss elements and principles, but not nearly in as much depth as the textbook we use for foundations courses currently. I would use portions of this book for a 2D, 3D, or beginning drawing class, but it would not be an accurate replacement text for an intro/foundations course. For instance, the chapter on "describing art" would be very applicable to introduce students to critique. There are great examples of formal analysis that would be excellent to start the process of critique with.

The content of the book is very accurate.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

This is tricky to evaluate because this book is extremely relevant to beginning students. I could see this book being used in an art appreciation class or a class for non-majors not looking to go very deep. In our program, we teach a series of 1 credit beginning seminars for art majors that introduce them to different areas of study in studio art, audience, content, materials, and meaning. If I have the opportunity to teach one of these classes, I will definitely be pulling parts of this book. As you know, I am a fan of the "Describing Art" chapter and foresee using the "Connecting Art to Our Lives" chapter in the class as well as "Meaning on Art" in the courses.

My vote of "3" here is because of the lack of cultural diversity in the art that is represented and the fact that there are very few examples of more contemporary art. The examples are very European and this is why I would not use this as the sole text for any class. I would need to supplement with more contemporary/culturally diverse perspectives. Contemporary artists are mentioned, but few visual examples are used.

I think the book is very clear and consistent and believe that it communicates well to a beginning audience.

The book is very consistent. I like that each chapter begins with a section on "learning outcomes" and concludes with a review of key concepts. If your course includes tests or quizzes, this consistent structure would make it easier to construct the texts/quizzes and would serve as a nice study guide for students.

I addressed some of this in the "consistency" review above but this is one of the books biggest strengths. It is very easy to pull just one part of the book and teach from sections. The sections do no depend on the student having knowledge of previous chapters/sections.

As I have mentioned in previous points, this is a strength of the book.

There are no interface/navigation problems. I am impressed with the quality of images used.

I do not see any grammar issues.

Cultural Relevance rating: 1

This is one of the major issues I see with the book and I mentioned that in the points above. Other reviewers have also mentioned the lack of focus on cultural inclusion/diversity. If this book is to be used as a sole text for any course, it would have to be much more inclusive.

Reviewed by Christine Shearer, Adjunct Professor, Cleveland State University on 7/11/21

The book is a good resource for a basic art appreciation course that plans to focus more on topics and themes and less on formal qualities. Most of the examples are of a Western focus and provide a very Eurocentric viewpoint. There is a lack of... read more

The book is a good resource for a basic art appreciation course that plans to focus more on topics and themes and less on formal qualities. Most of the examples are of a Western focus and provide a very Eurocentric viewpoint. There is a lack of female representation, both as maker and patron, providing a male-centric focus—a common occurrence in art historical textbooks.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The images are great examples; however, they do not include any information that most professors would include in their lectures and PowerPoints—artist, title, date, medium, location.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

For a survey it has relevance, but it is not relevant for an upper division art history course. The book does not include much material post-1960, lacks representation beyond Europe and Western civilization, and is light on female contributions.

The template of the book is clear, nicely designed, and consistent. The writers have expressed their ideas in easy-to-understand language and have provided images and/or links to images to expand the learning experience visually. At the beginning of each chapter there is a list of learning objectives, and at the end of each chapter there is a review of key concepts, a test yourself section, and key terms.

The book is arranged thematically throughout, and the format is the same for each chapter.

Each chapter is broken down into subsections that are easy to pull out and assign in a different order than they are presented or as part of another course.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The organization of the book is by theme. It is structured to cover what is art and how to make art in the beginning chapters and then progresses through different forms before landing on specific themes. It can be used as presented or re-arranged to fit another format.

There are hyperlinks that are a little long. These could perhaps by converted to bitly links to make it less distracting when you come across them in the text.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are a few grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

As stated above, the book is heavily Eurocentric and focused on Western art. Very little material on women and post-1960 is included within that focus as well. It does not include non-Western art and culture which is often lacking from many art historical texts. Sections could be used for supplementing material in other courses, but overall, it is a good source for an introductory art appreciation course.

Reviewed by David Chatfield, Adjunct Instructor, Community College of Aurora on 5/24/21

This text is not&nbsp;especially comprehensive. The first, and the most egregious example is the lack of historical and cultural contexts, normally found in the form of sections on art history. The authors attempt to embed art history into... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

This text is not especially comprehensive.

The first, and the most egregious example is the lack of historical and cultural contexts, normally found in the form of sections on art history. The authors attempt to embed art history into sections on material, Formal Elements, and Themes in Art, but it lacks a lot of context.  This is especially the case when it comes to representation in non-western cultures. While I understand it is difficult to represent all cultures in dedicated chapters in this kind of text, and while I like the idea of embedding art history into other sections, they do not provide enough historical context and non-western cultures. One can choose a select group of representative cultures that demonstrate the relevant ideas that can give the students the structure and critical thinking skills needed to analyze the omitted cultures.  Exposure to other cultures and other contexts is essential to developing empathy, essential in developing critical thinking skills when considering new and unfamiliar contexts.

Finally, while it is fairly comprehensive in describing other ideas, like materials, Formal vocabulary, and themes it's not very comprehensive on the application of those ideas. 

Content Accuracy rating: 3

While the content seems accurate, it is not unbiased. As stated above this text is pretty typical in so far as the overrepresentation of Western cultures (and cultures generally accepted by the Western Canon like Egypt or China) in textbooks. This shows a bias toward an outdated Eurocentric viewpoint.

The content is not up-to-date. As an example, in the chapter on Protest and Shock, the most recent example is from 2001. There is a plethora of protest art from recent years, for example, BLM to the continued LGBTQ+ rights movements.

Though the text does include some contemporary artists, like Mel Chin, the examples are outdated.

The text also has at least 2 outdated links to image examples. Relying on links to other sources does not ensure longevity as the web is ever-changing. One could PDF the source and include that, or just include the images directly.

Clarity rating: 2

This text is pretty academic/inaccessible in its prose and doesn't provide much context for the terminology. For example, in the description of the often confusing Complimentary Colors, the authors state: "There is a slight delay between the depletion and restoration of this chemical supply within the neuron. In the interim, an afterimage occurs. Look at the green, orange, and black flag for 10 seconds, then look at a blank wall or empty white space. (Figure 2.52) For a few moments, you will see the complement, or opposite, of green (red), the complement of orange (blue), and the complement of black (white)..."

This idea is deceptively hard to teach, and even experienced art students are confused by Complimentary Colors. Describing chemical reactions and neurons might require one to explain what neurons are as well as what color wavelengths are on top of the cultural specificity of color and so-on and so-on only to additionally complicate a complicated idea, when what the student's need to know is how Complimentary Colors behave visually in contrast to Harmonious Colors, and why that is important to an artist. Compliments clash, while Harmonies don't.

Consistency rating: 4

The text is fairly consistent in its terminology and seems to be organized by an overall framework, starting with the vocabulary, then materials, then finally themes of Art. I would like to see more ties between the different sections using the vocabulary. For example, in the earlier section on the Formal Elements and the later section on visual analysis, the vocabulary used in the early section isn't brought forward in a clear and consistent way. 

Modularity rating: 4

The text is modular, with sections delineated out into broader ideas that are then explored specifically, that can be viewed independently if needed.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

As stated above the text is well organized. Looking at the table of contents one can easily find specific ideas and jump to them using the page number feature. That being said, it would be far more intuitive and accessible if the sections in the table of contents linked directly to their corresponding sections.

Interface rating: 2

Though this text has some accessibility problems.

As to the interface, I have been able to copy and paste text easily, making me think the text accessible to an eReader. I'd like to see how this text works with an eReader for visually impaired or neuro-divergent students. As of now, I do not see an option for the text to be read within this interface requiring a third-party eReader.

The images are small and cannot be enlarged or opened in another tab. Being able to zoom in helps students interact with the work in a more intimate way. This is also a huge problem for visually impaired students.

There are several broken links, and I've found that the PDF takes a lot of time to load, even on a stable internet connection. This could be problematic if a user's computer or internet connection is slow. Could the sections be broken into smaller, linkable sectons?

Beyond a few links, the user experience is limited.

As best as I can tell there are or no grammatical or spelling errors. Though I'm no editor.

I did a keyword search and found a striking lack of non-Western Art. Renaissance is mentioned 30 times, while Africa/African: 8, Mesoamerica: 0, Aztec: 3, Mayan: 1. Aboriginal: 2, Pacific Island: 1, and so on. A cursory glance at the imagery is equally unrepresentative. I mostly see artwork from movements typically seen in Eurocentric Textbooks that dominate Academia (or cultures like Egypt or China, generally accepted into the Western Canon). The purpose of seeking out an OER is to move away from these types of texts. This lack of representation is highly problematic.

As to Higher Order Learning skills, specifically analysis/evaluation, I don't see enough in the text on how to analyze a work of art. They simply include a brief section with only two images and all too brief corresponding paragraphs of academic visual analysis. I don't see many connections to previous sections on the vocabulary used in visual analysis. The authors academically explain an idea, or a theme, but give the students much opportunity to apply those ideas.

A good book should lay the groundwork first on the necessary ideas, concepts, and vocabulary. When a student gets to the analysis in this book I don't think they would be prepared to understand the analysis the authors provide.

Then they need to have an immediate opportunity to apply those ideas. I realize this is part of my job, however, a good text does add exercises the authors find relevant to their text. My assignments may not be enough. At any rate, it's nice for the students to have additional options for the application of ideas.

This text also does not contain enough modalities in presenting the information. There are no supplemental videos, hands-on projects, or audio components. Just providing text and pictures is not enough. This particular text would require me to heavily supplement information, in which case I might as well toss the text and curate content that comes from multiple modalities myself.

Finally, quizzes at the end of each section may provide decent quantitative assessments, there is little here to help me provide qualitative assessments. Again, I understand that is my job to provide those opportunities, but I've found good text does as well.

Reviewed by Ines Corujo-Martin, Adjunct Assistant Professor, New York City College of Technology on 5/4/21

This textbook seeks to offer a deep and comprehensive insight into the world of art, including a broad variety of perspectives, such as art and meaning; art and power; art and ethics, among many other subjects. It contains over 400 high-quality... read more

This textbook seeks to offer a deep and comprehensive insight into the world of art, including a broad variety of perspectives, such as art and meaning; art and power; art and ethics, among many other subjects. It contains over 400 high-quality images that illustrate the various forms of art, its technical applications, and its many uses. The table of contents seems detailed at first, but a closer look reveals the lack of logical and coherent progression. While Chapters 1 and 2 analyze the meaning of visual art, what is an artist, and the structure of art, Chapter 3 jumps into the study of materials, introducing jargon and technical terms that belong to an art history or more specialized course. Chapters 4 and 5, which respectively explore “Describing Art” and “Meaning in Art,” should have been placed right after Chapter 1, as they cover basic topics and terms. On the other hand, Chapter 7 delves into art in architecture, while other forms of art like painting, sculpture, or photography are neglected and find no space of deep analysis in the textbook. Overall, the content is imbalanced and needs more work, as well as the inclusion of updated materials and examples. Relevant chapters that could introduce thought-provoking and add new perspectives into the classroom (e.g., Chapter 8: Art and Identity; Chapter 9: Art and Power) are brief in comparison to other sections and offer a superficial and simplistic overview on very complex topics. For example, the authors do not illustrate the relationship between art and the construction of intersectional identities of race, gender, nationality, and ethnicity, mainly centering on religious and spiritual values (Chapter 6 and Chapter 10). Although each chapter ends with a section of "Key Terms," there is no glossary or list of illustrations at the end of the textbook. It includes footnotes citing the references employed, but there is no final bibliography, which is detrimental for an introductory college textbook that should provide a condensed view of documentation in the field. This textbook is inaccurately described online as “digital in nature,” when it takes on a conventional approach to teaching and learning. The only digital component is the inclusion of links embedded throughout the text, most of which are not contextualized. Some of these links do not work, and others send students to artworks with poor image quality. The textbook as a whole fails to provide digital activities and/or projects to expand students’ educational experiences beyond the textbook, helping them master concepts (i.e., quizlets, flashcards, videos, interactive images, etc.). It does not contain learning features like annotate and bookmark, which increase engagement with course content. Besides, there is no way to monitor students’ progress. It would have been useful to incorporate review, summary, and expansion activities at the end of the chapters, in addition to self-quizzes, to enhance student performance and facilitate the grasp of content.

The images do not include information on the artist, title, size, medium, date, and museum/collection of the works of art, and the emphasis is solely placed on the open source. Names of artists are sometimes misspelled and show no consistency like Vassily Kandinsky instead of Wassily Kandinsky (p.106).

As previously noted, this textbook takes on a traditional approach both in content and format, failing to add innovative insights to the art field. It mostly focuses on the pre-1960s period, and there is a notable absence of contemporary art, non-Western cultures, and art produced by female artists and people of color. There is barely no discussion of subculture art, urban art, or popular art, and the importance given to museums for the dissemination of art is minimal. There are stances in which the authors delve into topics that seem irrelevant to an introductory art course. For instance, the emphasis on the cultural value of materials (Chapter 3) seems very off-topic and, as already mentioned, should belong to an art history or material culture course. In contrast, relevant ongoing topics like digital art and the relationship between art and technology, often students’ favorite section, should be organized as a separate chapter instead of inserting disconnected and vague references throughout the text. The textbook does not provide enough opportunities for students to develop their critical thinking. This aspect could have been polished by designing exercises to analyze the works of art presented or by adding case studies on current and relevant artistic activities to interpret practical scenarios. To give an example, the eleventh chapter--"Art and Ethics"--could be greatly improved by introducing recent articles and real-world examples to explore ethical dilemmas related to the concepts of intellectual property, collecting, and censorship.

Clarity rating: 4

Overall, the language is clear and accessible, except for instances in which the authors use jargon and obscure terminology not appropriate for an introductory art course. Some of these technical words are not even included in the "Key Terms" sections at the end of each chapter, forcing the readers to figure it out by themselves and confusing students who might have little or no background in art.

The template used is consistent through the chapters. There is consistency regarding structure, framework, and terminology.

Each of the eleven chapters that comprise the textbook are organized into topics followed by subsections that are meant to connect back to the main theme. All chapters start off with a section of "Learning Outcomes," summarizing the learning objectives that should be attained at the end. After this, an introductory part provides background and presents the main themes and ideas that will be covered. The constant inclusion of rhetorical questions throughout the text allows students to reflect on their own learning process and to recognize the impact of art in their daily lives. Moreover, each chapter ends with two conclusive sections: "Before You Move On" and "Key Terms." The first one gives a list of discussion prompts to test the knowledge gained so far and to connect the content to students’ personal experiences. These self-reflection questions are particularly useful to engage students in their knowledge-building process and can be easily assigned to discuss in small groups during class or adapted for online forums to extend the exchange of views beyond the classroom.

There is no introduction/preface in which the authors explain the structure they follow, their educational goals or the relevance and application of the content in this textbook. Having a preface at the beginning of the textbook is useful to specify and give more information on the intended audience, as well as the educational level for which it is recommended (although we assume it is addressed to introductory college/university courses on visual art, art history, and art appreciation). There are no suggestions for planning the course and using the textbook in the classroom. This lack of pedagogical guidance could be greatly improved in the future.

Interface rating: 4

This is an aspect that needs improvement, as many of the links do not work or the linked images and pages are missing. In other cases, when referring to previously discussed images, the labeling tends to be incorrect. It is frustrating that the links within the body of the text are so long and that they are not enclosed with a period, which distracts the reader. Other than that, navigation through the text is straightforward and the text is clearly displayed.

The text does not include grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The approach of this textbook is clearly Eurocentric and Westernized, leaving out examples of art from Africa, Latin America, indigenous tribes, or any other non-Western culture. The only part in which the authors make some explicit references to other cultures (in this case Asian) takes place is Chapter 10 on "Art and Ritual Life"; however, this discussion occurs within the framework of Western themes. The vast majority of artworks in the textbook display white men and, as mentioned elsewhere in this review, there is no representation of female artists or people of color. This omission of diversity is problematic and one of its main downfalls. Art is one of the most powerful mediums to educate others on issues of inclusivity, social justice, and cultural sensitivity, which is key to forming well-rounded, global citizens. This textbook perpetuates a white-male-dominant perspective, following the typical works of art found within the canon of Western Art History. It is highly recommended that the authors revise the selection of pictures, citations, and examples to represent diverse cultures, races, ethnicities, genders, and backgrounds. In this respect, it is noteworthy to mention that the eighth chapter on the subject "Art and Identity" is one of the shortest and most superficial ones (in comparison, for example, to the previous chapter devoted to architecture that occupies more than 30 pages). The chapter "Art and Identity" provides over simplified conceptions of what cultural identity means (and constantly from a Westernized perspective) and misses out the fertile intersection of art with gendered and racialized identities over the course of history.

This textbook is not recommended as the main reference material or as a tool for organizing the course structure due to all the weaknesses in regard to content, structure, and cultural relevance detailed in this review. However, some of its sections can be incorporated into already prepared lessons, in particular Chapter 1, 4, 5, and 11, which from my perspective are the strongest. The textbook is not overly self-referential and some parts can be easily used as a supplemental material in combination with other educational resources.

Reviewed by Meidor Hu, Professor, Hawaii Community College on 4/23/21

This text is a comprehensive survey of ideas and subjects— theoretically and historically, similar to other text for an introduction to visual arts course. A wide variety of artistic media styles, time periods, and regions are covered, mostly with... read more

This text is a comprehensive survey of ideas and subjects— theoretically and historically, similar to other text for an introduction to visual arts course. A wide variety of artistic media styles, time periods, and regions are covered, mostly with examples from Western art. Love the "Test Yourself" and "Key Terms" section at the end. It is lacking an index and glossary at the end of the text. I can see how this text can be easily incorporated with my previously prepared lessons. 

The text reads unbiased and highly accurate. Although the image examples left out info on size, media, date and location of the art work.

The text is current but could give more focus on art since the 1960s and inclusion of more women artists.

The writing is clear and easy to read. The "Test Yourself" section at the end of each chapter is a great addition to check for understanding.

There is consistency in the logical structure and presentation.

The chapters and subheadings are logical. Each chapter opens with Learning Outcomes and ends Key Concepts, Test Yourself, and Key Terms sections to check for understanding. The subheadings are in easily digestible sections.

The text's organization is clear in format and structure.

The basic design is clear and non-distracting. The image quality were also good.

No issues with grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Although the text incorporated examples from different cultural and geological region, the majority of the discussions are Eurocentric in perspective. More attention to Asian, African, Pacific and the Americas would give the content more diversity.

Reviewed by Daniel Vedamuthu, Instructor of Art and Design, Rochester Community & Technical College on 4/1/21, updated 6/1/21

Books for Introduction to Art / Art Appreciation courses usually cover some standard topics: the definition of art, materials used to make, the elements of art and the principles of design, reasons for creating art, and methods of formal analysis... read more

Books for Introduction to Art / Art Appreciation courses usually cover some standard topics: the definition of art, materials used to make, the elements of art and the principles of design, reasons for creating art, and methods of formal analysis of art. Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning covers these topics in the appropriate amount of depth. Texts usually then present a thematic, chronological, or cultural history of art. Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning focuses on a thematic approach. Figures often appear without dates. Courses that focus on a chronological approach will find this text lacking. The text lacks a “whole book” glossary of key terms. The Key Terms are found at the end of each chapter. The text includes a Table of Contents but does not have a formal index. This would have a negative impact on a printed version of the text. In the PDF version, searching the text is only a click away.

The text is accurate. One of the most important aspects of accuracy in a text in this subject is ensuring that the Artist, Artwork Name, and Date of Creation are correct. Doing a few random spot checks, when this information is present, the information is correct. Figures are labelled with the source author, source location, and the license. One area the text could improve is the lack of pronunciation guides in the text and in the Key Terms areas.

Being a text covering the thematic history of visual art, the content itself will not go out of date. The lack of contemporary imagery is the biggest drawback to the text, due to licensing of the figures. To include contemporary artwork in the text, links to outside images are provided in the text. Outdated links or redirects could cause the text to become obsolete. I believe it would be helpful to have a section after the copyright page or at the end of the text describing when links have last been updated or revised. However, the text is organizing in such a way that adding new images requires revising the thematic examples throughout the text instead of having to add and reorganize chapters. This is a benefit for adding new contemporary or cultural examples through the text.

The text is very clear. Art terms are clearly explained. Written examples are used to explain difficult terms. Even more importantly, Figures are used to demonstrate the meaning of art terms. When there are contrasting ideas, the text provides multiple Figures to demonstrate those competing ideas and provide instant opportunities for students to discussion about compare-and-contrast between the two figures.

The text is consistent on how it approaches topics. Art terms are using consistently throughout the text.

The text is built to be modular. Each chapter could be assigned in any order, though it’s obvious that the editor has an intended order for reading at the beginning of the text in order to logically introduce readers to the topics. Toward the end of the text, the topics become more thematic, and these chapters could be easily reorganized and adapted. Each Chapter’s main Chapter Content has clear headings and well-defined sub-headings. Each level of heading seem to be good breaking points to create smaller readings or to remix and rearrange the text.

Chapters in the text follow a logical and consistent structure. Each chapter establishes Learning Outcomes (which are meaningfully written), and Introduction, Chapter Content with well-defined subheadings, a conclusion named “Before You Move On” that includes Key Concepts and Chapter Questions, and finally, a list of Key Terms from the Chapter. Chapters build in a logical progression a the beginning of the text.

The real point of concern with any art appreciation text is the quality of the images. The resolution of most images appears to be sufficient for screen and print. Images are no distorted. Navigating the text is easy through PDF Bookmarks.

I observed no grammatical errors in the text.

This book features many examples that vary from the traditional art appreciation “textbook examples.” Images still tend to represent a “western art” perspective. There are examples from a range of different cultures but compared to some of the best commercial textbooks for cultural relevance, this text does compare to those standards. Are there any other comments you would like to make about this book? I am not fond of the typographic and typesetting choices made for the text. Multiple columns of text would reduce some of the very long line lengths found in the text. With a long line length and narrow leading, the lines seem to blend together. Figures do not seem to follow a strict layout grid that enhances the layout of the information. The drop-shadows on Figures are unnecessary. Fake small cap on Chapter names in the Table of Contents isn’t high quality.

Reviewed by Andrea Lepage, Professor of Art History, Washington & Lee University on 12/13/20

The text integrates all of the key areas traditionally covered in an art appreciation course with an emphasis on cultivating an art specific vocabulary and understanding the materials of art. The authors incorporate a wide variety of artistic... read more

The text integrates all of the key areas traditionally covered in an art appreciation course with an emphasis on cultivating an art specific vocabulary and understanding the materials of art. The authors incorporate a wide variety of artistic media, traditions, styles, time periods, and regions into their discussions. The majority of the examples provided are drawn from Western art historical traditions, but the authors also include examples from regions beyond the West—especially China, Japan, and India. The text features some examples from Nigeria, Ghana, and North American indigenous traditions, but greater attention to African, Latin American, Central and South Asian, Oceanic, and indigenous traditions would be welcome. The work of male artists, mostly drawn from the Western art historical canon, dominate the discussions; greater coverage of women artists would also be welcome. The Table of Contents is hyperlinked and clearly organized, and each chapter concludes with an excellent glossary of terms. Including an index would assist students in navigating the book.

The content is mainly accurate throughout the text, with some typographical, spelling, and technical errors (broken links), especially in the second half of the book. As noted below, the text includes some inaccuracies or inconsistencies pertaining to indigenous cultures and artists. On occasion, the authors present controversial viewpoints in a straightforward manner. The 2003 toppling of the Saddam Hussein monument in Baghdad (p. 249) is one example. In a section dedicated to propaganda, the authors make no reference to the controversial nature of this incident, which may have been initiated or manipulated by U.S. military forces for propagandistic purposes.

The text is arranged in such a way that extended discussions and additional examples would be relatively easy to introduce. Updates might include extended discussions about artwork produced by women, indigenous, black, and other artists of color. In some cases, updates might simply expand the discussion around examples already introduced into the text (for example Gee’s Bend quilt maker Lucy Mingo, page 7; Judith Baca’s Great Wall of Los Angeles, pages 23-24; Jaune Quick-to-See Smith’s multi-media work, page 168). Such updates would help to further decenter traditional canonical Western art historical narratives. In addition, references to LGBTQ artists would be a welcome addition, as would including supplementary sections dedicated to contemporary artistic production. The authors have been careful to include discussions of more contemporary art forms like new media and graphic novels, and additional examples would be relatively easy to insert into the text. Discussions of early modern and modern art are already strong.

The text is written in clear and accessible prose. The learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter give readers the necessary information to navigate each chapter. The concluding section in each chapter (“Before You Move On: Key Concepts”) does an excellent job of synthesizing the key points included in each chapter.

The text is arranged thematically rather than chronologically and is internally consistent throughout. Each chapter is well organized and easy to follow with a consistent arrangement that will be especially helpful for students as they study key points presented in the text.

The authors organize the text thematically, rather than chronologically as is the case with many introductory art history textbooks. Each chapter is organized consistently with learning outcomes, an introduction, a series of content sections that could be assigned at different points in the course, followed by a recap section entitled ‘Before You Move On,” and a list of key terms. The key term/glossary sections are extremely useful. In particular, the key terms included in chapter three, “Significance of Materials Used in Art”, provide an excellent and comprehensive glossary of artistic materials. It is easy to imagine students consulting this resource routinely throughout the course. Many of the ‘Test Yourself’ questions included at the end of each chapter could also double as in-class discussion prompts.

The book contains eleven chapters, organized thematically. The chapters cover conceptual questions, including: What is art, who is considered an artist, and why is art powerful (chapters one and nine)? How does art connect to our lives (chapter six), our identity (chapter eight), ritual life (chapter ten), and ethical world views (chapter eleven)? These conceptual discussions bookend chapters focused of the materials of art, and later chapters effectively circle back to themes briefly presented in the introductory chapter.

The remaining chapters provide students with art specific vocabulary and the descriptive and analytical tools to view, discuss, and interpret art and architecture. Chapters two (“The Structure of Art”) and three (“The Significance of Materials Used in Art”) provide students with an excellent and thorough description of the materials of art, which will be especially useful to students without a background in studio art. The authors are careful to include discussions of a wide variety of media including architecture (chapter seven), painting, printmaking, sculpture, video, performance, and new media. Chapters four (“Describing Art”) and five (“Meaning in Art”) provide students with an overview of strategies for formal and contextual analysis.

The Table of Contents provides links to each subsection, which is an effective navigational feature. The artworks and charts embedded in the text are high quality, well placed, and increase reader understanding of the concepts presented. The consistent design layout makes it easy for the reader to shift between image and text. Due to copyright restrictions, however, the authors are unable to include reproductions of all of the artworks discussed in the text. In those instances, the text includes links to the images. Some of the links to artworks are broken or point to sites that will require students to sift through extensive texts or image sets to find the artwork mentioned in the textbook. Along with the artist and title, it would be helpful to include the date, medium, size, and location in the label accompanying each artwork. This is a highly accessible textbook—the authors offer a variety of ways to download the PDF as both low- and high-resolution files, chapter sets (1-3; 4-7; 8-11), and in Japanese translation. The work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 License.

The text does not contain obvious grammatical errors. However, it does contain typographical and spelling errors; accents are omitted at times.

Overall, the text makes use of examples that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. At times, the text misses opportunities to bring the discussion into communication with cultures that flourish beyond the Western world. Greater attention to indigenous cultural specificity is warranted. For example, the authors reference the Aztec Plumed Serpent deity Quetzalcóatl (p. 256) in the context of Chichén Itzá, which is a Maya site located in the Mexican state of Yucatán. However, Kukulcán is the name of the Yucatec Maya deity to which the main temple at Chichén Itzá is dedicated. The authors should reconsider using the word ‘Eskimo’ (p. 270) or explain that ‘Eskimo’ is a designation imposed upon Inuit and Yupik people that has been rejected by Inuit communities for decades. This is one of several instances in which the authors could engage more significantly and critically with histories of settler colonialism. Other opportunities to confront biased Western narratives could occur in the sections focused on mahogany harvesting in the Caribbean (p. 88), Manifest Destiny (p. 161-162), and discussions of transatlantic trade in general. The discussion of Jaune Quick–to–See Smith's (an enrolled Salish member of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Nation) "Montana’s Trade (Gifts for Trading Land with White People)" presents one such opportunity (p. 168), but both links to her work are broken. Because the artist’s name is misspelled twice in this section, students may encounter difficulties finding a reproduction of the work independently. Similarly, the authors could confront histories of enslavement more frequently, modeling their discussions on the section dedicated to Fred Wilson’s "Mining the Museum" exhibition (p. 289-290).

This text represents an important contribution in the effort to make art and the study of art accessible to students. Undergraduates studying art appreciation will benefit from the accessible prose, clear design layout, and high-quality in-text illustrations.

Reviewed by Julia May, Assistant Professor, University of Virginia on 11/30/20

I would use this text in my art appreciation/visual culture course. I very much appreciate the arrangement of the book, the first section dedicated to the fundamentals of art and the second, to central themes. These aspects provide a solid... read more

I would use this text in my art appreciation/visual culture course. I very much appreciate the arrangement of the book, the first section dedicated to the fundamentals of art and the second, to central themes. These aspects provide a solid foundation for students who will want to know more. It is a sufficient balance of form and meaning, which you don't often see in introductory texts. It is accessible and easy to follow. The embedded hyperlinks to supplemental information is also a unique feature that students will find helpful.

The information is accurate and consistent.

Any updates will be easy to make. I don't see anything going out of date too soon.

The language is clear and accessible. Including glossaries at the end of each chapter is a great way for students to have ready access to key definitions.

The text is consistent.

I feel that the modularity of the text is adequate. The reader should not be overwhelmed by the above elements. Being able to zoom in on the images - is a great feature - they remain very crisp and clear, at least for me.

The authors organized the text effectively, considering the amount of material covered (see above). I appreciate how the authors include a set of learning outcomes at the start of each chapter and have "tests" throughout as well as "key concepts" and glossaries. My only concern is that there is no index, nor is there a bibliography (unless I missed them).

I think the interface is sufficient. I was able to access the material embedded in the hyperlinks. Using hyperlinks to supplemental content is a terrific way for students to obtain details on particular objects. I also like that authors used them judiciously.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

The chapter on art and ritual life serves as an excellent example of presenting the traditions of a variety of cultures in a balanced and respectful manner.

This book is a perfect companion to any college-level art appreciation course - and for today's student. The balance of form and meaning, the inclusion of learning objectives for each chapter, the "tests," and hyperlinks to supplemental material makes it unique and a text I would consider using in my course.

Reviewed by Danielle Bell, Adjunct Professor of Art and Art History, Community College of Aurora on 8/14/20

In reviewing this text, there were many things that I had issues with: 1. The text condenses the discussion on artistic mediums to half a chapter. This does not give students enough time to fully engage with the mediums since there is no context... read more

In reviewing this text, there were many things that I had issues with: 1. The text condenses the discussion on artistic mediums to half a chapter. This does not give students enough time to fully engage with the mediums since there is no context given. 2. There is a whole chapter dedicated to architecture, but only smaller sections within a chapter dedicated to other art mediums, such as painting, printmaking, and drawing. The chapter on architecture could have been condensed so much more and included in the mediums section. 3. In the sections on mediums, the text does not always show examples. For instance, in the printmaking section, they do not show an art example for each process, so the students reading would have no idea what a screen print even looks like. 4. My other issue with chapter 2 is directed at the sections on the elements of art and principles of design. These sections are very rushed. Its information overload. The authors do not spend an adequate amount of time/space on each element. Again, no context is given for each element and its many facets. There needs to be more time given to the elements and principles and more art examples given so that students are better equipped to identify such things when doing a formal analysis. 5. My next issue is that there is no definition of formal analysis given before the authors, in Chapter 4, begin performing a formal analysis on two different works of art. 6. Chapter 4 also has a rather quick, but comprehensive art historical section, but it doesn't really belong in this chapter as its supposed to be about "describing art." 7. The chapter on identity in art is incredibly Eurocentric, and is also is very focused on art before 1900. There is a significant lack of contemporary art discussed in this text.

The content that is presented and discussed is done so accurately and seemingly unbiased.

For the most part, the text is very relevant, especially its chapters on themes in art. However, there are times the authors delve into topics that seem irrelevant to an intro to art text. For instance, Chapter 3 on cultural value of materials is very out of place in this text.

Clarity rating: 3

The book is at times accessible and yet also full of scholarly jargon that is confusing to those not familiar with that type of writing. Throughout the text, the authors "name drop" scholars, art schools, historical figures and events, etc. without providing context. Even the metadata for artworks is always clear as there are times where the text will omit information rather than indicating that the information is unknown.

I encountered some inconsistency in the spelling of artist names. In the text, there are conventional transliterations of artist’s names. For instance, for artist Do Ho Suh, the name is spelled Do Ho Su on page 92, and Wassily Kandinsky is spelled Vasily Kandinsky on page 106.

The text is not overly self-referential and would be easy for any professor to cherry-pick sections to assign to students. I think the strongest chapters in this book that any intro to art class could benefit from are chapters 1, 5, and 11.

The organization of topics is strange and, at times, confusing. One area that really stood out to me as disorganized is found in Chapters 2, 3, and 4. Chapter 2 is titled "Structure of Art", which is already a confusing name for this chapter as the topics range from mediums of art to the elements and principles of art and design. Chapter 3 then gets into the intrinsic value of materials, which already seems of out place in this textbook as it seems like something more relevant to an art history class than an introduction to art class. Finally, in Chapter 4, there is a discussion on formal analysis, which really should have been included in, or put after, chapter 2 since it discussed the elements and principles.

There are a number of links given in the text that do not work and others send students to works of art with low image quality.

I found no grammatical errors in this text.

This text is pretty Eurocentric. While it does have sections where the authors discuss non-Western topics, such as Chapter 10 on ritual life and art, its only in the context of Western themes. African, Mesoamerican, and Native American art are some notable cultures that are either left out or barely discussed.

This is a decent textbook for cherry-picking specific topics from, but all together it is not a great text to use as a tool for creating course structure.

Reviewed by Don Oberheu, Lecturer, Leeward Community College on 7/14/20

The text does an excellent job of covering the areas and ideas that one expects from an introduction to art textbook. The table of contents is clear and provides easy navigation within the text. While there is no glossary at the end of the text,... read more

The text does an excellent job of covering the areas and ideas that one expects from an introduction to art textbook. The table of contents is clear and provides easy navigation within the text. While there is no glossary at the end of the text, there is a chapter-specific glossary at the end of each chapter providing a convenient review of the concepts and terms covered in each chapter.

The content is accurate, error-free, and, with its many comparative references to different cultures and times, very unbiased.

The content is up-to-date and covers all of the mediums, including photography, that one would expect from an introduction to art text. It is written and arranged in such a way that any necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is written in organized and well-flowing prose that introduces and explains the ideas, the technical terminology, and the historical flow of the material it covers.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The text is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within a course. The text is not overly self-referential. One can cherry-pick whole chapters or sub-sections within a chapter to align with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical, clear fashion.

The interface is the only area of this text that needs some improvement. While the text is not overly self-referential, when it does refer to previously introduced and discussed images, the reference tends to be incorrect. The image referred to does exist however, the given labeling is often incorrect. Likewise, while it is great that the text is peppered with hyperlinks to images on the web, many of the links are not valid. The hyperlinks work, however, the linked images or pages are often missing.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. In fact, it makes great use of examples that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, backgrounds, and time periods.

In addition to serving as a textbook for introduction to art courses, this text can also be used in more medium-specific introductory art courses, e.g., Introduction to Digital Photography, to help learners in the courses better understand both composition and the potential role of their own art as it relates to the medium they are learning.

Reviewed by Sandra Clyne, Adjunct Instructor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

Although the text provides a detailed analysis of ancient, traditional, and modern visual art, it is notably deficient in its treatment of contemporary (post 1960s) art. This omission would lessen the appeal to college students of this otherwise... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

Although the text provides a detailed analysis of ancient, traditional, and modern visual art, it is notably deficient in its treatment of contemporary (post 1960s) art. This omission would lessen the appeal to college students of this otherwise encyclopedic and well reasoned introduction to the critical awareness of visual art.

The text's treatment of anthropological and art historical detail is meticulous.

Art students require a text that provides insight into the revelatory role of visual art within human consciousness. This text is far too pedantic and does not invite exploration and imagination by the students in interpreting the works of art presented.

The text would be quite accessible for undergraduate college or university students. The concepts discussed are adequately introduced and the terms are well defined. The style of writing is quite clear and straightforward.

The text is quite internally consistent, without notable contradictions in its key propositions and theses.

The text is quite clearly divided into chapters and subheadings, and there is a "Key Terms" section at the end of every chapter. However, the text lacks an omnibus glossary and subject index.

The text "flows" from basic to more complex concepts. The text approaches the critical analysis of visual art from distinct perspectives that are clearly signaled by chapter headings.

The display features employed in this text are its beautiful illustrations, which bring to life the adjacent verbal analysis.

The grammar and sentence structure utilized in this text are impeccable.

The text examines visual art from a wide variety of cultures over a range of geographical sites, but is somewhat Eurocentric. More emphasis on African, Asian, South Asian, Native American and Oceanic art would have diversified its approaches and content.

Because of its logical structure and clear writing style, this text would provide an accessible introduction to the highly complex field of visual art for undergraduate community college, college, or university students.

Reviewed by Meridyth Espindola, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/26/20

This book does a great job covering a broad spectrum of the context and meaning of art and design, and consistently provides visual examples. read more

This book does a great job covering a broad spectrum of the context and meaning of art and design, and consistently provides visual examples.

This book presents information in an accurate way, although it includes a very limited perspective on art by BIPOC. While this is characteristic of traditional art and design history texts, it is important to be aware of and address in the classroom.

The text focuses mainly on historical art history, and will not quickly become obsolete.

The text is well-written, easy to read, and follows a natural hierarchy of information. Visually, the page formatting is digestible, easy to follow, and well organized. This text is more inviting than other digital resources because of the visual design system in place.

Consistent tone of text and organization of information.

The division of content into small, clearly labeled and organized sections makes it easy to approach, navigate, and understand.

Well organized, clear structure and easy to follow. Both the written text and the visual design facilitate a clear hierarchy of information and digestible content.

Easy to use interface.

(Did not find any grammatical errors.)

The text is not directly insensitive or offensive, but examples of artwork by BIPOC are limited and presented from colonial perspectives. This is not a problem stemming from this book alone, rather the traditional Western perspective of recorded art history, theory, and criticism. However, this text also misses the opportunity to address cultural appropriation. In a section titled and devoted to "Appropriation" (Chapter 11), the only perspective offered is that appropriation is a "legitimate way" for artists to "re-contextualize" images. The singular artist example is photographer Sherrie Levine. To devote a section to appropriation, and yet leave out cultural conflicts entirely, misses an incredibly problematic aspect of appropriation in both the historical and contemporary landscapes of art and design. This is a critical discussion that belongs in the classroom, and a disappointing absence in this text.

The typography, image formatting, and layout system do a nice job of keeping information easy to read and navigate.

Reviewed by Talicia Honkola, Art Instructor, Mesabi Range College on 6/25/20

The textbook is comprehensive, offering topics on elements and principles covered in my course. In my opinion the first half would work better to introduce students to visual art. The book is arranged well and is easy to comprehend. read more

The textbook is comprehensive, offering topics on elements and principles covered in my course. In my opinion the first half would work better to introduce students to visual art. The book is arranged well and is easy to comprehend.

Reviewed by Marla Sweeney, Adjunct Instrcutor, Middlesex Community College on 6/17/20

The text is a good introduction to art and art history . It is not a chronological art history text but covers several periods, art forms and ideas related to understanding art. read more

The text is a good introduction to art and art history . It is not a chronological art history text but covers several periods, art forms and ideas related to understanding art.

The text is well researched and unbiased.

Although examples of art from many periods are addressed the final chapter on Ethics includes the most contemporary art examples. The text is arranged in a format that would allow updates to be easily implemented.

The text is written in clear understandable prose. Each chapter ends with an overview of key concepts, vocabulary and good test questions on the material.

The text is consistent in framework and terminology.

The text is organized in consistent module format. The format introduces each chapter with learning outcomes and a brief introduction. Each chapter ends with key concepts, vocabulary and good test questions as a review of the material.

The text is organized logically and the chapters are based on clear topics.

There are no navigation issues with the text or the display of image examples.

The text gives examples of varied types of art from diverse cultures. There are good visual examples from historical to contemporary.

This is a good introductory text to art. I feel it would be a good accompaniment to a chronological art history text. It addresses topics that may not be covered in other art texts as fully including a definition of art, the distinction between fine art and craft, art and identity and ethics in art .

Reviewed by Julia May, Assistant Professor, University of Virginia on 5/7/20

The authors organized the text effectively, considering the amount of material covered (see above). I appreciate how the authors include a set of learning outcomes at the start of each chapter and have "tests" throughout as well as "key concepts" and glossaries.

My only concern is that there is no index, nor is there a bibliography (unless I missed them).

Reviewed by WangLing Chou, Associate Professor of Art, Louisiana College on 4/30/20

The text is comprehensive, offering a wide range of material on the subject. Several of the chapters--mostly the latter ones--are more conceptual and/or philosophical and while they would be excellent for Art majors or upper level students, they... read more

The text is comprehensive, offering a wide range of material on the subject. Several of the chapters--mostly the latter ones--are more conceptual and/or philosophical and while they would be excellent for Art majors or upper level students, they would not be as useful for a general education Art Appreciation course. Still, many of the other chapters are more than sufficient in terms of comprehensiveness. In terms of an index or glossary, neither are present at the end of the book; however, at the conclusion of each chapter, all vocabulary from that chapter are listed and defined. An index and the end of the text would be helpful.

No inaccuracies were detected in the text. The book is unbiased except that is obviously favors a greater understanding of art, such as at the end of section 1.3.2. Chapter 11 briefly deviates from the text's usual objective tone, calling on the need for both society and artists to have a particular understanding of one another.

Even with the later chapters that touch on more recent phenomena in the art world such as identity and ethics, the material in the text is written in a way that it will be relevant for an indefinite period of time. Updating content should present no problems in terms of ease of implementation.

The text is easy to read and would be accessible to college students. All specialized terminology are conveniently in boldface type and are defined both in-chapter as well as in a section at the end of the chapter. The prose is not clinical and dry but is often inviting, making use of an inclusive third person perspective and sometimes directly addressing the readers with "you."

The text is largely consistent. One area to improve might be in the learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter. While many of verbs are measurable such as identify, name, analyze, distinguish, explain, etc., the verb "understand" is used frequently in the outcomes and is not measurable based on Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives.

All chapters are divided into smaller, easily identifiable sections, ranging from anywhere to 5 up to 12. Most sections within chapters are only a couple of pages. Understandably, some sections are significantly longer, but multiple images can be a contributing factor to the increased length. The text does reference itself (i.e. "this text," etc.) on occasion, but such references are minimal.

The text is well organized, both in terms of the arrangement of chapters, as well as the divisions within the chapters. The text begins generally, moves to historical, practical, and knowledge-based content, and finishes with conceptual/philosophical content.

Interface rating: 3

One issue of concern is that in Chapter 11, every other page is incorrectly labeled at the top as "CHAPTER 10: ART AND RITUAL LIFE." Such a mislabelling could confuse readers. Also, the justified text is generally not a problem, but the inconsistency in spacing between characters is sometimes problematic. For example, the first line of the last paragraph on page 19 includes no spacing between any of the characters, making the sentence almost unreadable. Finally, while the images graphics are relevant and helpful, the text as a whole feels cramped and could use some negative space--more white space around images and graphics.

Few grammatical errors were detected. It should be noted that the writers employ all three points of view--often writing in first person. Such an approach likely makes the text more accessible to college readers. However, a small issue that arises is when the writer first mentions "the viewer," singular, but subsequently uses the pronoun "we" (plural). This agreement error was only noted a couple of times on page 14 and may or may not occur in other places. A simple fix is to change "the viewer" to "viewers."

The text does an excellent job on covering a broad spectrum of cultures, ethnicities, and backgrounds. At no point could any content be misconstrued as culturally inoffensive, as the writers did a good job in remaining objective in presenting the facts. For example, the section on The Dome of the Rock in Chapter Six is a sensitive topic, but the writers treated it with historical accuracy and cultural and religious sensitivity.

Even though several chapters are above and beyond what I need for my gen. ed. Art Appreciation course, I would still find this text useful.

Reviewed by Alexis Rusch, Adjunct Instructor, Oakland City University on 3/30/20

This book is easy to comprehend. I do think the first half is better than the second. There is no index which I do find useful. In the area of visual elements and principles of design, I do wish they went more into depth. read more

This book is easy to comprehend. I do think the first half is better than the second. There is no index which I do find useful. In the area of visual elements and principles of design, I do wish they went more into depth.

I find the information presented to be accurate.

The contemporary art could easily be updated to keep this as a current and relevant text especially since links are used.

I do think the first half of the book is a bit more clear than the second half. When teaching, I find it useful to have just 1-2 examples of art for each idea/concept I am discussing. The second half almost gives too many examples of some ideas and becomes confusing for students.

The book has an overall good and consistent structure. The terms being given at the end of each chapter are good and easy for students to find and study.

The organization of the chapters and subheadings is logical and makes sense. This book is easy to break up into small sections of readings for students.

I would consider the organization the best thing about this book!

All the links worked! The quality of images and text for those links varied from website to website.

No grammatical errors observed.

Examples of artwork are given from all over the world. Although the examples and content is heavy on Western Art, there is some reference to Non-Western Art. I did not find anything culturally offensive.

Closest thing you will find that is free to use for an art appreciation course. I would not use this as my only book for the course but would use it and have some online resources to supplement areas such as visual elements and principles of design. I do feel like this book relies heavily on European art as examples.

Reviewed by Kimberly Jones, Associate Professor, Sweet Briar College on 1/29/20

While the text is relatively comprehensive, I wish that it would have cast the net wider in terms of art forms to include a more extensive coverage of film, video games, textiles, typography, etc. Nonwestern art is included, but I would have like... read more

While the text is relatively comprehensive, I wish that it would have cast the net wider in terms of art forms to include a more extensive coverage of film, video games, textiles, typography, etc. Nonwestern art is included, but I would have like to have seen more.

I do wish the authors would have expanded their discussions a bit more. In their attempt to be succinct, a choice, I imagine, made to keep the reader engaged, I'm afraid some important content is lost.

Additional information in the captions is also needed. Important facts, such as year, medium, size, etc., are not included.

I did not identify any errors. It appears to be unbiased.

I appreciate that the text stresses, right from the beginning, the importance of images in contemporary society. Asking the question -- how does Bouguereau's work relate to today -- is a good way to connect past art to the present. I do wish it would have given more examples though of new media art. I thought this was a lost opportunity to add relevancy.

I believe the text is organized in a way so as to easily implement updated material.

The style of writing is much more readable than other textbooks I've used. I believe today's students will find this style more accessible and will therefore be more likely to actually read the text. While the authors acknowledge art history's (and presumably their own) use of jargon, which they argue is "unavoidable" in any discipline, they avoid the use of unnecessary jargon. Key vocabulary words (jargon if you like) relating to art and art history are clearly and concisely defined.

I found the tone and style to be consistent throughout.

I very much like the way the text is organized. I appreciate that blocks of text are short. I think it would be easy to organize this text anyway you like when teaching, although the flow, the way one chapter leads into another, is nice, so I personally would not change it. The text is easily customizable, in my opinion.

Overall the interface is fine, but it is pretty basic. Extra features, like allowing users to zoom in on pieces, or adding arrows to specific parts of images under discussion might make this more accessible and interactive.

I did not identify any grammatical errors.

I did not find the text to be culturally insensitive.

I was surprised that the text did not take advantage of its online format to include links to videos, especially when discussing various techniques. The different printmaking methods, for instance, are much more easily understood when demonstrated. It could also have included actual videos in its discussion of video art and performance art, rather than a link to a photograph.

While I do see room for improvement, I appreciate what this text has to offer. I may even consider adopting it for my introductory course.

Reviewed by Mary Shira, Instructor, James Madison University on 1/8/20

This is not a book I feel I could adapt in its present form in my course, Art in the General Culture, a general education course designed to introduce students with little or no background in art. While it contains a wealth of information that I... read more

This is not a book I feel I could adapt in its present form in my course, Art in the General Culture, a general education course designed to introduce students with little or no background in art. While it contains a wealth of information that I can adapt within my course, it is not laid out in such a way as to communicate new concepts, such as the elements and principles of design and the history of art following a timeline that is easily followed by novice students hoping to grasp the major concepts and apply them to their lives in a meaningful way. My biggest concern is with the layout of the content as it is. In broad terms it does introduce a wide range of cultures and artforms which is wonderful but would be overwhelming to my population. Early chapters contain media spanning history and techniques (architecture, photography, craft and fine art) that need defining before the more complex concepts such as aesthetics and criticism can be attempted

I found only two minor errors while reading the text: Page 123, in the hypertext notes mid page Beckmann has an “r”, Breckmann before the link. And in the discussion of the Palette of Narmer on page 239 it states the image on the back of the palette shows Narmer with the crown of Lower Egypt, when in fact he displays both Upper and Lower Egypt’s symbols as he is “The Great Unifier”.

The inclusion of contemporary art is well placed throughout. I do feel the inclusion of so many art forms and cultures throughout most chapters is confusing however. For example, Chapter 2 attempts too many media such as painting, printmaking, sculpture plus the elements and principles of design making it hard to absorb in a meaningful way.

Most of the technical information is well presented with good visuals to back it up. I particularly appreciated the inclusion of definitions for artist made prints versus reproductions to be helpful for students to understand the difference. As an artist and college instructor myself, I can easily follow all the information but my students would be challenged to absorb much of the technical aspects of the art presented as it jumps around in application from selfies and digital art to Renaissance to ancient works. The chapter on architecture, often student’s favorite section, is too broad and yet has little nineteenth and twentieth century urban examples such as the significance of The Crystal Palace and the contribution of Le Corbusier.

Yes, the text is consistent throughout in terminology and framework. It is as I have stated however the framework that doesn’t work for me in my class setting. I believe the user would be better served by grouping less broad concepts within chapters, for example, photography. By discussing its history from the Camera Obscura to the iphone, students could see how it affected the history of artmaking while understanding also the development of criteria for judging it as an artform in the twentieth century. It is something students today will need to develop for computer generated art in their lifetime.

Modularity rating: 3

I don’t agree that the text can be easily absorbed or supplanted into an existing course as it is initially challenging in the early chapters to define art without giving students the tools to make these decisions and injects historical imagery again without a way for placing it in a useful framework. Chapter One in particular, is heavy on theory and would lose many of my students at the outset. Discussions of labyrinths and terms such as circumambulate would be off putting and unnecessarily confusing. Chapter Two is too ambitious and would serve students better if it followed a thread beginning with Gestalt and following up with two-dimensional media and only later addressing three-dimensional media such as sculpture and pottery.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 2

Here is the rub, I am confused by the organization here. I would like to adapt portions of the text but the way topics are presented makes it challenging. The text contains a wealth of information but the format and general layout of the chapters makes it a daunting task to absorb it into my course. I do really feel that a timeline of some sort coming later in the text is essential for students to place work in its social, political and historical context. All art can only be appreciated fully beyond its formal aspects when the viewer has access to the context in which it was created. The format of this text confuses that by jumping around culturally and historically too much.

I do feel the inclusion of maps to place the art in the world would greatly advance comprehension. I don’t think students will likely access links referenced within the text though I appreciate the concept so that can create a navigational problem if the art is essential to understanding the concept. I also found the diagram used to explain the Lost Wax method of casting to be poor.

Only the one I mentioned previously. All in all the writing is engaging and easy to follow

If anything, I think the effort to be inclusive of cultures is overdone. Women could be better represented, though again within the framework of the text it is more challenging since their contribution has historically been ignored until the modern era.

I really enjoyed the text. I made copious notes and underlined passages on many of the pages that I will absorb into my own course as the information expands topics I touch on throughout the semester. I do feel it would be a monumental task to adapt this book to my course, given the population I deal with in an introductory course on art history and culture. In addition, my course concentrates on Western culture, and so references world art only in so much as it has influenced that aspect of our culture. I am not quite sure what sort of student your text would address in so much as it is technical and expansive while not really addressing the needs of the novice in art history. I think it would be better suited for an aesthetics course than my introductory one. The class I teach is designed to help students develop a cultural understanding and appreciation of the visual arts, such as architecture, painting, sculpture and design. Lectures, videos, projects and discussions focus on issues related to the practice and techniques of creating and valuing visual imagery. Special emphasis is given to developing an understanding of the language of visual art and design, learning the basics of art criticism method, and gaining an overview of the history of the visual arts with a priority given to contemporary works of art. .

Reviewed by Billi London-Gray, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Texas at Arlington on 12/30/19

The text is comprehensive, providing an introduction to design concepts and terminology as well as an historical survey of (mostly Western-centric) ideas around the production and interpretation of art. Topics like ethical considerations in art,... read more

The text is comprehensive, providing an introduction to design concepts and terminology as well as an historical survey of (mostly Western-centric) ideas around the production and interpretation of art. Topics like ethical considerations in art, originality, meaning and materiality, and community purposes for art are given thoughtful treatment, encouraging multiple viewpoints for class discussions. The book lacks back matter — no comprehensive glossary, index, image list, or bibliography. As an e-book, this can be solved with a CTRL + F search. If printed, it’s a limitation for users.

I did not find any factual errors in the text, but I did find some errors in image captions (ex: Figures 7.5 and 7.36) and spellings. I encountered some variation from conventional transliterations of artist’s names (ex: Do Ho Suh is spelled Do Ho Su, page 92, and Wassily Kandinsky is spelled Vasily Kandinsky, page 106). I also encountered numerous broken or misdirected hyperlinks. These broken links were especially disappointing when they failed to show works by underrepresented artists, such as Jaune Quick-to-See Smith (page 168).

This text offers a lot of relevant material, especially given that it’s free for students to access. The content could be more up to date, with examples by new media, performance, and social-practice artists. I would also find examples by contemporary mid-career and emerging artists instructive and relevant.

The bolded key terms and glossary in each chapter are very useful. The prose is clear but drifts between accessible and academically clunky. I wish the images of artworks were captioned with the date completed and, where applicable, an indication that the artist is unknown rather than omitting artist information. For most images, the date was provided in the running text, but this requires re-reading and could confuse context for students who don’t know what to look for.

The text is internally consistent with respect to terminology used and the framework of each chapter. There is some inconsistency with including locations of architectural sites in image captions.

The text is divided into chapters that can be digested in one reading assignment or broken into shorter assignments. The divisions are clear and logical. This makes the text scalable for classes that meet multiple times per week, once per week, or on accelerated schedules. Individual chapters (for example, Chapter 2 on form and composition, or Chapter 4 on formal and critical analysis) could also be assigned as stand-alone readings, in lieu of adopting the entire textbook for a course, especially given the inclusion of a glossary within each chapter.

The organization of this text builds progressively on concepts chapter by chapter, but is not self-referential in a way that requires reading the book from cover to cover. The structure of each chapter, with learning objectives followed by content followed by a recap, comprehension questions, and key terms, provides a clear framework for students to prioritize information and test themselves. It is also conducive to reflective and indirect instructional activities in class or online.

The interface is clean but has some leading issues in the text, where letters are slightly stretched, slightly squished, or cut off below the baseline. The multi-decimal section numbering system is visually noisy and, in my opinion, no more useful than section titles and page numbers in helping students find reading assignments or refer to passages. In general, page layouts are tight, with minimal margins between images and text. This seems like a decision driven by printing concerns (minimizing page count), but additional white space would improve readability. The text worked well with the text-to-speech reader in Google Chrome.

I encountered numerous typos and grammatical errors, mostly in the form of missing punctuation, missing words, missing letters, and awkward sentence constructions. None of these obscured the author’s meaning, but it could use another round of proofreading.

This text presents more than the usual suspects found in introductory art appreciation and visual literacy books. Images by pre-modern American and European women artists are refreshing and demonstrate efforts to go outside the traditional canon. That being said, it could still be much more representative and inclusive. For example, the first chapter addresses the definition of art but approaches the debate through the ideas of notable white men without acknowledging the hegemony around this question. No examples in this chapter are truly contemporary, with Maya Lin’s Vietnam Memorial, completed a generation before today’s students were born, being the most recent image example. This trend continues throughout the book, where the vast majority of text and images are devoted to long-dead Western artists (mostly white European and American men) and static forms of art (mostly painting and traditional sculpture), with good representation for Ancient Near East art traditions, less for Eastern traditions, and little consideration for new media or performance art, artists of color, and global south art and artists. Good opportunities are missed: while there’s more than a page of text devoted to Kehinde Wiley, the image of his work is accessed via hyperlink rather than embedded (pages 221-222) for effective appreciation of his art-historical reference. In the section “11.5 Ethical Considerations in the Collecting and Display of Art,” Nazi looting is criticized but there’s no mention of the colonial plunder that still resides in American and European institutions. It would be great to see a more inclusive second edition of this book.

While I have listed specific areas that need improvement, I am thrilled that this book exists as an accessible, free, and user-friendly resource for students and instructors. Its shortcomings are far less than other texts I’ve used, and its virtues are numerous, especially given the flexibility to make immediate improvements using the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license. Many thanks to the authors, editor, and publisher who have generously shared this work.

Reviewed by Rick Lostutter, Associate Professor of Art and Design, Hanover College on 12/20/19

This textbook is a fairly comprehensive primer on art from the approach of purpose, materials, structure and meaning. It provides readers with the foundational tools of understanding how to more formally assess art and the creation of many... read more

This textbook is a fairly comprehensive primer on art from the approach of purpose, materials, structure and meaning. It provides readers with the foundational tools of understanding how to more formally assess art and the creation of many different kinds of visual representation. Having the "test yourself" and key terms sections at the end of each chapter allows the reader to develop a language and vocabulary that applies across the breadth of the nature and definition of visual art and helps solidify the elements presented within each area of art exploration. There are plenty of cultural references to the context of historical examples as well as the impact that art and design has had on society and the importance of art as a timeless reflection of the world. The structure of the book is an easy introduction into many different aspects of the study of art. I really enjoyed the inclusion and focused chapter on architecture within the greater context on art.

Having read through this text several times, I find it to be very accurate from an art perspective, technical reference and grammatical work. Statements made throughout the book are presented in a way that is supported with referenced examples and well agreed-upon art and design principles. The evaluation of art is traditionally an objective process, yet this text allows for expert opinion and fact to reside together in a way that allows for appropriate and open evaluation by the reader. So many art texts try to push specific agendas pertaining to narrow views of what art is or is supposed to be and this book avoids that in a very skillful manner.

The references and visual material presented in this book are of generally-accepted and representative examples of historic art. I would have liked to have seen some more contemporary art and artists represented as a comparison to art that has traditionally been used to illustrate the principles of art and conceptual design work. Given that this is a digital text that can easily be updated, it seems to provide a platform for having up-to-date and even current artists and their work represented. Students need to see that current work is being created that adheres to the traditional standards of the historical works referenced through the ages of art instruction. Having said that, the works used do not represent an obsolete view on art evaluation and instruction.

The reading acuity and age-appropriateness of the terminology, vocabulary and description are adequate and what I would expect for a college-level resource material. Again, the terms at the end of each chapter provide an easy reference tool for any language that a reader might not be familiar. It not only helps in the reading and retention of the material, but creates a great study guide for review after the reading of each section.

Having read many co-authored texts on specific subjects, the voice of the work is consistent and reads as though one author was the source for the entirety of the book. This is important, especially for a subject such as art, so the reader can begin to develop their own assessment of the topic without struggling through many different styles of evaluation.

The sections and chapters of this book are appropriately divided in a way that makes the subject digestible. The pacing of each chapter is segmented so that the ideas and concepts are easily incorporated into the overall topic of that chapter. This makes it a much better tool for grouping concepts from several different chapters into a lesson that requires many different elements to work together as a conceptual theme. Some chapters or sections may not be as relevant at particular times within a structured curriculum segment and the format allows for easy coordination of those individual concepts that will seamlessly integrate a cohesive lesson plan.

The organization of the topics in this book are clearly stated and work as a logical progression from one theme and area of art to another. Having said that, the topics can stand alone as needed for any given presentation within a class lesson.

The interface of this book is very clear and easy to use. Locating relevant topics from the table of contents and then quickly finding those topics within the text was thoughtfully accommodated with the section titles at the top of each page.

I have not found any grammatical errors in my assessment of each segment of this book.

Art is a discipline that has traditionally focused on the western culture and therefore has not been a very inclusive, historical representation af all cultures and races. This text does an adequate job in presenting examples that bleed outside of the traditional western historical examples of other texts. I would have liked to see more diversity which could have come from more contemporary examples of art. Given that, I did not find anything that I felt was culturally insensitive or inappropriate.

I would highly recommend this book as a great introductory supplement to any foundational art course that is meant to provide students with a base-level understanding of the complexities of art and design as a visual exploration. This should be incorporated as an essential text for students who are beginning their journey of the study of the creation of art and design. I could see this as a supplement to an introductory art history course as well.

Reviewed by Mike Morelli, Director Entertainment Management, University of Montana - Missoula on 12/19/19

This book provides a nice broad survey of styles, periods, artists' and types of art. read more

This book provides a nice broad survey of styles, periods, artists' and types of art.

The content is accurate for the vast majority of the book with few technical and grammatical errors. That being said, the errors (which appear in the second half of the book) have drawn notice from some of my students.

As an introduction, this book provides an excellent basis for discussion with students. The chapters and content are relevant, presented in a clear concise manner, and are supported by facts.

I appreciate the clarity of the material and the structure of chapters as well as the tone of the book. Color images with good labels and attribution make it easy to discuss and research further for students.

The text consistently presents concepts with supporting images and documentation in a logical and straightforward manner.

Good modularity for the most part. Given the way in which artists'/styles/concepts are presented in chapters, by necessity some ideas can only be examined contextually, and require a broader framework for understanding. The authors to a great degree provide that background and break down segments through titling with numbers to show flow while creating "bite sized pieces".

Excellent organization. Well laid out.

A logical combination of text, images, and titles delivered in a visually pleasing way.

As noted previously, few grammatical errors although enough to draw comment from students.

This text explores art as expressed by a wide variety of artist's with differing races, ethnicities, and backgrounds in inclusive and thoughtful ways. While I have had students react strongly to images or concepts in the book, (i.e. Hindu Swastika) it is not an objection to the manner in which the material is presented but often a strong initial personal reaction to a specific image, which is then discussed contextually in a manner that is both sensitive and dispassionate.

This book has worked well in several first semester Introduction to Art courses. It's clear, concise, and well written with logical and consistent organization.

Reviewed by David Riep, Associate Professor, Colorado State University on 12/10/19

I found this textbook to be very comprehensive. As one can quickly grasp from the table of contents, this book covers all of the major introductory topics for approaching and discussing art and visual culture (as well as some focused topics that... read more

I found this textbook to be very comprehensive. As one can quickly grasp from the table of contents, this book covers all of the major introductory topics for approaching and discussing art and visual culture (as well as some focused topics that are not typically found in "Intro to Art" texts). The authors organize the information in a manner that effectively builds upon previous sections, while also maintaining the ability to assign specific chapters and sections independently. Although this is not meant to be an art history text, I was impressed at how the content engages with numerous art historical methodologies (formalism, semiotics, social art history, feminist art history, iconography, connoisseurship, and even some key points coming from Hegel’s theories) without becoming cumbersome. The images of techniques and processes are also helpful (i.e. relief wood carving), as are the detailed explanations of media (i.e. what is egg tempera?). The key terms found throughout the text are also very helpful and are perhaps more useful at the end of each chapter, rather than a comprehensive glossary at the end of the book.

While it can be difficult to address global art production with an unbiased voice, I found the overall content to be thoughtful and generally balanced. I appreciated the broad questions posed to the reader, and found them to be very interesting and engaging (i.e. Why do we make art?, What defines an artist? What is the difference between Art V Craft?) as they provided the reader with the opportunity to further explore such topics. I also appreciated the authors’ openness regarding the strengths and limits of various perspectives and explanations throughout the text. While the discussion of some specific works are at times perhaps too narrow, and draw upon singular, declarative statements in order to support a point, the authors generally promote critical thinking and exploration of broad concepts. It is perhaps noteworthy to mention that some chapters were more effective in presenting a global perspective than others, although this is addressed in more detail below. Overall, I found the content to be accurate and well-researched.

One of the strengths of this text centers on the timely content, which references modern technology and concepts, as well as popular culture. I also really like the ability to pull up supplementary images throughout the text by clicking on imbedded links, although I found several of them in need of updates. I appreciated the inclusion kinetic art and new media within the comprehensive list of formal elements for 2D, 3D, 4D art, and found the overview of Aesthetics to be intentionally geared toward contemporary readers. There were many sections of the text that seemed to be specifically aimed at addressing current trends in art production and interpretation. For example, I enjoyed the dialog regarding architecture’s response to changing social development and advances, as well as the discussion in Chapter 8 which ties visual content to contemporary culture (popular media and activities such as genealogical websites, etc.). Chapter 9 equally engaged with the role of visual culture in contemporary societies by addressing Art and Power (propaganda, both symbolic and documentary), and offered an interesting dialog on building visual literacy. This chapter addresses the role and limits of media in recording or presenting images of power, and also addresses how imagery can appear “objective,” but can often contain specific messages. I found this to be extremely relevant, especially given the role of visual imagery in popular culture and social media. The chapter on Ethics is also quite relevant, and highlights the perception of visual culture and how it changes over time. Finally, the discussion on appropriation is very timely, as is the component that addresses museums. The questions posed regarding collecting and display practices are often left out of introductory texts, but are extremely relevant in contemporary times.

Overall, the text is approachable and clear in tone, and effectively guides the reader on how to best use this resource (i.e. explaining how the book will present content, and where the reader can expect to find various components). I found it to be a very useful text that presents complex concepts in a manner that non-specialists will easily understand. I also found the various case studies that are used to guide the reader in applying theories and methods to be very effective. The text presents content in a clear and concise manner, and I found the “Test Yourself” questions to be well constructed, approachable, and effectively open ended (when appropriate).

Another strength of this text is its consistency in presenting and disseminating content. The authors developed a number of components that are found in each chapter which draw the reader's attention to recognizing and applying key concepts. I found each chapter to be clearly and effectively structured, with appropriate subheadings and use of bold text to highlight important ideas and terms. This made the text very easy to navigate. I also found that the overall content maintained a consistency in tone, in spite of the fact that multiple contributors were working on any given chapter. The text is very clear and approachable, yet engages with complex theories and concepts.

It would be very easy to assign portions of this textbook throughout a teaching term, as most chapters can function as independent units, while also effectively engaging with other sections. I like the overarching themes of each chapter, which could easily be realigned as needed, and the fact that the subunits are of a manageable length. This book offers instructors a great amount of flexibility.

The book’s overall organization is clear and concise, with each chapter presenting measurable learning outcomes and ending with practical applications of concepts. I also found the subheadings to be very thoughtful in expounding upon the overall topic in each respective chapter. It is very easy to navigate through the various subunits, and the overall content is very appropriate in building an effective discussion of the various topics at hand.

While I really like the use of imbedded links to view images and expound upon concepts, some of the links did not work and need to be updated. Regardless, I like the fact that the use of links allows for the text to remain current, and to highlight contemporary content, developments, and artists.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

The text offers a sound explanation of artistic concepts, and makes an effort to present a global perspective. I appreciated the attempt to use both recognizable images from the Western canon as well as lesser known works, although some chapters were more effective in presenting a global perspective than others. For example, I was intrigued by the in-depth discussion / case study in Chapter 3 covering media in the eras of Constantine through the Ottonian Empire, although it could have been balanced by non-Western case studies (for example, the use and significance of metals in African cultures). Chapter 4 addresses formal analysis, although the overall discussion is largely focused on degrees of representation in the arts. This seemed to present a very "Western" perspective of artistic development, and could perhaps benefit by highlighting western and non-western objects, as well as naturalistic and abstract pieces. I especially liked the focus on “Interpretation” and highlighting how meaning is formed from multiple perspectives (the individual, society, and the impact of time), although I found the section on “Evaluation” to be rather narrow and perhaps unnecessary (what, for example, is the “verdict of history” that determines great art? Who / what determines this "verdict"? Why are museums placed at the center of this discussion, along with the suggestion that a work’s presence in a museum determines its artistic value? What do the authors mean by the phrase “best art”?). I appreciated the discussion of conventions in Chapter 4, and how the text traces them across cultures. However, when addressing cultural style, it might be helpful in some cases to note the role of "time" (the Western examples were presented according to how various artistic conventions developed over time, while many of the the non-Western examples, such as the Ancient Near East, are not given this same treatment). In a similar manner, the topic of individual artistic style could also benefit from exploring non-Western “anonymous” artists through a brief discussion of the history of collecting, and how one can trace the hands of unknown artists in the same way that Western artists have an identifiable style. I appreciate the inclusion of female artists such as Lilly Martin Spencer and Frances Palmer in Chapter 5, as well as the addition of a few non-Western pieces, but the chapter is still quite heavily Western, as is Chapter 6, which maintains a Judeo-Christian focus. This chapter could perhaps be broadened by engaging with diverse belief systems. This seemed to be rectified in numerous other chapters. For example, Chapter 7, which focused on architecture, was more intentional toward representing global perspectives and works of art, which I found to be very helpful in understanding global art production. Along the same lines, I found Chapter 8 to be very effective and inclusive in presenting concise notions of "the self" within expanding social spheres, and in discussing individual identity/gender, and external influences such as economics and class. I also appreciated how Chapter 10 highlighted global engagement with sacred structures, sites, rituals, and performances, as well as their significance.

The open source text "Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning" is an impressive resource that addresses the foundations of approaching, discussing, and understanding art through both historical and contemporary lenses. The authors took on an impressive amount of work to create a textbook that engages with contemporary topics, while laying the foundations for effective visual literacy.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Morton, Associate Professor, Wabash College on 11/6/19

This text covers almost all of the bases one would expect for an introductory class. Its biggest problem is the lack of inclusion of non-western examples in its presentation. The European art tradition dominates the discussion, with some... read more

This text covers almost all of the bases one would expect for an introductory class. Its biggest problem is the lack of inclusion of non-western examples in its presentation. The European art tradition dominates the discussion, with some allowance for Chinese and Japanese. You look in vain for references to African, Latin American, Oceanic, or indigenous art, even when they would be an obvious choice given the ongoing discussion.

This text has been written and edited carefully by veteran teachers. I did not see any errors or the use of suspect research

I believe the thematic approach to the material is far more relevant to today’s student than the classic approach based on historical progression. The chapters are judiciously chosen and are placed in a logical order. Again, the only thing old-fashioned here are the relentless insistence on using the western canon as the basis of discussion.

This text has been carefully written and has been painstakingly edited. I particularly thought Ch 2 was a standout in the way it presented the basic categories of art. At many points I berated myself for failing to present material so clearly in my own classes!

Once again, it is worth stating that the editing is of admirable quality. A lot of thought has gone into maintaining similar terminology and reference points as the chapters progress, even though they have different sets of authors. The use of keywords is also a strong feature, since many of them recur as the book progresses.

A definite strength of the text. Very easy to divide up the text by week, class, group, etc.

The editor is to be commended as the text flows smoothly from on section to another.

I liked the yellow bars on the right side which assist in moving between chapters. The “find” feature works well, and overall it was easy to use the extext. This is very user-friendly.

Once again, the editing here has been thorough and painstaking

Chapters 8-10 in particular are disappointing in that they offered a chance to move away from a traditional, Eurocentric approach. While the authors do include some non-western examples as they proceed, they still rely too much on European art. Chapter 11 is also disappointing—with non-western art having been plundered systematically for a long time and its placement in First World museums being increasingly problematic, it is not even mentioned.

Well done on a very user-friendly text. However, some extra work in terms of broadening the geographical base of examples is definitely in order

Reviewed by Jade Hoyer, Assistant Professor of Art, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 10/25/19

As other reviewers have noted, the text covers elements of design, rationale, context, and impact for and of making art. It’s a lot for a work to cover, and is generally successful, if sweeping, in doing this. I didn't note an index. The... read more

As other reviewers have noted, the text covers elements of design, rationale, context, and impact for and of making art. It’s a lot for a work to cover, and is generally successful, if sweeping, in doing this. I didn't note an index.

The exception to this for me is Chapter 2, which is essentially a studio class in a chapter (a rapid-fire discussion of all artistic media, design elements, design principles, and color theory for good measure. This chapter contains no less than 150 "Key Terms!"

I found the content to be generally accurate.

It was frustrating that most of the work’s contemporary examples were hyperlinked instead of embedded as images and potentially impermanent. Though likely a result of copyright issues, to present most contemporary accounts as a block of black text visually diminishes their importance. (It’s also likely that students won’t bother clicking the links.) Would like to see links changed to more persistent format.

With regard to writing, the work is generally clearly written, and approachable to beginning students. The tone of the writing is quite generous- the first chapter explains how art is ultimately about the viewer’s interpretation and adds “but we do have help if we want it. People who have made a disciplined study of art can offer ideas about what art is important and why.”

With regard to imagery, I thought that no dates, media, or sizes were listed for the works to be a big miss.

The work also had a tendency to bounce around. I felt many sections leapt centuries and continents (and often both centuries and continents) within a single page with transitions akin to “meanwhile in Russia…,” or “a few hundred years later.” I appreciate that many of these about faces were connected to efforts to be inclusive, but it presented a dizzying narrative, that was made more confusing for lack of timelines or context (like dates!) provided in the imagery.

Writing seemed consistent throughout. However, I found instances of sloppy formatting: definitions were often in bold a few letters or even a word beyond the word being defined. Beyond this, I could imagine this formatting being confusing for students as words that were in bold indicated definitions and sometimes, but not always, were designated as Key Words at the end of each chapter. For example, on p 63, four terms are defined in one paragraph (unity, variety, conceptual, interval, scale, proportion), but only two words (interval, scale) are designated as Key Words. I find using a different formatting technique in this case, such as color, would be helpful in assisting students in identifying Key Words earlier at the beginning of the chapter.

I enjoyed this aspect of the work! I would especially use the final chapters for my classes (such as Art and Power, Art and Ethics). I found these chapters to be thoughtful and relevant to students, and especially appreciated their being structured around case-studies.

I appreciated the general flow of the work beginning from simple definitions “what is art?,” “who is an artist?” to contemplating identity, power, ethics, and controversies in artmaking, though some sections seemed redundant. Good summaries and questions to accompany the readings, especially later in the text.

Worked great for me! I also appreciated how the Hyperlinks took me to new works, and that I could return to my spot on the page when I clicked the back button. Please note Relevance section regarding links.

I found limited grammatical errors.

I appreciated the interweaving of Western and Non-Western narratives, though found that, especially if one were focusing on the imagery, that the works presented felt skewed Western.

Great resource- will definitely utilize sections in my teaching.

Reviewed by Maria Guzman, Instructor - Art & Art History , Peralta Community College District on 9/26/19

I found this book to be a good "skeleton" text for a variety of courses. I liked that it had chapters dedicated to both formal analysis (Chapters Two, Four, and Five) but also managed to include global perspectives (Chapter Eleven: Art and Ethics... read more

I found this book to be a good "skeleton" text for a variety of courses. I liked that it had chapters dedicated to both formal analysis (Chapters Two, Four, and Five) but also managed to include global perspectives (Chapter Eleven: Art and Ethics was especially thought-provoking). The themed chapters (Chapter Eight: Art and Identity and Chapter Nine: Art and Power) are relevant for any Art History course, and I use them for all courses, including World Art, Art 1, 2, and 3 (these cover the prehistoric to contemporary periods, collectively). The addition of Key Terms at the end of chapters was also helpful.

When I decided to use this text, my main concern was regarding whether the content would be easy to connect to my prior courses' designs. I used Henry M. Sayre's "A World of Art" and the Marilyn Stokstad "Art History" textbooks. Thanks to the chapter that discussed the general theories about what art "is" (Chapter One), and the clear language that mirrored Sayre's creative drives (found in Chapter 6, mainly), I easily transitioned to using this book for my course. Most recently, I have adopted it for Art 101: Western Art History and ART 103: History of Modern Art.

Inclusivity is consistent in the discussion of works from different cultures and geographic areas. I was impressed by the mention of postcolonial topics, and even the addition of 4-D in relation to formal descriptions. This is a text that has incorporated recent scholarly perspectives and new genres in art. I had fun adding OER readings about identity, especially, in order to complement the chapter in this text.

I have had feedback from students regarding the easy-to-follow format and text used in this book. I also find it easy to get through in a short amount of time.

Overall, the terminology was clear and consistent.

Yes. I usually remix the chapter order, based on what type/periods I am addressing in a course. Chapters One, and Two are great for the first few weeks. I save Chapter Four for the middle of most classes, in which we are beginning to do more art descriptions as a group. I use Chapter Six towards the end of the courses, where the class begins to conduct research and observe more creative drives and themes. I apply Chapters Eight and Nine based on the time periods, and how relevant they are the subject matter or styles covered in the course. I have thought about inserting Chapters Eight and Nine right after Chapter One in order to address the modern period and the growing individualism in modern art.

Chapter Ten is especially good for any ART 1, 2, or World Art course, especially (ART 101 or 102 as well).

I will be teaching a short-term course about Architecture this semester, and am excited to use Chapter Seven: Form in Architecture.

Excellent -- these are short, include many genres, mediums, and cultural styles in a sensible way. Usually, the chapters include a variety, and this enhances the global perspectives that the authors encourage. It also makes it easier to select works of art to focus on, if you are covering particularly modern or World Art, for example.

No issues with interface. The format is easy to navigate, and my only suggestion is to create hyperlinked headings for chapters in the Table of Contents, so that you could jump to the chapters a little sooner. Small suggestion, though. It's very well formatted and designed.

As stated in the Relevance section, this book offered good topics that were easy to connect to contemporary or recent studies in non-Western art (Global Art perspectives). See pages 5, 8, and 9 for a few points made about this text's open format and my review of The Met Museum's OER text, "Art in Africa". It was a compatible text and I would recommend "Introduction to Art" for its culturally-sensitive and unbiased perspectives, especially if building a course about global approaches to art. Read my summary here: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1cSG4MWFta-nE9yTgSC__QP22D2dHpYjsg9evVysBQFg/edit?usp=sharing

No additional comments.

Reviewed by Mara Pierce, Assistant Professor of Art Education, TRAILS on 9/16/19

This text covers several, if not all, the bases needed to fully appreciate art making processes, historical perspectives, variations, time periods, methods, criticism, purposes, associations, and artists. Each chapter opens with objectives and... read more

This text covers several, if not all, the bases needed to fully appreciate art making processes, historical perspectives, variations, time periods, methods, criticism, purposes, associations, and artists. Each chapter opens with objectives and concludes with an evaluative activity. The authors present varied perspectives that are appropriate to understanding the diversities that are encompassed in the art world. The images included are also significant and comprehensively representative. However, many of the images also depict the same imagery found in other books. Students reading this material need to also see work from a more balanced sampling of artist genders. The topic is discussed in Chapter 8, but not visual samples of women’s or other-gendered artists included there. I applaud the discussion of the Nazi art theft.

The text contains mostly accurate information, but could use further clarity. For example, if using Indigenous names, use tribal identifiers, such as Piikani for those who identify as Blackfeet. A piece of dance regalia is referred to as a “costume,” which elucidates the author’s limited understanding of the role of garb in ritual. While appropriation, as covered in Chapter 11, is an integral part of the contemporary artworld, it is also presented as acceptable and normalized. It should also be included that appropriation is not universally accepted and is fought by several artists today. For example, there was recently a court case by Ai Weiwei brought against Volkswagen for copyright infringement based on appropriation of his work used in an ad.

For a General Education class, there is no doubt that this text would work toward appreciation of art making, art history, criticism, and aesthetics. There is a great deal of insightful information that would be relevant to undergraduate students’ first exposure to the art world. Additionally, some points would be relevant to students who have been practicing in the art field already, as well as those who plan on teaching art at the K-12 level.

The authors have written using clear language and vocabulary that are appropriate and relevant to the early college student. However, it would be more effective to have the vocabulary listed at the onset of the chapter, as opposed to the end. In doing so, the students can reinforce learned words and make connections throughout the reading. It also acts as an introductory feature.

The flow and voice are consistent. Level of difficulty is upheld and relevant throughout, as well.

Each chapter in this text can work independently of each other. However, in being able to comprehend and apply information in some of the latter chapters, one would have needed to cover material, specifically, in Chapter 1 and 3-5.

The text is excellently organized. The authors began with the foundation of defining art through discussions of contemporary diverse purviews held. The organization is logical and would be in a manner that I would present in my course.

The text file is easy to access and navigate. The URL links are clear, as well. However, it would be helpful in supporting the learning to provide links on the images to their sources, as well.

There are no perceivable grammatical mistakes.

I found the cultural aspects of the text to be limiting. The authors touch on the fact that art is not viewed identically throughout the world, which I applaud given that this is a tremendous part of the art perspective today. However, there is also a need for greater underrepresented Indigenous discussion/examples. Between Chapter 1 & 2, for example, there is only one image of Aboriginal origin. Ch. 7 includes three architectural pieces. Consider Anasazi examples, such as Pueblo Pintado or Mesa Verde as part of early architecture. Chapter 10 discusses masks, but only examples one. There are thousands of cultural groups across the globe that use masks for purposes from theater to holidays.

The text is a good resource for basic understandings. It may be best served for an online course given that much of the relevant information is laid out in the text.

Reviewed by Stephanie Newton, Professor, Aims Community College on 7/26/19

The book could spend more time with processes of creating--the different types of paint, printmaking, etc. It seems to be very brief in introducing the elements and principles of art as well. Although each chapter has a glossary, it does not have... read more

The book could spend more time with processes of creating--the different types of paint, printmaking, etc. It seems to be very brief in introducing the elements and principles of art as well. Although each chapter has a glossary, it does not have an index, which I usually find to be helpful in textbooks. The images also lack some key information that is standard in other art textbooks--no dates, no dimensions, no media. I truly disliked that about the text.

While I appreciate the gender-neutral language of the text (craftsperson), I do not feel that it is totally error free and accurate. For example, the authors use the dated notion of "sympathetic magic" when discussing cave paintings, which is a theory, but is not widely accepted any longer. They also refer to cherubs or putti as cupids. Cupid is a specific deity. One really glaring problem is the use of "Eskimo" on page 270. They need to reframe the use of that term to indicate it is not an acceptable way of describing the Inuit or Yupik cultures.

The text has a nice mixture of old and new art, and examples of contemporary art could easily be updated. My one issue with the relevancy is that many of the contemporary works of art (and other examples they employ) are not pictured, but given as hyperlinks. Those links could easily be broken in the future. I understand that obtaining copyrights to those works could be prohibitive, but it's a distraction from reading the text to send students to a website to look for the example provided.

On page 208, paragraph three, the authors are referring to a conceptual artist, but they omit the word artist, and don't define what a conceptual artist is. They also often refer to historical styles of art without defining what that means. How are my students supposed to know what Beaux Arts or Art Nouveau are without some sort of explanation (p. 193)? On page 203, they mention the Franks, but don't explain who the Franks are. On page 205, they mention a tympanum, but don't define what a tympanum is, nor is it in bold (to indicate that it is in the glossary), although it is defined in the glossary. There are also some areas that are not very clearly written, such as paragraph 2 on page 202. On page 256, while discussing Chichen Itza, they discuss Quetzalcoatl but don't tie it to the pyramid in anyway at all.

Consistency rating: 3

I found the beginning of the text to be much more clearly written and compelling than the second half of the book. It provides almost too many examples of art to discuss an idea.

You could fairly easily rearrange the order of chapters or omit a chapter without needing the others to support the content. This for my class would be necessary in chapter 2, where bizarrely, they discuss processes before elements and principles.

It seems to be organized fairly well, although chapter 2 does have me a bit confused. It would also be good of them to introduce abstract vs. naturalistic earlier, perhaps in chapter 2.

Again, I worry about using so many hyperlinks in a text such as this. They could easily become dated or broken, leaving the reader frustrated. Some of the images are low quality, and some of the diagrams are very hard to see, so I am concerned about students with vision issues.

Grammatical Errors rating: 1

Oh boy! Again, I didn't start seeing major problems here until around page 200. Page 178, Fig 7.5, Skara Brae is misspelled as Sjara Brae Page 218, the word artist is missing after conceptual Page 235, Persepolis is spelled Persepholis Page 246: Iconoclasm is spelled as iconoclas Page 250: Bamiyan is spelled as Bamyan

I felt that it was very culturally inclusive, using artistic examples from around the globe, but perhaps focused too much energy on Christianity. Again, framing the use of the word Eskimo would be worthwhile.

There were some things I thought were really unique and wonderful about this textbook. The first four chapters had me very excited about the possibility of a OER book for my students. I especially thought chapter 3 had some valuable and unique ideas that would be super fun to share with my students. Chapter 5 is where it started to lose me. They discuss how important iconography is, but don't really give any analysis of specific symbols in a deep and meaningful way. They could have used the Merode Altarpiece as a platform to really dive deep into Christian symbolism, but only mention a few of the icons that are present. I know these are things that can be done in the classroom, but I was a little disappointed by the vagueness of their analyses and the overabundance of examples.

Reviewed by Michael Takemoto, Associate Professor, University of Hawaii Maui College on 5/24/19

This is a review of the hard copy, purchased from Amazon. Overall, for an art appreciation / introduction to visual art text, it is fairly comprehensive. However, compared to other books of a similar nature, it lacks in some aspects: it doesn’t... read more

This is a review of the hard copy, purchased from Amazon. Overall, for an art appreciation / introduction to visual art text, it is fairly comprehensive. However, compared to other books of a similar nature, it lacks in some aspects: it doesn’t include a glossary, many significant 20th and 21st century artists and their works are not included. A more in-depth exploration of the elements of design (or visual elements), the principles of design, as well as the deeper exploration of various art mediums and techniques would be helpful.

Each chapter begins with learning outcomes and ends with review questions and key term definitions, this is definitely helpful for students to understand the basic concepts of the text.

The book has accurate historical and cultural facts, and includes the correct titles of works and artists. However, most of the printed images have no dates, mediums, and dimensions.

The text is relevant for our times, as it introduces a wide range of Western and non-Western, multicultural artforms and traditions. It also includes sections on the role of politics, economics, and ethics in the visual arts.

The writing is clear and concise, it is easy to follow and understand. The Key Terms at the end of each chapter serve as a good review of the introduced vocabulary.

There is good internal consistency in the text, as each section follows a similar format.

Each chapter is broken up into smaller sections, so readers can proceed at their own pace and know what to expect is each subsequent chapter.

The text is organized in a logical, but not historical manner. The concepts presented flow smoothly from one postulation into the next.

Iʻm somewhat neutral on this, since Iʻm reviewing the hard copy. However, when exploring the PDF version, the links throughout the text are a great asset. Some links took a while to download, I’m sure this part will need constant updating.

The text is clearly written and grammatically correct. Readers are able to comprehend and understand the concepts and ideas presented.

While the content is dominated with Western Art concepts and examples, it still includes a number of diverse cultural works and traditions from different historical eras and locations.

Iʻve used this text for one semester so far, and plan to continue its usage. As a basic introductory book, it is more than adequate. Instructors can definitely pick and choose the parts they find useful and add their own additional content when needed. Students will understand the content and like its cost, even if they decide to order a hard copy.

Reviewed by Leila Armstrong, Visiting Faculty, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 5/9/19

The text covers a broad array of art movements both geographically, and temporally, though I think the non-Western selections are a bit slim. There are a number of mentions of modern/contemporary art, but the authors often provide links to images... read more

The text covers a broad array of art movements both geographically, and temporally, though I think the non-Western selections are a bit slim. There are a number of mentions of modern/contemporary art, but the authors often provide links to images rather than embedding them. I imagine it has to do with copywright issues, but I think our student body would skip clicking on the links. The learning outcomes, key concepts, test yourself, and key terms sections provide a nice loop for students to reinforce material learned, and to give quick but accurate definitions of key terms that appear throughout the text.

The setup is different from most textbooks I've used, and some of the terminology is different (e.g. elements of design instead of visual elements). There are also some terms I've never seen used before (e.g. psychic line). I found some visual elements and some principles of design commonly found in other texts either missing or placed in categories that aren't where I'd put them (light//value, pattern, motion, isometric perspective), but overall the information is presented in an unbiased manner and the content is accurate.

The content is up to date and there's not much that will change in the historical sections of the textbook (particularly at this level), and making additions of new artworks, or updating the images used would be relatviely simple.

Again, the key terms, definitions etc will help students with new terminology, and I found the writing straight-forward, concise, and conrete. The explanation of terms are clear, and the authors have a number of good charts, diagrams and the like to help students understand the terms better and how they can be applied to different media.

The authors are consistent in their use of terminology throughout and each chapter is set up the same.

Each chapter and the text within each chapter follows a similar format, and the authors have made a number of subdivisions of the text with numbes which makes breaking the chapters up into modules very easy. The information is parsed in readable sections, but each subunit aligns with the ones before and after it.

The organization is logical, beginning with the the basic questions, moving into formal analysis and then into thematic units. Overall the text flows easily from one topic to the next.

The images, diagrams, etc. are all clear. I tested a number of the links (but not all) and they worked, but I've found links are one of the most problematic additions to course content, because the links often break. Furthermore, depending on whether the student is reading the text in Adobe or online, the link will take them out of one program and into another, which isn't a seamless reader experience, or in the case of online, if the link isn't right-clicked, you go straight to the web page and lose you spot in the text.

The text didn't contain any grammatical errors that I could see.

Although I found the non-Western selections slim, the book was inclusive of a variety of works from different cultures and time periods. I didn't come across any information that I would consider insenstitive or offensive, but since art often deals with subjects that can be considered controversial, there are there certainly sections that may offend (nude bodies, or looking at past representations of race that are unacceptable today). The book does have a nice section that covers some of the controversies of art.

Reviewed by Anthony Marchetti, Full-Time Faculty, Minnesota State on 5/4/19

This textbook is an impressive guide to the introduction of art and visual literacy. It is not an art history textbook. There is room for further examples of artwork or at least links to more visual resources. Also, more contemporary image... read more

This textbook is an impressive guide to the introduction of art and visual literacy. It is not an art history textbook. There is room for further examples of artwork or at least links to more visual resources. Also, more contemporary image examples would only strengthen this title. The Learning Outcomes provide a solid reference for the main themes presented in each chapter. The Key Terms, however, are less developed and seem more like an after thought. The text is organized thematically, but there is room for chronology to play a larger role, perhaps in individual topics/chapters or with an appendix that can trace back to image examples throughout the textbook.

The text is accurate, error-free and also unbiased. The shortcoming is one of omission - there should be more information presented with the images. Title, artist, scale/size, medium, current location, and any other pertinent information about process should be included.

Aside from the need for more contemporary examples (or links to contemporary work outside of the text), the information presented is relevant. Much of the text is historical so will remain so for as long as the text is available. The arrangement of content is easily modifiable for future editions. More contemporary work could be added, making the content even more up-to-date.

he text is written in a style that is easy to understand. Simple repeated visual devices (differences in color or size of text, bold text for important terms, etc.) organize the text. Topics and subtopics are broken up into manageable blocks of text that should retain student interest. As mentioned previously, more information is needed about the individual sample images.

The organizational template used and the writing style are consistent throughout the text.

The division of topics and subtopics is supportive of student comprehension. The organization of the text would allow for multiple class formats - one class session per week, multiple classes per week, or an online Art Appreciation/Intro to Art.

The thematic nature of this textbook would work well for an Art Appreciation or Introduction to Art seminar/survey course but would not be applicable to an Art History course that demands more chronological order. The text is successfully organized so a student would easily understand what to expect from chapters and subtopics. Text formatting unobtrusively guides the viewer to important concepts and key terms.

The PDF interface was a strength of this work - links to outside content supplement the text. Still, there is room for more of this type of content in this text. Images in the text are high quality reproductions. I found no navigational problems.

I did not detect any grammatical errors in the text.

In general, the text draws from different cultures to connect main concepts and themes throughout - this is an important distinction from some art appreciation texts that place the majority of non-Western cultural/artistic traditions into a single chapter. More contemporary examples are needed in this text.

Reviewed by Jeff Brown, Associate Professor of Art, Nicholls State University on 4/29/19

In its 11 chapters, the book covers the essentials for the overall subject. I appreciate how it is divided up, especially in the beginning where it starts with basic ideas and concepts of what is art. It can seem elementary to discuss this, but... read more

In its 11 chapters, the book covers the essentials for the overall subject. I appreciate how it is divided up, especially in the beginning where it starts with basic ideas and concepts of what is art. It can seem elementary to discuss this, but is so important to establish this with students who may not have had any or much interaction with fine art. The book includes learning outcomes for each chapter, which works well for instructors who use learning outcomes within their syllabus and for assessment purposes. I feel the selection of images are a good choice and diverse, using the traditional images found in just about all the other hardcover textbooks. A nice addition is the use of images of process and where artists are working. The inclusion of key words and meanings at the end of the end chapter is a useful tool for students utilize. One item that could use more attention would be to include dates and materials used for the chosen artworks.

Accuracy of content was error free and unbiased.

The content is current information about a historical event or current event as we know to this day. Updates can easily be made without much restructuring of the textbook.

The book was written in an easy read way with lots of imagery to match concepts. Key terms placed in bold text makes it possible for readers to easily locate if going back and forth from text to key term definitions, located at the end of each chapter.

The book is full of terms and its consistency to the concept or subject. Terms that may not seem clear to the reader are defined at the end of each chapter. This would allow the reader a more user-friendly way of referencing a term then the typical glossary at the end of the book.

The framework of the book that remained consistent from chapter one to the final chapter. An overall good structure to the textbook.

This is probably the toughest part to putting a book together in my view. Choosing what to include or how much to include of one topic or concept can truly make or break it for a textbook. This book is setup in a conventional way, such as chapters with subheadings. This way does work for the textbook, but is nice is that within each chapter the subheadings do not linger on and on when it could have been much shorter.

Organization of the chapters and subheadings work well. Easy to work through

I give the interface a low rating due to its setup of links and workings as a PDF. I like the fact that the textbook utilizes web links. This can be exciting for the reader to potentially experience other useful visuals or resources to help relate to a topic. Some web links within the text of the subheadings are sometimes often just images with no actual source listed and lack further information. This part could be revisited for better interfacing. One thing I noticed and hope it can be remedied, are the workings of the table of contents. Many dead jump links existed in the table of contents page. Some worked great, allowing you to jump to a chapter or subheading with the press of button. Frustrating when it did not.

It would be nice to be able to easily return to the table of contents from anywhere, rather than having to scroll back up to the table of contents page.

The text of book seemed to have no grammatical errors.

No cultural insensitivity stood out.

A useful online textbook. Images are of a choice and quality. However, more information is needed for each image used, such as dates, materials, and dimensions.

Reviewed by Michelle Dean, Assistant Professor, Thomas Nelson Community College on 3/27/19

Introduction to Art: Design, Context and Meaning is an appropriate title for this text. The 11 chapters explore structure, materials, meaning and context of artistic production in a somewhat comprehensive manner. It certainly provides a solid... read more

Introduction to Art: Design, Context and Meaning is an appropriate title for this text. The 11 chapters explore structure, materials, meaning and context of artistic production in a somewhat comprehensive manner. It certainly provides a solid foundation for visual literacy and aligns with content in standard art history courses. This text is also well organized. Learning outcomes and an introduction are found at the beginning of each chapter. Key concepts, key terms and a self-test are found at the end of each chapter. This text, however lacks a comprehensive index or glossary.

The content of this text is accurate and essentially unbiased and error-free. Key terms are often defined in a universal manner and therefore aligns with terminology in standard art history texts. The text does not display any particular bias and appears error- free. The main criticism I have in this area is the information provided for images does not align with the standards. Title, artist, medium, size, and location for each image should be provided for the reader not just a reference to where the image was obtained.

The bulk of the content in this text will remain relevant for an extended period of time. Topics such as structure, materials, meaning and context of artistic production leading up to the modern age do not change significantly over time. The one criticism I have in this area is that there is not much contemporary art and that fact may lead to the text feeling out dated over time. Additional chapters would be perhaps the easiest way to update the content however this text in not arranged in chronological sequence and integrating contemporary example in previous chapter will be challenging.

This text is written for students who are new to art. It is an introduction to art. It presents information in an accessible manner and clearly defines most terms. Although the learning outcomes are stated in perhaps on overly cumbersome manner. The main criticism I have in this area is that the history of art and perhaps more importantly the evolution of art is difficult to ascertain when works of are referenced without regard to chronological sequencing. To talk about classical and modern examples in a section can be challenging for a new student in art to compare and comprehend.

The framework of this text is very consistent. The content of each chapter is organized in the same manner. As previously stated, learning outcomes and an introduction are found at the beginning of each chapter. Key concepts, key terms and a self-test are found at the end of each chapter. Key terms are in bold type in the chapter and also included in the list of key terms at the end of the chapters. Terms are used consistently throughout the text.

The chapters of this text are divided into sub-sections. For example Chapter 3 on materials is divided into 11 sub-sections which include sections on learning outcomes and introduction at the beginning and self-tests and key terms at the end. And although there are numerous sub-divisions in this chapter it is still reads as large blocks of text. Text boxes might be a more effective manner to present the content in a more accessible manner for our current student populations.

The overall organization of the content is presented in a clear a logical fashion. The first chapter asks the appropriate question ... What Is Art? Chapters 2-4 discuss the structures of art, the materials used in art and describing art. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss meaning in art and connecting with art. Chapter 7 is specifically focuses on architecture. And chapters 8-11 address art as related to special topics such as identity, power, ritual and ethics. A concern here is that architecture is not fully integrated into broader discussions.

The images and diagrams in this text were clear and of good quality. The inclusion of various links in the body of the text were well placed and on topic. But I could not open all the links.

I did not notice any significant grammatical errors.

This text is somewhat unbiased. I did not notice any culturally insensitive or offensive content. However, the content is primarily a discussion of the western tradition. Although, Eurocentric approaches are common in art education it is perhaps more appropriate to intentionally be inclusive of non-western traditions.

Reviewed by Mandy Keathley, part time professor, Linn-Benton Community College on 1/28/19

Considering how entry level and accessible the text is, it is also fairly comprehensive. I wish there were more contemporary art examples, but I was able to fill in as needed. I found it sufficient as an outline, and did a lot to fill in the gaps. read more

Considering how entry level and accessible the text is, it is also fairly comprehensive. I wish there were more contemporary art examples, but I was able to fill in as needed. I found it sufficient as an outline, and did a lot to fill in the gaps.

No errors noticed.

The book feels a bit out of date as it is, though not in danger of becoming more so over time.

The text is great on clarity and accessibility, written in a way that most entry-level students could understand. If anything, it errs on the side of over-simplification.

Very consistent

The modularity was one of the strongest aspects of this book which made it easy to teach in a course. Each unit feels contained and leads into the next. However, I think that some modules could be expanded.

The book is organized well. It is not in chronological order like might be expected, but this can be used effectively. I found it helpful to teach chapter 5 & 6 first, to get students to think about the meaning in art as a way to get them interested.

The interface was adequate. The design could be improved, including the sub-headings and organization of images.

no errors noticed

The book does a decent job of touching on a few global art examples, but could do better.

Reviewed by Bob Casper, Adjunct Faculty, Boise State University on 1/9/19

I used it a supplement for a Webdesign course, reinforcing artistic concepts, and it was well received by the students. read more

I used it a supplement for a Webdesign course, reinforcing artistic concepts, and it was well received by the students.

When it really comes down to it, some issues of toughness may have come up here and there, but, all in it was acceptable for my student's level.

Seemed to work well and present ideas and concepts that were relevant to for my students.

My students were a novice level and some details were not too in-depth.

Elements of the book followed a framework that as easily followed.

The book was presented in chapters that worked well in the course and for what I needed.

Each area was well put to together and bridged nicely.

Simple read, clear text.

Did not notice any errors.

Presented historical and cultural ideas and issues without calling out marginalised students.

Seemed to meet ADA standards.

Reviewed by Lori Parks, Visiting Assistant Professor, Art History, Miami University on 8/2/18

The focus and organization of this text is similar to a number of other Art Appreciation textbooks currently available. For example, there are a number of texts that present Art Appreciation through a thematic structure. The material is... read more

The focus and organization of this text is similar to a number of other Art Appreciation textbooks currently available. For example, there are a number of texts that present Art Appreciation through a thematic structure. The material is introductory which is positive in that it is very accessible to readers and thus would not be too intimidating to students new to this subject. The text also does a good job with listing and creating Learning Outcomes for each chapter along with a wide variety of mostly good quality open sourced images. While there are lists of Key Terms included in each chapter, they are minimal at best and there does not seem to be enough cross connection with the terms and their use within the body of the text. There is also some problems with being too simplistic with terms and concepts, one example being the use of icon which is very much dependent on both the historic and cultural context. Although the text is organized somewhat thematically, it would help to have chronology play a part within each chapter/topic as well as some form of an appendix or place where an overview of the history of art might be placed. This is often the problem with Art Appreciation texts and the reason why so many of them have a very condensed overview/history of the various periods. It is difficult to provide any depth without the context.

There are a number of issues with accuracy, which could also overlap with other subsections of this review. For example, the terminology is often overly simplified and inaccurate. While readability is important, it is equally important for a student to expand their vocabulary and become familiar with the language of the discipline. Simplification also comes in the form of analysis and description of the works of art without connecting it to formal elements and historical and cultural context. There are also assumptions being made in the analysis (e.g. students knowing what Prairie Style is and how that might influence another artist/movement). Another problem area are the huge leaps in time and generalizations made in content, for example, in connecting the ancient Greeks to Jackson Pollock on page 4. Another area of concern is the labeling and citations. The labels for the images give weight to the open sourced “author” rather than the information that is important to the work of art (artist, title, date, medium, dimensions, and museum/collection), this could be better by creating a reference page at the end of the text for the open sourced images. More examples of non-western art would also be important.

Overall good, I would have liked to see more contemporary art and topics/themes including areas like performance. The images chosen generally follow the typical works of art found within the canon of Western Art History.

Generally clear and readable, although as mentioned elsewhere in this review, at times overly simplistic and rambling and repetitive. And, as mentioned earlier, the labels for the works of art are in need of correction with emphasis placed on the artwork rather than open source.

The template used is consistent through the chapters. There are issues with consistency in use of terms, and citations/websites etc. This should be strengthened more. I also wonder about the sources and context with regards to the discussion of historical development of art.

Each chapter is organized into topic/theme and subsections that are meant to connect back to the theme of the chapter. While this is a good way to allow for quick access there is room for further development both by the authors and also within the classroom setting and by the teacher.

While the thematic approach is important, the chapters read as disjointed and the text is at places overly general and at times repetitious. There should be more focus on an overarching question of “what is art” which would allow the various themes explored in each chapter to read as more cohesive. The chapter on Art and Ethics could be strengthened more.

While there is a really good attempt at organizing the text, there are a number of issues that make it difficult. For example, the placement of the imagery and discussion becomes somewhat confusing when there are also a number of images that are discussed but not shown the body of the text. The reader is instead supposed to go to the link and toggle back and forth. Such long links in the body of the text are distracting and confusing. A better way to organize this might be creating case studies which would allow for more in depth focus on the particular artist/artwork. The lack of continuity would be confusing for a student who is new to the topic of art and art history. Overall the clarity of the images are okay with only a few that could be improved upon in quality.

While there are some typos, the formatting and use of citation is more distracting. As mentioned, the inclusion of large links in the midst of the text is frustrating as well as the lack of period to enclose this before beginning a new sentence. There are also things like the indentation in the footnotes that can be easily fixed.

Overall there is an attempt to draw from different cultures to connect to the themes and concepts without being overly biased. As mentioned earlier, more examples of non-western art might be helpful. Also, more contemporary examples and connecting them to issues that are currently relevant like identity and protest etc.

Overall an impressive project and a good foundation to build upon. This text is best for Art Appreciation or potentially studio classes (supplement).

Reviewed by Peter Spooner, Instructor, Lake Superior College on 5/21/18

With eleven chapters in just under 300 pages, the text provides a comprehensive framework with which to explore the topic of art appreciation. It does not (nor does it claim to) offer a complete art historical survey, but rather uses examples of... read more

With eleven chapters in just under 300 pages, the text provides a comprehensive framework with which to explore the topic of art appreciation. It does not (nor does it claim to) offer a complete art historical survey, but rather uses examples of visual imagery from a variety of cultures, time periods and genres to make larger points about how we actually use art. Its chapter and sub headings suggest a view where art is fully relational to its users, whether they are individuals, communities or nations. Rather than a comprehensive glossary, the authors place key terms at the end of each chapter. The text is searchable, making an index unnecessary. The text successfully presents art as both an individual and collective enterprise, appropriately offering a variety of ways to explore its multiple functions, from self-identity and spirituality to commerce and communication. It makes an attempt to compare artworks from different time periods and cultures in terms of their function in life, and looks specifically at the viewer’s role in the process. To its credit, the text concludes with a chapter devoted to ethics and art.

The text seems to be free of any overt bias, and authors attempt to bring a variety of viewpoints to bear on the art and ideas they present. The text is well balanced between the authors’ assertions and well-documented quotes and information from a variety of sources.

The text is organized thematically and in terms of large ideas, thus guaranteeing a degree of longevity and future relevance. With so many web links in the text, it will be important to check regularly to make sure they are active. While this text is not based only on contemporary art, it uses many examples of current art throughout. For this reason, longevity is always a concern in art appreciation and introductory art texts. Since by definition contemporary art is a moving target, and at times local or regional in its relevance, instructors may want to supplement the text with their own references to contemporary art.

The text is clear and accessible, written to encourage understanding, not to prove points or advance opinions. It is appropriately written for students who are introducing themselves to art, and contains a minimum of jargon and hyperbole. Relevant key words and technical terms are defined at the end of each chapter, as befits any introduction to a subject.

The organization of the text and its components is consistent throughout, as is tone and flow of the text. Care is given throughout to maintain a consistent tone, level of detail, and depth in the text. Each chapter contains the same useful sequence: Learning Outcomes, Introduction, “Before You Move On” and Key Terms. Generally, students find such consistent organization reassuring and helpful.

Each chapter of 25-30 pages is sub-divided into seven or eight subtopics, and these sub-topics are themselves broken down into easily readable paragraphs, were key ideas are evident. These subtopics are well related to chapter themes, but by themselves could be used as lessons or topics for assignments. Beyond the first two chapters, the tone of which is more introductory, it seems as though instructors could and should feel free to present chapter and subtopics in whatever order serves their needs. The text is flexible and relational to the degree that some, but not all, chapters and/or subtopics would need to be used in a course. Given the modular organization of sub-topics within chapters, the text could be efficiently updated, and it is easy to see how instructors could insert their own material into chapters. The sub-topics contain plenty of specific examples, yet it is always possible to trace their connection to the chapter’s larger ideas.

Major topics are presented in a clear fashion that has a logical sense of development. The subtopics within each chapter are also clearly organized. Blocks of text are broken up by copious illustrations, photographs and live links. Each chapter begins with a list of learning outcomes, and ends with a section titled “Before You Move On,” which reviews key concepts, and provides a list of study questions. In addition, key terms are defined at the end of each chapter, as opposed to a single glossary, which makes it likely that students will review terms after reading chapters.

The PDF form with live links to websites and on-line resources was easy to use. Links were placed within text immediately following the artist or artwork under discussion, making them easy to find. The links themselves were relevant and added to the topic(s) at hand. All of the links I checked were operational, but as one might expect, the quality and size of images and text varied from website to website.

I did not detect any grammatical errors in the text. However, in Chapter Eleven: Art and Ethics, a number of the pages contain the heading Chapter Ten: Art and Ritual Life.

The text makes reference to art from a wide variety of cultures and to the experience of people from diverse backgrounds. It is true that many of the artworks and artists are familiar and part of a standard canon of Western art and its cultural touchstones. However, each chapter also contains references to non-Western art, and a cross-cultural approach is evident throughout the book, not only in isolated chapters.

The inclusion of an entire chapter devoted to “Art and Ethics” is refreshing, and somewhat overdue. The authors discuss and provide examples of art that has provoked controversy in terms of censorship, first amendment rights, copyright, appropriation, and the role of artists and institutions in examining sensitive societal and political issues.

Reviewed by Arianne Fernandez, Full - Time Lecturer, LaGuardia Community College on 5/21/18

The range of topics this book covers provides a great resource for teaching students the basics of visual art and introducing them to various media and techniques as well as the process of art making, from multiple. Since the text covers a wide... read more

The range of topics this book covers provides a great resource for teaching students the basics of visual art and introducing them to various media and techniques as well as the process of art making, from multiple. Since the text covers a wide range of time periods, styles, and works from Western and non-Western cultures - enhanced by good images-it is appropriate for both Introduction to Art and Art in Society courses. Despite the minimal attention in regards to Contemporary Art, the text is well written , with great descriptions of the pieces presented, with accurate explanations of art vocabulary. Overall, a great source for students.

The text appears accurate.

The textbook is arranged in a logical manner that introduces students to important concepts which enable them to understand how to describe a work within its cultural framework and uses a logical sequencing of information. The textbook has many high-quality images of the works discussed within the chapters. A fallacy, however, is that the bulk of art emphasized is predominately pre-1960 art. Thus, the instructor will need to go beyond this book to discuss Contemporary works within a global spectrum.

The language used is appropriate for college-level readers, with sentences easily understood. The ned of chapter glossaries provided, re-enforce the art vocabulary presented in each topic. The images support the content effectively and illustrate beautiful the in depth discussions presented within the chapters of the text.

The writing throughout the text is consistent. Each is well organized: outcomes are highlighted. The vocabulary is written in bold type and the end chapter glossary provided enforces the vocabulary. The summary and review questions provided at the end, are a great way for students to check both comprehension and progress.

The manner in which the text is organized supports teaching visual literacy in a logical sequence with each chapter’s subcategories allowing for the topics discussed to be highlighted. Thus, the reader can approach these topics from various viewpoints. Having more contemporary images / historical information can allow for students to make more meaningful connections with the art of today.

Overall, the chapters are consistently and straight forward which allows students to understand the topics presented clearly, as the book seamlessly weaves introductory concepts – i.e. what art is, its function and various use of media- and makes connections in the way that art shapes society as a whole.

The images provided in the text, are clear and high quality. The chapter sections and subsections are clear. The font is appropriate and easy to read and the inclusion of vocabulary words in bold, allows students to pay closer attention to the material covered.

The textbook contains a few typographical errors but nothing major.

This text provides a solid foundation in the visual arts. By analyzing historical artworks in depth and including works from non-Western cultures – African, Asian cultures- and women -which despite significant contributions are always glossed over In introductory texts- providing a global platform for students. An instructor would need to bring in additional examples to strengthen student understanding. Specially in regard to contemporary art. The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive. The thematic approach instead of a chronological approach makes it reader friendly and not tedious to read.

Overall, this is a great introductory text that discusses important styles, concepts and historical context. Some chapters need expanding, or the instructor can mix and match chapters in this text with other supplementary material in areas that are lacking.

Reviewed by Jonathan Johnson, Associate Professor, Otterbein University on 5/21/18

This textbook is ambitious and covers a lot of ground—both theoretically and historically. The thematic (as opposed to purely chronological or geographical) approach and interface allows the soaring comprehensiveness of this text to take a... read more

This textbook is ambitious and covers a lot of ground—both theoretically and historically. The thematic (as opposed to purely chronological or geographical) approach and interface allows the soaring comprehensiveness of this text to take a digestible and highly modular form. The position of the writing seems to be educator and student centric, with pedagogical concerns. Art historical (or disciplinary) outcomes aren’t the main focus here—and that should please those looking for an introductory or non-major textbook. I imagine this would facilitate the outline and planning of a course—where course outcomes could be developed with this text in mind as opposed to developing the course and then searching for an appropriate textbook and supplements.

The themes address in the text are sufficiently supported and explored with ideas and artwork reproductions that flesh out the major social issues contained within the artwork. The process and historical/social conditions of the work’s creation are also covered in each section. In this way, these art works are placed within the time they were made and viewed through a contemporary lens.

Table of contents, key terms and “Test Yourself” sections are comprehensive and helpful from a teaching perspective.

The textbook is accurate and without bias according to my reading.

The overarching “big questions” are up to date, however it could beneficial to have more contemporary examples representing these themes/questions embedded within the pdf version of the book. Are there more recent examples of art that tackle issues of race, history and identity as in the given example of figure8.25, for instance?

As mentioned below in “Clarity”, the writing is clear—but undergraduate students might be more immediately engaged with the material if it was more often connected to a contemporary iteration of the social issue at hand. We are introduced to Maria Luisa of Parma immediately within the Class section (8.3.4)—which I find quite interesting. However, I wonder if an undergraduate or non-major might desire a class reference that they can relate more to? At least at first, and then delve into something more “historical”? I’m thinking a bit of the Oxford University Press’ A Very Short Introduction series here.

With this being said, I did enjoy looking at more historical works and works from the 19th century through the lens of these very contemporary themes. I was also newly introduced to a few engaging works such as Sargent’s Gassed (Fig. 9.10) and Daumier’s The Third Class Carriage (Fig. 8.20). When connected to these larger questions and contextual frameworks, these two pieces (and many others included in the book) seem fresh and imbued with a renewed relevance.

The writing style is very straight-forward and clear of unnecessary jargon. Well suited for non-majors and for building student interest in Art History. Writing style seems to match the audience and outcomes.

Visual and organizational layout is consistent and becomes helpfully predictable as you move through the text.

Thoughtful and relevant groupings and subheadings. The order is logical and terraced to build upon previously presented ideas and themes. Would function well as a “pick and choose” text for a introductory art course or a course designed for non-majors.

Structure, flow, sequencing and logic are amongst the greatest strengths of this text.

Overall, the interface is easy to follow and basic in design. The off-white framing of the images and figures is reminiscent of a Polaroid border, and is a little distracting. Having the date(s) of the artwork underneath each image would be convenient for reference. Having to go between the text body and the image for the date is a little inefficient. Image reproduction is mostly sufficient, but the Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket I (Fig. 1.14) would have benefited from a larger reproduction, especially since the text references technical nuances of the work in its analysis.

I found no grammatical errors in the textbook.

The larger questions and themes are well chosen, sequenced and organized. How do they manifest more directly today? Showcasing the cultural relevance of more established canonical artists is a strength of this text. Pairing up Auguste Clésinger (Fig. 8.17) and Kehinde Wiley (pp. 221-2) in the early portion of the 8.3.3 Sex/Gender Identity section is a great example of answering this question I’ve posed, but I think more of it would add a depth and extend the relevance.

It goes without saying that pursuing a textbook writing project such as this truly serves the greater good and the authors should be commended.

Reviewed by Dina Pizzarello, Adjunct Assistant Professor, LaGuardia Community College on 5/21/18

This textbook would be a wonderful source for any beginner art or art appreciation class. It does not delve too deeply, but that is a plus for the beginner and/or typical non-artist using this resource. An index and glossary would be great... read more

This textbook would be a wonderful source for any beginner art or art appreciation class. It does not delve too deeply, but that is a plus for the beginner and/or typical non-artist using this resource. An index and glossary would be great additions to help students search for information and make connections more easily.

I found this textbook to be accurate and unbiased, although more examples of Non-Western art could have been added. Some of the CH 11 pages and titled CH 10 at the end of the text.

This text is current enough for the average art appreciation class. All of the links I checked worked perfectly. Since it is mostly based on works of the past, it will need little updating.

Clarity rating: 1

This text is written simply, clearly and with brevity. This can be especially helpful to international students and students with cognitive disabilities. Beginners can easily understand definitions and concepts.

The organization and writting are consistent throughout.

The chapter organization and subdivisions wold work really well for classes taught on single or multiple days. This is a big plus for those of us that teach at community colleges.

One strength is that the text is arranged thematically, not chronologically. This format has been proven to work better in art appreciation classes. Each chapter has a comprehensible and logical flow to the breadth of information covered.

I found no interface issues.

I found no grammatical errors.

I found this text to be un-biased and culturally sensitive.

I liked how the text included non-traditional images to explain some concepts. This gave the book a fresher feel that millennials could more easily connect with. Most of the images are of small or medium scale. It would be a nice to incorporate larger image examples of select artworks. This would be more visually impactful.

Reviewed by Eleanor Johnston, Academic Skills Librarian, Staffordshire University on 2/1/18

This texts provides a comprehensive introduction to the world of Art and contains 11 chapters, thematically arranged, to give an overview for beginners to the subject. The text contains enough content and examples to ensure that there in... read more

This texts provides a comprehensive introduction to the world of Art and contains 11 chapters, thematically arranged, to give an overview for beginners to the subject. The text contains enough content and examples to ensure that there in appropriate contextualisation and that the idea of Art as a concept is covered with sufficient depth and clarity. At the end of each chapter, there is a Key Terms list, which acts as a glossary for the readings just completed. There is no index at the end of the book, but this is not a problem as online PDFs can all be searched using the 'find text' function. There are areas where the text is not greatly detailed - any book of under 300 pages could not possibly cover all areas of art without omissions, so there is a greater emphasis on older works when used as examples. There is little on contemporary art, although it is covered in most detail in the final chapter. As there is no index of Artists, it can be tricky to locate movements using the 'find text' function. The outcome to 'build a broader, more comprehensive view of the nature and definition of visual art' (p.1) is impressively achieved.

The content of the book is accurate and I did not detect any particular biases or error. Of course, any Introduction to Art may inherently contain the biases of Western Culture in relation to the choice of themes and narrative, but there has genuinely been an acknowledgement of the importance of all cultures, and there has not simply been one token chapter to shoehorn in all other civilisations. There is one error in the layout - on pages 280, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290 and 292 in Chapter 11, these are titled 'Chapter 10: Art and Ritual Life" on the top right of these pages.

This text is arranged thematically, so this structure does ensure that there will not be any aspect of the contents that would quickly become obsolete or outdated. Any weblinks used within the text would have to be checked and maintained. These are contained throughout the book - I would surmise they were used if no Creative Commons image was available to illustrate a concept or technique. I did click through to a large number of the weblinks and am pleased to report that they not only were, without fail linking through, they also provided further details and areas for discussion that built upon the content of the text.

This area is a real strength of the book. The book explains complex concepts in a very clear and concise way, ensuring that any new or unfamiliar terms are included in the 'Key Terms' pages at the end of each chapter. I was particularly impressed with this in Chapter Seven: Form in Architecture. I think the authors had an intention to provide clear, accessible prose and to ensure that a reader with no knowledge of the areas of design, meaning and context would be able to understand and appreciate them.

Again, with the chapters arranged thematically with the same structure scaffolding each one (learning outcomes, introduction, before you move on and key terms) the text was consistent and the framework extremely clear. I did not find any examples where key terms were overlapping, confusing or contradictory.

As an Introduction to Art with easily digestible sections, these text deserves commendation. Each chapter is approximately 30 pages long, and sections within the chapters are subdivided into smaller sections (e.g. Chapter 8: Art and Identity contains 21 pages and has 5 subsections. The visual aspects of the text -multiple examples, images, photographs, artworks etc, ensure that there are no giant blocks of text, and the book taken as a whole is aesthetically pleasing and a pleasure to consult.

I would suggest that this area could be improved by expanding on descriptions in the contents page - there were sometimes cases of repetition when a concept was discussed across multiple chapters (e.g. the Sacred). This is a hazard of the thematic approach, but I understand that without reverting to a chronological timeline of art, it is very difficult to cover these in one or two paragraphs in one section of a text. The subjects of design, structure and materials provided better scaffolding for chapters.

The text was extremely clear and the images were reproduced at a high definition. Any links taking students through also provided clear images, although these were sometimes rather small. There was no confusion with the image labelling or creative commons attributions, and I found the single column view easy to read.

There were no grammatical errors that I was able to detect.

The text provided references to a variety of cultures throughout the pages. Once again it should be highlighted that non-Western cultural artistic traditions were not simply shoehorned into a chapter, but there was a great deal of inclusivity in the whole book. Indeed, the cultural relevance and variety mentioned is of great artistic importance and is refereed to as crucial to the ethics and raison d'etre of many prominent artists (see especially Chapter Eight: Art and Identity).

This Open Textbook is a valuable addition to the canon of texts currently recommended as an introduction to art. The thematic chapters provide a perfect platform to commence a discussion on a topic (for example, meaning in art). Students would be advised to read the chapter in advance of lectures / tutorials and to use this as a starting point for their research.

Reviewed by Victoria Hutson, Art Faculty, Lake Superior College on 2/1/18

This book covers a broad range of areas that are typically included in a college level art appreciation book. Because it covers so many different areas—it doesn’t go into a lot of depth in any one area. However, an instructor could easily provide... read more

This book covers a broad range of areas that are typically included in a college level art appreciation book. Because it covers so many different areas—it doesn’t go into a lot of depth in any one area. However, an instructor could easily provide more depth by providing supplementary material for specific areas. The book is arranged by topics or themes which is typical for most art appreciation books. It is not arranged chronological--which is usually the format for art history books.

The book appears to be accurate, error-free and unbiased--although I did catch one inaccurate statement regarding the Vietnam War Memorial. The memorial is below ground level but the book claims that this reflects “the belief that the Vietnam War was initially conducted ‘beneath the surface,’ that is, unknown to most Americans.” However, in the 1995 documentary, “A Strong Clear Vision” the designer (Maya Lin) explains a totally different reason why it is underground. This conflict between what the artist says and what the book says is worth noting. It did make me a bit concerned that other material may also be inaccurate—but I did not catch any other inaccurate statements.

This book should have relevance for a long time because the material it covers is primarily about past art—which for the most part doesn’t change. While it is possible that new information may become available that changes our understanding of the work—for the most part our educated guesses about the message, meaning, or function of the works will remain the same. In addition, the vast majority of images and information included in this book are also found in most of the standard art appreciation textbooks.

The textbook is written in a style that is clear and easy to understand and follow. Specific terms are written in bold text with their definitions listed at the end of each chapter.

There is a consistency in the way the material is presented in each chapter.

Each of the chapters are divided into smaller sections that make it easy to assign or highlight a specific portion of the text. In addition, each chapter starts with Learning Outcomes and ends with Key Concepts, Test Yourself, and Key Terms sections.

The topics in the text are presented in a fairly logical and clear fashion. It is very similar to other art appreciation textbooks I have used in the past. The book starts with fundamental concepts (what is art, art materials and techniques, describing art, finding the meaning, etc.) and then it proceeds into more advanced topics (connecting art to our lives, identity, power, ritual Life, and ethics). There is a separate chapter on architecture which seems a bit odd since no other area was given a specific chapter of its own.

The pdf interface is very functional to use and easy to navigate and download. While I understand the reasons for including links to copyright protected images I did find having to click on the link cumbersome and somewhat disruptive. In addition, often I felt a bit confused when I started reading about a work of art that did not have a printed picture to accompany it. I found myself glancing around the page trying to find the image that I was reading about only to see that later in the paragraph there was a link. Perhaps having the link at the beginning of the paragraph would have worked better. Plus, it would serve as a notice that the following text is about an image that needs to be viewed via a link. A few of the links brought me to pages that were no longer active.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

The material in this book does includes examples from a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds—although most of the material is from what is traditional considered the origins and evolution of western civilizations.

This would be a good book for an art appreciation course. Because of its modularity it would be easy for an instructor to assign specific areas to establish a basic foundation and then provide supplementary material for in-depth explorations of chosen topics.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Maynard, Adjunct Professor, Rhode Island College on 2/1/18

This books is not an historical survey, but it offers a wide range of artworks from throughout history and the world to elucidate major themes and concepts. Even while it is non-linear or chronological, the text nonetheless covers terms and ideas... read more

This books is not an historical survey, but it offers a wide range of artworks from throughout history and the world to elucidate major themes and concepts. Even while it is non-linear or chronological, the text nonetheless covers terms and ideas specific to historical moments, taking them as case studies to illustrate larger themes. The end of each chapter includes questions to consider and a list of major terms with definitions.

excellent, to my knowledge.

While the book references very contemporary technology, including 3D printing, etc., it contextualizes them in more traditional methods; the themes and of the text remain timeless.

Both the imagery and the phrasing read easily. The images are very detailed and include helpful close ups.

The progression of chapter creates a very readable narrative.

The book is well divided up, and I appreciate the integration of both historical and formal terms throughout, to offer new historical information throughout without becoming dense.

The book lays out a great foundation for material and terms of analysis to get into deeper themes and modes of interpretation.

One thing I would add/change, is for the images to include the dates in the caption, not just in the text. While the text is non-linear, I think it's important for the dates to be readily available to understand the historical breadth of the works.

none that I encountered.

I especially enjoyed the integration of works from throughout the world. Often in more conventional texts, art of the non-western world gets relegated to their own, atemporal chapters. This format allows for thematic comparisons that helps to breakdown the hierarchies of the canon.

Reviewed by Renee Couture, Assistant Professor of Art, Umpqua Community College on 2/1/18

This book covers just about everything needed for teaching students the basics of visual literacy and introducing them to art. This text has a range of images and includes various time periods, styles, and works from Western and non-Western... read more

This book covers just about everything needed for teaching students the basics of visual literacy and introducing them to art. This text has a range of images and includes various time periods, styles, and works from Western and non-Western cultures. The textbook, however, lacks significant references to contemporary art. A vast majority of the work presented is pre-1960 and most of the media covered is traditional fine art media (painting, sculpture, drawing). That being said, the authors provide glossaries at the end of each chapter of target vocabulary, a comprehensive index, and write thoughtfully and thoroughly to provide a solid context to the works/images shown within the text.

The text appears to be accurate.

The textbook profiles works from ancient through modern times. The text is arranged in a way that introduces students to important concepts for viewing and considering artwork, and uses a logical sequencing of information. The textbook introduces students to some of the major “movers and shakers” in art history, and has many high-quality images of the works discussed within the chapters. The text, however, largely emphasizes pre-1960 art. In fact, it seems only a handful of post-1960 artists are mentioned and very few supporting images are provided of post-1960 artwork. To be fair, there are links provided, which will require upkeep. An instructor will need to find examples from other sources to expose students to contemporary art (artists, media, themes, and modes of working).

The text’s language is appropriate for college-level readers. Sentences are easily understood and the use of art-specific vocabulary (along with providing a glossary at the end of each chapters) shows students appropriate use of target vocabulary. Chapter topics are presented in clearly, accessibly, and with depth. Images are used effectively in supporting content.

The chapters are uniform in their organization; the writing is consistent. Each chapter starts with outcomes and an introduction. Headings for chapter subsections are clear and specific. Target vocabulary is written in bold type and each chapter has a glossary. Each chapter ends with a summary and review questions to check for student comprehension.

The text is divided in a way that supports teaching a foundation in visual literacy. Each chapter is clearly titled with subsections supporting the chapter’s topic. In some cases, subsections from different chapters could be mixed and matched. One of the strengths is the use of imagery from various time periods within each chapters as opposed to the standard chronological approach to an art history course. This could be further exploited by the addition more contemporary art by the instructor along side more historical examples the text provides.

The chapters are consistently structured. The choice of chapter topics and their flow is appropriate and student-centered. The book starts with basic information (what art is, its structure, media used) and works toward greater complexity (various ways art connects to and shapes our lives).  

The supporting images are clear and high quality, allowing the reader to increase the size of the images without losing clarity. Some of the pages feel crowded and a few of the links were nonfunctional. The chapter sections and subsections are clear. The book's font is easy to read with line hierarchy is unmistakable and consistent, and the use of bold lettering indicates target vocabulary for students.

I found no grammatical errors within the text.

The text will provide students with a solid foundation in visual literacy using historical artworks as examples. It includes work and architecture of non-Western cultures and women. However, it (generally) ignores contemporary art (artists, media, modes of working, and thematics) which students will see in today’s world. There are missed opportunities to discuss more recent attitudes &amp; intentions within the arts (for example, in Ch 4: Describing Art, it would seem appropriate to have subsections on Modernism and Post Modernism). It would be helpful if were either more examples of contemporary art along side the more historical examples or if there was final chapter on art post-1960. An instructor will need to find examples of contemporary art (through resources such as Art 21, museum catalogs, artist websites, articles/interviews for arts-related sources) to expose students to contemporary artists and art. Inclusion of more art post-1960 would: 1) present students with more challenging imagery, 2) expose students to themes that are more relevant to them, and 3) further introduce students to the works of more women and minorities. Nonetheless, this book would be an effective tool for an Intro to Art or Art Appreciation course. A strength of the book is its thematic approach instead of the standard chronological approach. I did not find it culturally offensive or insensitive.

This book has enough general information that certain chapters (or parts of chapters) can be used in a Basic Design or Drawing course as well as a general Art Appreciation/Intro to Visual Literacy course..

Reviewed by Nancy Pettigrew, Associate Instructor, Tidewater Community College on 8/15/17

For an art appreciation textbook, there is no set of required information that must be included and, therefore, a textbook's comprehensiveness is somewhat subjective. This textbook does cover some core areas for this discipline: the definition of... read more

For an art appreciation textbook, there is no set of required information that must be included and, therefore, a textbook's comprehensiveness is somewhat subjective. This textbook does cover some core areas for this discipline: the definition of art; the function of art; elements of art and principles of design; and different media used to make art. I thought that the treatment of the elements and principles and of the media was cursory. Beyond that the textbook is thematic, with the choices of themes being somewhat idiosyncratic.

The treatment of the subject was constrained by the authors' focus primarily on the traditional media associated with fine arts, such as painting, sculpture, and architecture. Other current art appreciation textbooks also include more modern media, such as film and design. The scope was also hampered, in part, by the distinction the authors' drew between art and craft.

The focus of the textbook is mostly on art made before 1960, with most of it produced long before that. There is a dearth of examples of contemporary art being made by artists in the last 20 years. An exception to this is the chapter on Art and Ethics, which addresses recent controversies in the field.

The textbook does not include an index or a comprehensive glossary. Terms are defined at the end of each chapter. The table of contents is not sufficient to function as an index.

The content of the textbook is generally error free. There are some opinions expressed that I do not agree with, but these are debates that are not settled within the art history community. The authors do not seem completely up to date on recent scholarship in some areas. For example, the "Snake Goddess" from Crete is included when modern scholarship has called into question the validity of its heavily reconstructed form.

Since much of the art covered in the textbook was made before 1960, the content is up-to date and will not become obsolete quickly. The exceptions to this are the links to external web pages that will need to be maintained on a regular basis. Without this regular maintenance, these links could become obsolete quickly. This could pose a problem since the links are embedded in the content of the text.

The textbook is written in prose that should be accessible for the average college freshman. Specialized discipline-specific terminology is defined in the text and in a list of terms at the end of each chapter. The text does lack an comprehensive glossary of these terms..

The textbook is internally consistent in organizational framework of each chapter and in the use of terminology.

The textbook is divided into small reading sections with clear headings and subheadings. These could easily be reorganized and realigned.

I found it difficult to follow the organization and structure of the text. There seemed to be no clear logic to much of the distribution of the chapters and the chapter sections. Related content can be found in different chapters of the text. For example, both the chapter on Form in Architecture and on Art and Ritual Life contain extensive sections covering sacred architecture.

Within the chapter sections, there is some organization based on chronology, although this is not consistent. This creates a problem in which chronology is repeated without a larger, cohesive historical narrative. .

The interface of the textbook was effective overall with no significant issues that would distract or confuse the reader. Of necessity, the textbook provides links to works of art that are not reproducible in the textbook due to copyright issues. These links can be clunky and I would be concerned that students will not take the time to click on them all while reading the textbook. Links need to be reviewed. At least one of the links within the text to external images was broken. For the most part the images included in the textbook are high quality, although I find their sourcing odd from random users on Wikimedia.

Overall, the textbook contains no major grammatical errors beyond a few typographical errors.

The textbook draws its examples primarily from Western (European and American) and Asian cultures. There is some inclusion of other cultures, races, and ethnicities, such as Native American or African, although this aspect of the textbook could be strengthened. An instructor would need to bring in additional examples to make a course using this textbook truly inclusive. The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

This textbook could be appropriate for usage in an Art Appreciation class, if the instructor of the course was comfortable with the somewhat idiosyncratic thematic choices of the authors. For example, the inclusion of the chapter on the Significance of Materials is not typically included in an art appreciation textbook. The textbook would not work for an Art History course that is taught in a chronological framework. Specific dates are not provided for most of the objects discussed, although birth and death dates of artists are. The historical context and timeline of the works covered by the text are subsumed within the thematic organization.

Reviewed by Samantha Moore, Adjunct Instructor, Art History, Northern Virginia Community College on 6/20/17

The text covers information listed in the table of contents adequately. Content is arranged thematically as is common in art appreciation courses. Each chapter includes a glossary of terms covered at the end of the chapter. It does not include an... read more

The text covers information listed in the table of contents adequately. Content is arranged thematically as is common in art appreciation courses. Each chapter includes a glossary of terms covered at the end of the chapter. It does not include an index at the end of the text. Readers must review the table of contents and guess where information may be found.

The historical information listed in the text was accurate. The text included accurate information regarding styles and movements and theory associated with art. However, the text presents basic and surface level information and lacks in depth views on any one topic.

The content of the text is up-to-date particularly in the discussion of media types. Should updates be necessary it would be easy to implement them.

The text clearly defines bolded terminology. Each chapter is divided into sections and information in each section is related to the theme of that content area. The language is clear and easy to read and follow.

The language used, content presented, and organizational themes are consistent throughout the text.

The text follows a pattern of listing objectives, sectioning off each chapter, and following up with review concepts and terminology. Sections of the text can be assigned at different points within the course.

The text includes eleven chapters divided into sections. While each chapter and subsequent section is rich with information, heading and subheadings do not give a clear sense of what content will be present in a given area. Without an index it is not clear to readers when or where readers will find certain information.

When reading the text online I encountered an issue clicking on links to images. The link would bring me to the image in the same window as the text. I would then have to go back to the text and find my place.

The text was inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities and backgrounds.

This would be a decent text to use in an art appreciation course but not in a survey art history course. The content is not arranged chronologically or by region. Rather it is divided thematically into broad sections. I was pleasantly surprised with the information listed in several portions of the text. While it does not cover any area in depth it does a fair job of presenting a basic foundation for most of the major topics covered in an art appreciation course. Instructors will find they need to expand on most concepts and should plan on supplementing the text with readings and lectures. Without an index it is difficult to gauge when and where readers will find specific content. Chapter titles and section sub heads are very broad and do not help with pinpointing the location of information.

Reviewed by Isabelle Havet, Faculty, Linn-Benton Community College on 6/20/17

The textbook thoroughly covers the topics of each chapter, and each chapter has enough range that it could easily be supplemented and ideas expanded upon. The "Key Concepts" and "Key Terms" sections after each chapter are very useful and would... read more

The textbook thoroughly covers the topics of each chapter, and each chapter has enough range that it could easily be supplemented and ideas expanded upon. The "Key Concepts" and "Key Terms" sections after each chapter are very useful and would prove an effective study tool for students, as would the "Test Yourself" study questions. However, the textbook should have a master glossary of terms at the end for ease of reference. This is a large omission, especially for students studying for midterms and finals, or working on papers or larger group projects.

There are a small number of typos and usages of uncommon words when more simple words would suffice that are confusing and obscure meaning. (E.g., the tile for section 5.4.3: "Prohibition and Destruction of Imagery: Iconoclasm" misspells the word "iconoclasm," which is particularly problematic as "iconoclasm" could easily be reenforced as a key vocabulary word.)

The text is relevant, and one of its strengths is the breadth and depth of the visual examples anchoring the chapters.

The text is fluid, and the language accessible in a way that would be suitable for different levels of students.

While the text is generally well-organized, the organization of the chapters is somewhat confusing. The choice of chapter topics is also somewhat confusing. Certain major topics are omitted (for example, a chapter dedicated to a more in-depth survey of major artistic media), for what are some interesting but less necessary topics (e.g., Significance of materials in art). This will pose a challenge for instructors who might have to carefully weigh which chapters to teach. This might be especially problematic for instructors teaching in a 10-week term system, or who would supplement the text with additional lessons focused on the history of art (which is omitted from this volume).

The text would easily be divided, which is a strength as the organization of the chapters as it stands might not work for every instructor.

The topics are generally presented in a logical, clear fashion. The structure of chapters is easy to read and flows well.

The text cleverly utilizes open access images. The images are generally very compelling and of high-resolution, which is a big bonus in a visual arts textbook. There are only a few images that are grainy or fuzzy and would beed to be replaced (e.g., the statue of Menkaure and Queen). The interface is legible and pleasing to navigate.

The text contains no grammar errors.

An array of images from different time periods, geographical locations, and cultures. This is a huge bonus, as visual arts fields are moving to make curricula more inclusive. It would have been useful to include more contemporary art, as this is an important topic to emphasize when teaching about visual culture, and is relevant to students' lives. It is also important for instructors who might be teaching visual arts and studio students.

A unique text with a compelling choice of images and topics, and worthy entry in the expanding but still very limited field of art appreciation/visual culture textbooks. I would have liked to see a glossary of terms at the end of the text. It would also be useful to have a discussion of art history, and if not a chapter or more dedicated to art history, at least a timeline at the end of the text. The students are presented with an overwhelming number of artworks, so a general historical reference at the end of the text would be useful. Finally, there are some omissions of topics in favor of narrowing or less important topics that would necessitate some supplemental teaching materials or lessons.

Reviewed by Hilary Galián, Instructor, Portland Community College on 6/20/17

The text covers a broad survey of art including many art forms. Photography, digital media and relational aesthetics examples are lacking throughout the text. Chapters include examples of Western and non-Western art and architecture. More context... read more

The text covers a broad survey of art including many art forms. Photography, digital media and relational aesthetics examples are lacking throughout the text. Chapters include examples of Western and non-Western art and architecture. More context could be fleshed out for how works of art were relevant in their own time. The text effectively references images and graphics that are either included in the text or linked on the web. There is no index, and a list of images would benefit the reader by seeing examples listed in chronological order or by medium. Image captions in the text should include mediums, date and location information, which would help with quick reference and to classify a work illustrating an era.

The wrong title is listed in a few image captions. Otherwise, the book appears error-free.

The content of the book spans the ancient world through contemporary art and reflects current art-world values and attitudes in broad terms -- defining art and artists through a contemporary lens and recognizing the omission of women and marginalized groups throughout the canon of art. Though the recognition is valid, more modern and contemporary art examples could be used to reflect the contributions of a broader group of artists. There are many links to outside sources for imagery, and it is unknown how often those may be checked for changes and errors. A safeguard against readers following links to sources that may have changed their content would be to insert those images directly into the text, which would also help the reading flow, particularly when two works are offered for comparison, such as Wiley’s and Clésinger’s "Femme Piquée par un Serpent," in which only Clésinger’s is included in the text.

Text is written clearly using accessible language for students. Adequate context is given for technical terms with minor exception. The questions at the end of each chapter to check for understanding reflect the text, though more attention could be aimed at mirroring the language and terms used in the chapter.

The chapters are subdivided consistently. There are a few instances in which the title of a work in the text narrative does not match the title given in the caption for the image. There are also some terms listed in the glossary that do not appear in the corresponding chapter. Similarly, there are some inconsistencies in the “Test Yourself” questions, in which the corresponding information is missing.

The chapters are clearly defined as are the concise, themed subsections. It could be easily reorganized to fit subunits of a course, though the text is jumbled chronologically due to classification by theme.

The text flows logically by the outlined themes. The book’s organization would benefit from some reference to a chronology. Without this context, a novice student may struggle to follow a somewhat disjointed selection of art and artifacts.

Internal references to images are made sufficiently clear. Over time, the numerous links to other web material may need updating. There is one reference in the text that is missing a link. A few links reveal images and are too small and low-resolution. The handful of formatting mistakes and typos are somewhat distracting, as is the single column layout.

The text appears free of grammatical errors.

The text is inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities and backgrounds. The balance of art examples still favors a white, male perspective. References to “our” perspective should be made explicit as such. Some general examples given to explain concepts lack universality, such as yoga as an example of art and science.

This book would serve well as primer for beginning art students for its far-reaching historical scope and theme-based approach, though a student would need supplemental material to address contemporary art forms and the contributions of a broader group of artists.

Reviewed by Sasa Miljevich, Adjunct Instructor (Fine Art), Portland Community College on 6/20/17

The text is organized thematically and covers some of the areas of Art. Some of the content is overly simplified , and some important artistic movements are omitted. There is no index, which make it difficult for students to comprehend some key... read more

The text is organized thematically and covers some of the areas of Art. Some of the content is overly simplified , and some important artistic movements are omitted. There is no index, which make it difficult for students to comprehend some key concepts.

Content is accurate and error free. Images shown and links to artists are mostly of Western Art/ Artist, very few examples , in comparison, of Non-Western Art/Artist.

The text is current and few sections would need updating.Necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is written in clear and concise manner.

The text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

The text is easily dividable into smaller sections to fit with various topics of discussion throughout a term.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical, clear fashion, but smoother transitions between the different chapters would help.

The text is free of significant interface issues, easy to navigate , with clear images. very easy to download and print.

The text does not have many examples of non-western artist and is not overly inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, backgrounds, gender.

Reviewed by James Jewitt, Manager and Instructor, Arts Minor, Virginia Tech on 6/20/17

This text successfully manages the difficult task of synthesizing a plethora of approaches when studying art and its history. It considers numerous ethical, philosophical, and thematic issues typically left out of traditional survey books. While... read more

This text successfully manages the difficult task of synthesizing a plethora of approaches when studying art and its history. It considers numerous ethical, philosophical, and thematic issues typically left out of traditional survey books. While these comprise a robust and welcome conversation about the reception, agency, epistemology, and meaning of art, it comes at the cost of a slightly anemic treatment of major historical developments along conventional lines. No index is present or list of illustrations.

Some problems with Italian language terminology are evident, such as "giornate."

The content incorporates relevant and informed perspectives on crucial art world debates, including issues of ethical circulation of cultural property and material culture. Its content offers a broad appeal across the humanities and even social sciences, with relevance to students of philosophy and history as well archaeology and communication.

The prose tends to be clear and readable, though veers towards a somewhat overly conversational and colloquial tone. In places it seems imprecise and too rambling, needing much more concise and to the point verbiage. Also, captions for images are not given information relating to date, medium, or dimensions--a crucial oversight!

The text displays consistency throughout and does a good job of integrating key terms and concepts throughout its chapters. The bolded key terms that appear as a glossary at the close of each chapter is especially helpful, as well as the "test yourself" sections and introductory concepts that start each chapter. Such stand-alone devices are a great boon to students and surely aid with comprehension.

One keen advantage of this text is the authors' clever division of the material into cogent modules that mesh well with poignant themes currently driving the discipline of art history and also the best courses at colleges and universities. In this way, the text serves as an indispensable resources in introductory design and art history courses, as well as upper-level seminars focused on interpretation, methodology, and philosophy of art.

Overall the book is logically organized, particularly chapters 1-5 and 8-11. However, chapters 6-7 are oddly placed and the section on architecture is not well integrated into the rest of the text. It is treated like a separate and outlying practice instead of being carefully woven into the rest of the chapters on form, production, materials, etc. Likewise, chapter 7, though integral and vital, seems out of place. It would perhaps best be placed before the chapter on meaning, since it offers background on socio-cultural behavior as foundation through which to better understand art.

In general, the illustrations and figures are crisp and high resolution. However, they are not expandable or zoomable as is common in other electronic or digital textbook platforms currently available. Likewise, the internet hyperlinks could be replaced with embedded content to better increase the longevity of the text. Some odd spacing around the figures and illustrations is distracting as well.

See comment 4 above. In general, the discussions could be edited to offer a more precise and concise analysis that is less conversational and more direct. Right now it reads as if the authors are pandering a bit to a student audience by invoking memes, selfies, and other ostensibly trendy cultural phenomena.

Another great advantage of this text is its admixture of canonical and popular objects, drawing upon mainstays of art history as well as more of-the-moment visual culture. It is particularly adept at addressing themes that weave together global works in many media from makers of many backgrounds, thereby questioning the entrenched and monolithic canon.

Reviewed by Joe Macca, Adjunct Faculty, Portland Community College on 6/20/17

While the text covers such a vast amount of visual art history, genres, meaning, symbolism, materials, etc., because it's so much, it can only very briefly mention these topics. That said, the glossary of terms is thorough and appropriate. The... read more

While the text covers such a vast amount of visual art history, genres, meaning, symbolism, materials, etc., because it's so much, it can only very briefly mention these topics. That said, the glossary of terms is thorough and appropriate. The 'learning outcomes' and 'test yourself' sections are also very well organized. It can help students understand the kinds of questions and testing done in art survey classes.

In terms of studio art though the book can be a supplement only. Textbooks can be excellent but still not substitutes for the instruction of the hands on manipulation of materials.

The book is unbiased (if there is any bias, it's very slightly European. But which comprehensive survey book is?!) and presents its varied historical genres accurately.

The book suffers slightly from not discussing more contemporary artists and genres, especially performance, installation and public- art based works. Mid 20th century and before, the book is quite thorough. Because of this it is perhaps mildly more prone to obsolescence.

The book is excellent in its prose. Very clear, easy to understand, many good images and illustrations.

The book feels consistent overall. As described elsewhere, it may suffer a little from its lack of discussion of contemporary genres, artists, techniques, etc.

The modularity is the book's necessary natural feature since it cover so much. The chapters are quick and concise.

The 'Personal and Communal Need to Create' sections are so important. I appreciate that this was covered at length. Some sections are not elaborated on as much. I believe the isolated discussion of different art materials (a section on oil paint, a section on print, etc.) is clear and organized- I also believe it should be discussed that these techniques and materials are also very interchangeable.

The book is very well organized. Illustrations and pictures are appropriately shown. More images of 'artists at work' could improve the text.

No grammar issues detected.

The book does a good job of being varied and unbiased, especially when describing art made in varying regions by peoples with different ethnic backgrounds.

I believe the book can function very well as an Open Art History/ Survey Textbook.

Reviewed by A.D. Rocha, Fine Arts Advisor and Instructor, Washington State University on 6/20/17

The text presents its themes in an order that is easy to follow. The examples provided are relevant and serve well to illustrate the concept. The prompts at the end of each chapter also present good starting points for class discussion. read more

The text presents its themes in an order that is easy to follow. The examples provided are relevant and serve well to illustrate the concept. The prompts at the end of each chapter also present good starting points for class discussion.

The content is accurate. The definitions provided are concise.

The content is current. The inclusion of "fourth dimensional" art is particularly helpful in discussing contemporary art.

The terminology used is easy to understand. The "key terms" section is also helpful in its definition of terms that are introduced in that chapter.

The terminology used is consistent and works to expand on the content for proceeding chapters.

The arrangement of sections allow for each to be taken separately as necessary. The chapters can be presented in different order or omitted altogether.

The order of each chapter and its individual sections are easy to follow. Presenting basic concepts on the definition of art and the formal qualities that comprise an artwork in the first four chapters provides a good starting point for the context and meaning discussed further into the text. The only issue with the "flow" would be the inclusion of the chapter on architecture.

The images were presented within the appropriate text and were displayed clearly. The size of the PDF makes searching for a specific term or section a bit difficult, but otherwise there are no problems with the interface.

There were no grammatical errors in this version of the text.

A broader cultural range of examples would be more helpful, however, this is something an instructor can easily amend within classroom lecture or discussion.

This is an excellent introductory text to basic art elements and concepts. On its own, it provides a clear overview for students with no art history background. It can also be used to support other texts where more specific art movements are discussed.

Reviewed by Aderonke Adesanya, Associate Professor, James Madison University on 6/20/17

The text is a bold work in terms of content coverage. It focuses on the nuts and bolts of learning about and discussing art and its context, and combines these with some considerable information on art history, It therefore aptly fits the needs of... read more

The text is a bold work in terms of content coverage. It focuses on the nuts and bolts of learning about and discussing art and its context, and combines these with some considerable information on art history, It therefore aptly fits the needs of a foundation class. Although it has semblances of existing studies, this is not your traditional introductory art textbook. Apart from the in-depth discussion of concepts, techniques, and terminologies, the authors have included learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter, exercises (review questions) at the end plus key terms to help users review and affirm the content of every chapter. I also find very instructive the discussion of ways of looking at and understanding works of art in chapter 4; the distinction between formal and critical analysis, and the distinction in analysis, description, interpretation and evaluation. These comprehensive discussion make the text a great resource. The material is also reader friendly.

I find that there is minimal references to non-western art especially African and African Diaspora Art. This is palpably obvious even under the discussion 4.5.1 Cultural Style in Chapter 4. The illustrations in the text are also geared towards the examination of western art than other categories including Asian and African. In the discussion of two and three dimensional art (with highlights on materials and techniques), almost all illustrations and examples are western art, with some minimal references to Chinese and Japanese preferred materials for art, and their processes.

There are minor typos found in different pages of the text. For instance: i). Introduction: 2.4. Art Forms (cat egories should read categories)

ii). Chapter 8: p. 247 "iconoclas" should read "iconoclasm"'

Additionally, there is issue of consistency when "iconoclasm" is used as a sub-heading but not mentioned again in the body of the text.It also does not appear in the list of terms of reference. Consistency in reference to location: Benin is in Nigeria, West Africa and not just Africa as presented in the text on page 232. It is correctly referenced in previous pages.

Content is up-to-date. However, it may require updating in the next three years to expands coverage particularly the diversity of the subject matter covered, illustrations, and invariably to bring new content into the chapters.

The text is ready friendly, written in straightforward accessible prose. The definitions of terminologies accurate and simplified for readers to grasp the concepts quickly.

A consistent template runs through the chapters.

However, there is an issue with consistency when "iconoclasm" is used as a sub-heading but not mentioned again in the body of the text.It also does not appear in the list of terms of reference. Consistency issue with the way a culture's location is referenced: Benin is in Nigeria, West Africa and not just Africa as presented in the text on page 232. It is somewhat appropriately referenced in previous pages.

Consistency issue with the spelling of terracotta (pages 273-4, and 277)

Excellent compartmentalization, though I find the many sub-headings a bit problematic.

The structure of the book is very well organized. The topics are presented in logical sequence.

The interface appears many and a bit distracting. The links interspersed in the text forces the reader to go in and out of the text to check images being compared with those embedded in the text. It would have been more effective if these were readily accessible in the text for immediate comparison. No evidence of overtly distorted images (Perhaps Figure 10.37?). However, some of them could be improved for clarity (Figure 10.48 and 10.49).

No grammatical errors but there are typos.

The text could do with some examples of ideas and images about diverse cultures that the learner in the introductory class can later build upon.

Nothing beyond the outlined responses to other questions in this review.

Reviewed by Stephanie Wirt, ACA Art History Adjunct Professor, Reynolds Community College on 2/8/17

This text does cover the material its title implies at an introductory level. More depth could be used in some areas. In the chapter on describing art some major stylistic movements were omitted. The approach to describing art changes relevant to... read more

This text does cover the material its title implies at an introductory level. More depth could be used in some areas. In the chapter on describing art some major stylistic movements were omitted. The approach to describing art changes relevant to the time period and that is not addressed here by omitting some of the major Art movements like Impressionism, Cubism, Realism, photography and digital imagine.

All external Links work Information is accurate but seems to lack in depth in some areas. The artwork shown is primarily from the western world and the art of dead white men. In choosing which art to include as examples more diversity in artists’ ethnicity and gender should be included for a more balanced and realistic scope of art

The technical content of the text is up – to – date. The information as far as approaches to understanding art in general don’t change. Many of the artworks used to illustrate concepts are well known and appear in many standard art history textbooks. However, the lack of contemporary art examples makes some of the content less relevant to the life of the contemporary student. Art, how and why its made) is changing and this text does not necessarily address how to understand new practices in art

The text is clearly written in an easy to understand format.

The format, vocabulary and tone of writing is consistent throughout the text.

a. Each chapter is broken down into subsection that focus on a specific aspect of the overall chapter theme. b. Sections could be combined for instructional purposes c. Sections are brief enough to allow for quick coverage but also leave room for individual teacher adjustments to focus more time and discussion on specific concepts

a. The topics and objectives of each chapter are clear and flow in a logical format. While there could be an argument for some readjustment of chapter ordering, it progresses in a thoughtful format.

o This is a pdf text that can be downloaded to computer or tablet form the web. This allows students access to the main content without having to have internet for most of the content. o The outside links to artworks are necessary to view significant artwork that is not in the creative commons directly at this point. However over time that will change as the original artist dies and time has passed from the date of its creation.

The book's grammar is written using correct English.

The text does not show any outright bias against any specific cultural, racial or ethnic groups. However they are not many examples of non-western art or artists or women artists within the examples provided within the book. This is not unusual for many art survey books but there is a new movement in art education to expand the examples of art to include more people of color and women as well as more diversity in cultural arts within educational texts.

o This book is a good introductory text for a basic art survey class. It doesn’t go into depth in art history or studio practices but it does present a basic knowledgebase for understanding art in general and how to interpret and appreciate a variety of elements of art. o A teacher using this text would want to supplement the reading with practical studio experiences to give students a better understanding of some of the media and techniques presented in the book as well as an opportunity to practice the methods of analyzing artworks with more contemporary artworks.

Reviewed by RADFORD THOMAS, Ph.D., PROFESSOR OF ART, VIRGINIA WESTERN COMMUNITY COLLEGE on 2/8/17

Content adequately covers the subjects it purports to include. However, there is no comprehensive index. A brief list of Key Terms is included within each chapter. These lists are barely adequate and probably confusing to neophyte students with no... read more

Content adequately covers the subjects it purports to include. However, there is no comprehensive index. A brief list of Key Terms is included within each chapter. These lists are barely adequate and probably confusing to neophyte students with no art background. For instance, in 1.9 KEY TERMS, p.30, Icon is described primarily as often religious. “Icon”, in art, may have multiple meanings according to the culture that produced the artifact and its use by those members of that group. As an example, the image of “Isis” is an icon found throughout Egyptian culture with various “religious” as well as “power” and other cultural meanings. This criticism can be directed to all KEY TERMS lists in the text to some extent.

Illustrations appear to be consistent with the knowledge base of the written text. In other words, illustrations fit the need and are usually of good quality and reference the dialog effectively. Titles are included for each image along with the artist/author and sources where appropriate. Missing are important notes about media, method, size, and date alongside the illustration. Non-art students are wont to go to the trouble of looking up this important information.

Some KEY TERMS terminology is lacking in completeness or accuracy. Perhaps it is because the editors wished to make definitions simple, too simple. Bias is toward pleasing everyone while skimming over important iconographic details of the art forms examined. Dialog needs to be aimed at describing the iconographic content of art rather than ancillary historic events.

Content appears to be current in a way that will not make the text out-of-date within a normal time period. Updates, except for items that need immediate attention, should be easy to implement.

This text is actually written in a student-oriented manner that makes a connection between current student populations and information required to cover the subject matter. Applause to the editors.

This text is consistent with overall use of terms and organizational framework. Iconographic statements should be revised so they are accurate and clearly defined to explain the focus, use, and understanding of the art.

This text is divided into eleven rather arbitrary chapters. Editors chose these topics to somehow relate not only to history of art but to serious ways of making art. So this text is not aimed at teaching students about the why of art but about the construction of art. This makes it an art appreciation text, not an art history text. The format does not flow historically but topically.

It is difficult for the novice student to follow these disjointed chapters to a conclusion about what art really is. Each module or chapter is an end in itself and does not develop a cohesive theme about art itself. The Art and Ethics chapter is particularly misguided. This chapter’s content should be placed alongside relevant art objects and discussed in relation to that art.

Text is rife with various and confusing imagery placed next to each other making it difficult for the beginning art historian to make sense of it. There is a lack of cohesive structure throughout the text with a few exceptions. One example is the discussion of “porphyry” in chapter three. This dialog goes from the Sarcophagus of Constantina to the Palace Chapel of Aachen with no real discussion of how valuable materials are used for iconographic purposes. It then goes on to explain a "mausolea" for some reason.

In addition, I find reading the book difficult because it does not use two columns as a standard interface. It uses only a single column throughout the text.

I find no essential grammatical errors or problems.

Text is very inclusive and comprehensive in this matter.

In chapter five I found the Key Concepts very well written and useful to students

It is strange that there is a chapter on Architecture alone as an art form. Photography? or Painting? or Sculpture? or Ceramics? or Weaving...

Reviewed by Renee Garris, Adjunct Professor, J Sargent Reynolds Community College on 2/8/17

The text covers Art in a thematic approach. It explains concepts in an easy to understand manner. read more

The text covers Art in a thematic approach. It explains concepts in an easy to understand manner.

The content is accurate and error-free.

The text is current and few sections would need updating.

The text is written is a manner that those who are new to art and art history can easily understand. There are definitions for words that are new for the readers.

The text is consistent in its use of terms and the framework in which it is written.

The text is written with smaller rather than larger sections and is follow throughout the chapters of the book.

There is a logical progression to the text.

It is free of distortion of images and the illustrations are clear.

It is free of grammar errors.

It is culturally sensitive without bias. It could use more examples of art from the non-Western world for some sections to provide better balance.

Enjoyable read and could be used alone or with supplemental material.

Reviewed by Deborah Cibelli, Professor , Nicholls State University on 12/5/16

The text is organized thematically and does not offer a chronological survey of the history of art. Chapters discuss forms and materials, the processes of describing and interpreting art, aesthetics, architectural form, art and identity, art and... read more

The text is organized thematically and does not offer a chronological survey of the history of art. Chapters discuss forms and materials, the processes of describing and interpreting art, aesthetics, architectural form, art and identity, art and power, art and ritual, and art and ethics. These topics are all covered effectively. Chapters include examples of Western and non-Western art and architecture and offer many comparisons of art from different cultures. While there is no index, the reader may refer to the chapter titles and the glossaries found at the end of each chapter.

The factual information provided is accurate, does not contain errors and is sensitive to world views.

The themes that have been selected are well chosen and will remain relevant so that the text will not require constant revision. However, the URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) or web addresses for different web sites may change over time and the authors may want to update the text by adding examples of contemporary art.

The text discusses complex ideas in a clear and concise manner. Terms used in each chapter are clearly defined in the text and in the chapter glossaries.

Each chapter covers material outlined in the table of contents and the introductory chapter. Each chapter also has a summary of key concepts and reinforces the themes developed throughout the text.

The chapters and sections within the chapters are clearly delineated. There are on average, eight sections in every chapter, making it easy to divide the text into discrete units and easy to refer to specific topics.

The themes and ideas covered in the text are clearly delineated. There are clear transitions from section to section and from one idea to the next.

The illustrations are clearly numbered and referenced in the text. The images are from public domain sources on the web and are identified as such. It would be helpful to have dates for the images and references to the museums where the art objects are located either in the text or as additional information added to the labels for the images.

There are few grammatical errors. There are a few typographical errors such as misspellings of memento mori on page 98, of Edgar Allan Poe on page 214, and of iconoclasm on page 246.

The text compares works of art from different cultures and seems inclusive, objective, and balanced in terms of the items included and the content.

The text departs from standard introductory surveys by referring to objects from different cultures and historical periods that have been selected to illustrate the myriad functions of art, that is, art as map, religious work, “secular icon”, etc. Material is organized thematically rather than chronologically using a comparative model. The chapters on forms, materials, description, symbolic interpretation, aesthetics, architectural form, identity, power, ritual, and ethics, also encourage the reader to make connections to contemporary art and culture. Key concepts are reviewed in the chapter summaries and each chapter has a list of questions that can be used by the student to review the material as well as a glossary of key terms. The chapters on forms and materials support the study of art based on media. In the discussion of interpretive methods, the reader also gains insight into the role of the viewer as well as the artist in determining meaning and is asked to consider the continued relevance of artistic expression. The book could be adapted for teaching a more conventional survey of art if sections are assigned based on content. Chapter 10 on art and ritual, for example, largely follows a historical trajectory that begins with Stonehenge and examines architectural forms in Hawaii and Japan before discussing the sacred spaces and art of the medieval period that have been produced in different media. The strength of this work is that students are asked to make comparisons. They are also asked to think contextually about global art.

Table of Contents

• Chapter One: What is Art?
• Chapter Two: The Structure of Art
• Chapter Three: Significance of Materials Used in Art
• Chapter Four: Describing Art
• Chapter Five: Meaning in Art
• Chapter Six: Connecting Art to Our Lives
• Chapter Seven: Form in Architecture
• Chapter Eight: Art and Identity
• Chapter Nine: Art and Power
• Chapter Ten: Art and Ritual Life
• Chapter Eleven: Art and Ethics

Ancillary Material

• Ancillary materials are available by contacting the author or publisher .

About the Book

Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning offers a comprehensive introduction to the world of Art. Authored by four USG faculty members with advance degrees in the arts, this textbooks offers up-to-date original scholarship. It includes over 400 high-quality images illustrating the history of art, its technical applications, and its many uses. Combining the best elements of both a traditional textbook and a reader, it introduces such issues in art as its meaning and purpose; its meaning and purpose; its structure, material, and form; and its diverse effects on our lives. Its digital nature allows students to follow links to applicable sources and videos, expanding the students' educational experiences beyond the textbook. Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning provides a new and free alternative to traditional textbooks, making it an invaluable resource in our modern age of technology and advancement.

About the Contributors

Pamela Sachant is an art history professor at North Georgia College & State University located in Dahlonega, Georgia.

Peggy Blood is Director of Confucius Institute and Full Professor in the Department of Fine Arts Humanities & Wellness. Prior to SSU she Directed satellite campuses (Fairfield &Travis AFD) for Chapman Universities in California. Her area of specialization is Fine Arts, Higher Education & Administration. She is a Fulbright Specialist & Fulbright Specialist Program Peer Reviewer, and reviewer for other academic fellowships and scholarships. Blood is a visiting scholar at Jiujiang University in Jiujiang, China. 

Jeffery A. LeMieux is Professor Emeritus of Art at the College of Coastal Georgia. He is a practicing artist with works in private and public collections including the University System of Georgia Board of Regents and the College of Coastal Georgia. He holds an M.F.A in 2D Studio Art from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and a B.S. in Philosophy from the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh. His area of specialization is college level art foundations and art appreciation which he has been teaching for over 20 years.

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Art Appreciation: Learning to See Art and Artists in a New Light

Time to Read:

• Art Appreciation

Art appreciation is an often overlooked skill.

It’s much more than simply looking at a piece of art and judging it based on what we see – art appreciation requires us to look deeper, beyond the surface level into the artist’s intent and technique.

We’re here to help you learn how to step outside your comfort zone and explore new ways of seeing art and appreciating its beauty.

This article will provide insight into the process of learning to appreciate artwork from different perspectives.

You’ll gain knowledge about tips on how best to observe them so that you can discover hidden gems throughout any gallery or museum visit.

By the end of this journey, you’ll have all the necessary tools you need in order to begin viewing artwork with newfound appreciation. So let’s get started!

Definition Of Art Appreciation

History of art appreciation, benefits of art appreciation, types of visual art forms to explore, strategies for viewing artwork, basic elements of design and composition in art history, techniques for understanding context, developing interpretive skills, resources for further learning, tips for sharing and connecting, frequently asked questions, final thoughts on art appreciation.

What is art appreciation? It’s the ability to see and appreciate the beauty, value, and meaning of the artwork.

It’s also a way of engaging with the artist’s vision and understanding how their work conveys a message or emotion.

Art appreciation helps us develop an understanding and appreciation for different cultures, styles, media, materials, and techniques.

Learning to appreciate art isn’t just about looking at a painting or sculpture; it involves learning about different periods in art history and exploring the various movements that have impacted our culture.

This could include learning about classical Greek sculptures or Renaissance paintings, as well as more contemporary works like installations or performance art.

We can gain insight into each period by studying artists’ biographies, reading literature about them, and visiting galleries or museums where we can view their work first-hand.

Art appreciation can open our eyes to new perspectives on the world around us. It enables us to explore our feelings beyond what words alone can express and encourages us to look at things from new angles.

Developing an understanding of art allows us to experience a greater sense of joy in life and boosts our creativity too!

Appreciating art helps us become more culturally aware while sparking conversations between people from different walks of life.

The history of art appreciation is long and rich. Art appreciation has been studied for centuries, with the earliest known records from Ancient Greece and Rome.

In Ancient Greece and Rome, appreciation of art was seen as an essential part of living a cultured life. The study of art was thought to cultivate one’s visual senses and develop an understanding of beauty in the world around them.

The Renaissance period saw a renewed interest in art appreciation, as it became more closely associated with the idea of education and culture.

During this period, artists were highly esteemed for their works and their skills in creating beautiful works of art.

It was during this time that some of the greatest works of art were created by master painters like Michelangelo and Raphael.

In the modern era, art appreciation has become more accessible to people than ever before.

With advances in technology, there are now more ways to appreciate artwork than ever before – from online galleries to virtual exhibitions – making it easier for people to explore and understand different forms of artwork from around the world.

By being exposed to different forms of art, we can gain an unprecedented understanding and appreciation for what makes each unique work special.

Art appreciation can have many benefits for both individuals and society as a whole.

For individuals , art appreciation can help to increase creativity, develop critical thinking skills, and boost self-esteem. It can also help to reduce stress and anxiety levels by providing an outlet for creative expression.

On a societal level , art appreciation can help to strengthen communities by bringing people together through shared experiences and creating a space for dialogue around important topics.

The ability to appreciate art also has implications for our physical health and well-being. Studies have shown that engaging with art on a regular basis can help improve memory and cognitive functioning while reducing fatigue and improving overall mental well-being.

Additionally, viewing works of art in person can give us an opportunity to get outside, connect with nature, and enjoy the peace of being surrounded by beauty.

Beyond the individual benefits of art appreciation, it is also important to consider its impact on the world around us.

Art is often used as a tool for social change; it has the power to raise awareness about issues that are affecting communities across the globe.

By engaging with different forms of art from various cultures and countries, we can gain valuable insight into different perspectives that we may not have encountered before.

This helps us understand one another better, build empathy towards different points of view, and ultimately lead to more tolerant societies.

Exploring the various types of visual arts can be an exciting experience. There are countless mediums to explore, from photography and sculpture to painting and drawing.

Each type of art has its own unique history and style, allowing for a wide range of expression.

• Painting stands out among these mediums as one of the oldest forms of creative expression. It is believed that cave paintings were created by some of the earliest humans, dating back as far as 40,000 years ago. Paintings have been used throughout history to tell stories, convey emotions, and document events. From oil paintings to watercolours and abstract expressionism, there are numerous styles to explore in this medium.
• Sculpture is another form of visual art that dates back thousands of years. The first sculptures were small figurines made from clay or stone that were used in religious rituals or ceremonies. Over time, sculpting has evolved into a medium for expressing ideas in three-dimensional form. Many sculptures today are made from a variety of materials including bronze, marble, wood, or even concrete.
• Photography is one of the most popular forms of visual arts today and it continues to evolve with new technologies such as digital cameras and editing software. Photographers use light and composition to create powerful images that tell a story or evoke emotion in the viewer. Whether you prefer nature photography or street photography, there’s something for everyone to explore in this ever-changing field.

No matter which type of visual arts you choose to explore, remember that art appreciation begins with being open-minded about what you see and how it makes you feel.

Observing each piece closely can help reveal hidden details you may have otherwise missed out on!

Now that you’ve explored some of the many types of visual art, it’s time to learn how to view artwork in a new light. Viewing artwork can be both fun and educational .

It’s important to take your time when viewing artwork and really appreciate the details, colours, shapes, and textures that make it unique.

Here are some strategies for viewing artwork that will help you get the most out of your experience:

• The first step is to prepare yourself mentally . Before you begin viewing any artwork, take a few moments to relax and clear your mind of any preconceived notions or ideas of what you think a piece should look like. This will help you open up to different interpretations and perspectives as you explore the work.
• The next step is to examine the artwork closely . Take note of its colours, textures, lines, and shapes. Consider how these elements work together to convey meaning or emotion in the piece. Think about what the artist may have been trying to express with his or her use of colour, texture and composition. Ask yourself questions such as: “What do I see?” “What is this piece saying?” “What feelings does it evoke in me?”
• Finally, try putting yourself in the artist’s shoes by asking questions such as: “What was their inspiration for creating this piece?” “What techniques did they use?” “What materials did they use?” Answering these questions can help give you insight into their creative process and further enhance your appreciation for their work. Through thoughtful observation and exploration of an artist’s work, you can gain a deeper understanding and appreciation for art as a whole.

The elements of art, design and composition are integral aspects of a work of art . They can include the use of line, shape, form, colour, texture, and space.

By combining these elements in creative ways , an artist is able to create a unique visual experience for the viewer.

• Line is one of the most important elements in any artwork. It can be used to define shapes and forms or to create movement or direction within a composition. Lines can also be used as symbolism or to emphasize a certain emotion within the piece.
• Shape and form are also crucial components of any artwork. Shapes are two-dimensional figures that define an area and outline images while forms refer to three-dimensional objects that have depth and volume. 
• Colour can be used to add contrast and emotion to artwork while texture brings life to it by creating different effects with light and shadow. Finally, 
• Space refers not only to the physical areas between objects but also to the psychological depths created by their placement in relation to each other within a composition.

These elements play a critical role in how we interpret artworks on both conscious and subconscious levels.

Every element should contribute toward creating an overall unity so that viewers will take away something meaningful from it in terms of its message or purpose. 

An artist must be mindful of how all these pieces fit together when creating their work; otherwise, they risk creating something that fails to evoke any reaction from their audience at all.

Now that we have discussed the various elements of design and composition, let’s shift our focus to understanding how to look at art in a new light.

To appreciate art, it is important to understand the context in which it was created. The context behind a piece can be found through techniques such as research , observation , and analysis .

• Researching a piece of art, it is important to look for information about the artist and the time period in which it was created. This can help provide insight into why certain elements were used and what message may have been intended by the artist. Additionally, one should look for any details or symbolism present in the work that may not be immediately evident.
• Observation plays an important role in understanding context as well. Taking a closer look at an artwork can help uncover details that are often overlooked when viewing from afar. Paying attention to colours, textures, shapes, and lines can help reveal more about the artwork than simply looking at it with no further inspection.
• Analyzing a work of art is another way to gain insight into its context. Looking closely at how elements were used and combined together will help determine how they contribute to the overall message of the piece. This includes considering composition and design elements such as balance, contrast, rhythm, movement and unity. By carefully analyzing these aspects of an artwork, one can develop a more informed appreciation for its meaning and purpose beyond just its aesthetic value.

Interpretive skills are essential for understanding and appreciating art. When looking at an artwork, it’s important to look beyond the surface to uncover the deeper meaning behind it.

To develop interpretive skills, there are a few key techniques that can be used:

• One of the most effective ways to gain insight into an artwork is by asking questions . What is the artist conveying with this piece? What elements and techniques were used to create the work? Are there any symbols or metaphors present? Asking these types of questions can help unlock hidden meanings in a work of art that may not be immediately obvious.
• Another helpful technique is researching the artist and their cultural context . This can provide further insight into what inspired them, and how their work was received by their peers and society at large. It can also help put the artwork in a larger cultural context which adds depth and complexity to its meaning.
• Analyzing artistic elements such as composition, colour, texture and form can also help unpack an artwork’s message. Paying attention to how different elements interact with each other reveals subtle nuances that contribute to its overall impact on viewers.

Developing interpretive skills requires practice but is a rewarding process that helps us gain a greater appreciation for art.

There are many resources available to help anyone learn more about art appreciation. Books , magazines , and articles all provide valuable information on the subject.

Online resources also offer great tools for learning more, such as podcasts , webinars , and courses . A great starting place is to look for art appreciation classes offered by colleges and universities in the area.

These classes typically cover a broad range of topics from the basics of art history to deeper dives into specific artists or styles.

For those who prefer to learn at home, there are plenty of books available on art appreciation. Many can be found at local libraries or bookstores , while others can be purchased online.

Magazines such as Art Forum or Art in America also provide coverage of current trends in the world of art. Articles written by experts in their respective fields can be found on various websites like Artsy or Hyperallergic .

Finally, there are countless podcasts and webinars that discuss almost every aspect of art appreciation. Many of these are free and readily available with a simple internet search.

Finding the right one depends on the individual’s preferences and goals when it comes to furthering their knowledge about this field.

With so many options out there, anyone looking to explore art appreciation further will have no trouble finding something that works for them!

Sharing and connecting with art can be one of the most rewarding experiences in appreciating the artwork. To get the most out of the experience, there are a few tips to keep in mind:

• The first tip for sharing and connecting is to engage all your senses . Take time to fully observe the artwork and let it speak to you. Notice how the colours, shapes, and textures make you feel. If a painting or sculpture evokes emotion, don’t hesitate to express it. Connecting deeply with artwork can be an extremely powerful feeling.
• Another great tip is to take advantage of guided tours and audio tours when available. A guide can help lead you through a museum and provide meaningful context for each piece you encounter along the way. Audio tours can also help bring an artwork’s story to life by providing detailed information about its history and significance, and finally,
• Try discussing your thoughts on artwork with friends or family members who may have a different opinion than yours. This allows both perspectives to come together in conversation and create something new from their dialogue about art appreciation. By taking these tips into consideration, we can approach viewing artwork from different angles and gain a new appreciation for it every time we look at it.

What Types Of Art Should I Start Exploring First?

When exploring art, it’s important to figure out what type of art you’re most interested in. There are so many different mediums and styles that can be explored, from painting and sculpture to photography and digital art. It can be overwhelming trying to decide where to start, but there are a few techniques that can help you narrow down your choices.

One way to begin is by exploring the work of artists who inspire you. Look for pieces that draw your attention or evoke strong feelings in you. This will indicate what types of art you’re drawn towards, whether it’s abstract expressionism, surrealism, or something else entirely.

You may also want to research different movements and styles throughout history, such as Impressionism or Postmodernism, which could present new possibilities in terms of what kind of art appeals to you.

Another approach is to experiment with different mediums yourself. If you have access to art supplies like paints and canvas, try creating a piece of artwork in each one and see which ones come more naturally to you.

You might even find that a style or technique that didn’t immediately appeal to you reveals itself as something enjoyable once you start working with it! Additionally, don’t forget about digital media; there are plenty of free software programs available online that allow anyone with a computer the opportunity to create their own digital artwork—all without spending a penny!

No matter how much (or how little) experience you have with creating art, exploring various mediums is the best way to get familiar with them and grow as an artist. If nothing else, this will provide an excellent opportunity for self-discovery and help refine your personal tastes when it comes to appreciating other people’s artwork.

How Can I Develop My Interpretive Skills?

Developing interpretive skills is an important part of understanding art. It requires the ability to look at a piece of artwork and gain insight into what the artist is trying to express. This can be a difficult task, but with practice and dedication, it’s possible to hone your interpretive skills.

One way to develop interpretive skills is by looking for patterns in the artwork. Patterns can be anything from a repeating color scheme or shape to more abstract concepts like symbolism or metaphors.

Looking for these elements will help you understand how the artist intended the piece to be viewed and interpreted. Additionally, making connections between different pieces of art can also provide valuable insight into how they are meant to be understood.

Another way to sharpen your interpretive skills is to become familiar with different artistic styles and techniques used throughout history. Learning about different types of art and their unique characteristics will give you a better understanding of how each style contributes to the work as a whole. Additionally, studying classic works of art can give you an appreciation for the skill and creativity that goes into creating them.

By looking for patterns in artwork, making connections between different pieces, and familiarizing yourself with various artistic styles, you can improve your interpretive skills and gain a deeper appreciation for art. With time, practice, and dedication you’ll be able to see art in an entirely new light!

Are There Any Online Resources I Can Use To Learn More About Art Appreciation?

Developing one’s interpretive skills is an important part of learning to appreciate art. But with the advent of the internet, it can be difficult to know where to start. Are there any online resources available that can help someone learn more about art appreciation?

The answer is yes! There are a variety of online resources available for anyone who wants to dive deeper into art appreciation. From podcasts and YouTube videos to in-depth articles and interactive activities, these websites provide a wealth of information on various aspects of the subject.

One great example is The Art Newspaper, which offers daily updates on all kinds of topics related to art appreciation. They cover news from around the world along with reviews and interviews from leading professionals in the field. Additionally, they provide educational materials for students, such as quizzes and lesson plans.

For those seeking a more hands-on approach, there are several sites that offer interactive activities designed to help people understand different aspects of art appreciation.

For instance, Artsy provides virtual galleries where users can explore works from around the world without ever leaving their homes. Similarly, Museum Hack offers virtual tours that let people get up close and personal with some of the greatest works of art in history.

These online resources are invaluable for those looking to develop their interpretive skills and gain a better understanding of art appreciation. With so many options available, there’s no excuse not to take advantage and get started on your journey today!

What Elements Should I Look For When Viewing Artwork?

When viewing artwork, it is important to look for certain elements. By doing so, a person can gain a better understanding and appreciation of the artwork. It is not enough to simply look at the work, but instead one should look for certain characteristics that make the piece unique or special.

The first thing to consider when looking at artwork is its composition. This means looking at how the colors, shapes, and lines interact with each other to form a pleasing whole. Additionally, it might be helpful to think about how these elements convey emotion or meaning in the piece. For instance, warm colors may suggest comfort while cool colors may imply sadness.

A second aspect of the artwork that one should consider is its subject matter. This includes both what the piece depicts as well as any symbols or metaphors that may be present.

Looking closely at these details can help one gain insight into what the artist was trying to convey through their work. Furthermore, studying the context of the piece – such as who created it and why – can also provide valuable information about its meaning and purpose.

In order to understand art more deeply, it is important to pay attention to all of these elements when viewing a piece of art. Taking time to observe them carefully will help one appreciate artwork more fully as one begin to recognize patterns in composition and symbolic meanings behind images and objects portrayed in works of art.

Are There Any Tips For Discussing Art With Others?

Discussing art with others can be a great way to gain new perspectives and deepen your appreciation of artwork. However, if you’re not used to talking about art or don’t feel particularly confident in your own knowledge, it can be intimidating. Fortunately, there are some simple tips that can help make the process easier.

Before discussing artwork with someone else, it’s important to take the time to analyze the piece yourself. Ask yourself what elements of the artwork stand out to you and why they appeal or engage you. This will give you a better understanding of how and why you perceive it in a certain way. Additionally, taking notes on specific aspects of the work that interest you is also helpful for sparking conversation with someone else about it.

When talking about artwork with another person, remember to focus on whatever speaks to them as much as possible. By doing this, you may find that their observations lead you to notice things in the piece that hadn’t occurred to you before.

This can be especially beneficial when discussing more abstract works since each person’s interpretation will likely be different from the others. Additionally, being open-minded and respectful towards their point of view is essential for having productive conversations about art without feeling judged or uncomfortable.

In order for discussions about art to be meaningful and enjoyable experiences, it’s important to keep an open mind while engaging in dialogue with others about the artwork. Taking the time beforehand to think deeply about a particular piece will ensure that you have plenty of ideas and points of view ready to share during these conversations as well.

To conclude, art appreciation is a skill that can be cultivated by anyone. With the right knowledge and perspective, we can all learn to appreciate art in new ways.

By understanding how artists create works of art , and what elements make up these pieces, our eyes are opened to new possibilities.

Everyone has the capacity to gain a deeper understanding and admiration for visual art – it’s all about finding what speaks to us individually.

As such, learning more about art appreciation encourages us all to see things differently – allowing us to develop an even greater appreciation for both established masterpieces as well as emerging talent.

About the author

We are a team of creatives dedicated to sharing tips, tricks, and step-by-step guides on all things related to art and design. Check out our blog for a list of all the awesome things we post!

2 responses to “Art Appreciation: Learning to See Art and Artists in a New Light”

I never knew that appreciating art helps you learn more about its beauty while enhancing your visual senses. My brother is interested in taking his girlfriend on a date this year. I should recommend that they visit an art gallery so they’d consider installing wall art in their home!

Art has the power to move us in many ways. Thanks for sharing your thoughts.

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Ancient Art History Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive guide for students examining ancient art history research paper topics . The field of ancient art history, encompassing a vast spectrum of civilizations and epochs, offers countless areas of exploration. We have prepared an extensive list of 100 research paper topics, meticulously categorized into ten sections, each reflecting a specific region or era in ancient art history. Expert advice on selecting relevant ancient art history research paper topics is provided, complemented by practical tips on writing an impactful and academically robust ancient art history research paper. In the next segment, we introduce iResearchNet’s custom writing services. Students have the opportunity to order a personalized ancient art history research paper on any chosen topic.

100 Ancient Art History Research Paper Topics

Introduction: In this section, we present a comprehensive list of ancient art history research paper topics. By exploring these topics, students studying art history can find inspiration for their research papers and delve into the fascinating world of ancient art. The following 10 categories encompass various aspects of ancient art history, providing a wide range of options to explore.

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Prehistoric Art

• The Origins of Cave Paintings: Symbolism and Interpretation
• Neolithic Sculpture and its Cultural Significance
• Paleolithic Venus Figurines: Representations of Fertility and Power
• Rock Art Across Different Prehistoric Cultures
• Megalithic Monuments: Exploring the Purpose and Construction Techniques
• Shamanistic Art: Unveiling the Spiritual Beliefs of Early Humans
• Artistic Expressions in Ice Age Cultures
• Portable Art of the Paleolithic Era: A Window into Ancient Lifestyles
• The Role of Animals in Prehistoric Art
• Decorative Motifs in Prehistoric Pottery

Ancient Egyptian Art

• Symbolism in Egyptian Funerary Art and Architecture
• The Role of Pharaohs in Shaping Egyptian Art and Culture
• The Amarna Revolution: Artistic Expression under Akhenaten
• Artistic Techniques in Egyptian Wall Paintings and Reliefs
• The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Art on Later Civilizations
• The Temple Complexes of Ancient Egypt: Sacred Spaces and Rituals
• Egyptian Tomb Paintings: Depicting the Afterlife Journey
• Hieroglyphs and the Art of Writing in Ancient Egypt
• The Role of Women in Egyptian Art and Society
• Religious Iconography in Ancient Egyptian Art

Ancient Greek Art

• The Evolution of Greek Sculpture: From Archaic to Classical
• Athenian Vase Painting: Themes, Styles, and Significance
• Greek Temples and Architectural Innovations
• Alexander the Great and Hellenistic Art: Blending Cultures
• The Parthenon Marbles: Controversies and Repatriation Debates
• Mythology in Greek Art: Gods, Heroes, and Legends
• Greek Pottery: Form, Function, and Decoration
• Greek Theater and its Visual Representations
• Olympic Games in Ancient Greek Art
• Portraits of Rulers and Statesmen in Ancient Greece

Roman Art and Architecture

• Roman Portraiture: Capturing Identity and Power
• The Colosseum: Function, Design, and Entertainment
• Roman Wall Paintings: Exploring Domestic Art
• The Pantheon: Engineering Marvel and Religious Symbolism
• Roman Mosaics: A Reflection of Society and Culture
• Roman Imperial Sculpture: Ideals of Power and Authority
• Roman Frescoes and their Themes
• Roman Triumphal Arches: Commemorating Victories
• Roman Coinage and its Depiction of Emperors and Deities
• The Influence of Etruscan Art on Roman Civilization

Ancient Mesopotamian Art

• Mesopotamian Cylinder Seals: Significance and Iconography
• The Ishtar Gate: A Symbol of Babylonian Power
• Sumerian Ziggurats: Architecture and Religious Beliefs
• Assyrian Palace Reliefs: Depictions of Conquest and Royal Life
• The Code of Hammurabi Stele: Legal System and Visual Representation
• Mesopotamian Jewelry and Adornment
• The Epic of Gilgamesh in Art and Sculpture
• Mesopotamian Clay Tablets: Cuneiform Writing and Record-Keeping
• Babylonian Astronomical Instruments and their Depiction in Art
• Mesopotamian Influence on Ancient Near Eastern Art

Ancient Asian Art

• Buddhist Art in Ancient India: Symbolism and Iconography
• Chinese Calligraphy: Script as an Art Form
• Japanese Woodblock Prints: Beauty and Narrative
• The Terracotta Army: Commemorating Emperor Qin Shi Huang
• Gandhara Art: Fusion of Greek and Indian Influences
• Silk Road Art and Cultural Exchange
• The Art of Tea in East Asia: Ceramics, Utensils, and Rituals
• The Zen Garden: Artistic Expression and Spiritual Contemplation
• Hindu Temples and their Architectural Features
• Korean Celadon Pottery: Techniques and Aesthetics

Ancient African Art

• Nok Terracottas: Early Nigerian Artistic Expressions
• Egyptian Influence on Nubian Art and Architecture
• Great Zimbabwe: Architecture and Cultural Significance
• Ife Bronze Heads: Portraits of Royalty and Divinity
• African Masks: Rituals, Symbolism, and Performance
• Rock Art of the Sahara: Depicting Ancient Life and Beliefs
• Benin Bronzes: Courtly Art and Royal Power
• Sahelian Architecture: Mud Brick Structures and Design
• Dogon Sculpture: Ancestral Spirits and Cosmic Order
• Ethiopian Christian Art: Illuminated Manuscripts and Iconography

Pre-Columbian Art of the Americas

• Mayan Glyphs and Hieroglyphic Writing: Decoding Ancient Texts
• Aztec Temples and Sacred Spaces
• Inca Metalwork: Techniques and Cultural Significance
• Olmec Colossal Heads: Mystery and Meaning
• Native American Rock Art: Communication and Spiritual Practices
• Chavin de Huantar: Architecture and Rituals in Ancient Peru
• Nazca Lines: Geoglyphs and Astronomical Alignments
• Moche Pottery: Figurines and Narrative Scenes
• Maya Murals: Religious and Historical Narratives
• Inca Textiles: Weaving Techniques and Symbolism

Byzantine Art and Iconography

• The Hagia Sophia: Architecture and Religious Symbolism
• Iconoclasm and the Shifting Role of Religious Images
• Byzantine Mosaics: Glorious Decoration and Spiritual Expression
• The Byzantine Influence on Russian Iconography
• The Empress Theodora: Power and Patronage in Byzantine Art
• Illuminated Manuscripts in Byzantium
• Byzantine Ivory Carvings: Religious and Secular Themes
• The Byzantine Iconostasis: Artistic Elements and Liturgical Function
• The Byzantine Cross: Symbolism and Variations
• Early Christian Symbols in Byzantine Art

Early Christian Art

• Catacomb Paintings: Early Christian Devotion and Symbolism
• The Basilica of San Vitale: Byzantine Influence in Ravenna
• Early Christian Mosaics: Expressions of Faith and Worship
• Early Christian Manuscripts: Scriptural Illustrations and Decoration
• Christian Iconography in Roman Catacombs
• Christian Pilgrimage Art: Relics, Shrines, and Devotion
• The Cult of Saints in Early Christian Art
• Early Christian Basilicas: Architecture and Liturgy
• The Book of Kells: Illuminated Manuscript from Early Medieval Ireland
• Early Christian Sarcophagi: Representations of Salvation and Resurrection

This comprehensive list of ancient art history research paper topics offers students studying art history a wide range of fascinating and engaging subjects to explore. Whether focusing on specific civilizations or broader themes, these topics provide ample opportunities for research, analysis, and the appreciation of the rich artistic traditions of the ancient world. Delve into the captivating realm of ancient art history and unlock the secrets of our cultural heritage through these intriguing research paper topics.

Ancient Art History: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Ancient art history is a captivating field that allows us to delve into the artistic traditions and cultural expressions of past civilizations. From the dawn of human creativity in prehistoric times to the remarkable achievements of ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and beyond, studying ancient art provides us with valuable insights into the beliefs, aesthetics, and societal contexts of these ancient cultures. In this section, we will explore the diverse range of research paper topics in ancient art history, highlighting the breadth and depth of this fascinating field.

Ancient art encompasses various time periods, regions, and artistic styles, offering a rich tapestry of human creativity and cultural heritage. It provides us with a window into the past, shedding light on the values, ideologies, and social structures of ancient societies. Whether you are interested in the grandeur of Egyptian pyramids, the refined sculptures of ancient Greece, the monumental architecture of Rome, or the intricate craftsmanship of ancient China, there is a wide array of research paper topics to explore within the realm of ancient art history.

• Prehistoric Art : The origins of art can be traced back to prehistoric times when our ancestors expressed their creativity through cave paintings, rock art, and small figurines. Research paper topics in prehistoric art could delve into the techniques used, the symbolism behind the artworks, the role of art in prehistoric societies, and the cultural significance of these ancient expressions.
• Egyptian Art : The art of ancient Egypt is renowned for its monumental architecture, striking sculptures, and elaborate burial rituals. Topics in Egyptian art could explore the symbolism and religious beliefs reflected in tomb paintings, the techniques employed in sculpting statues of pharaohs, the evolution of artistic styles over different dynasties, and the social and political functions of art in ancient Egypt.
• Mesopotamian Art : Mesopotamia, known as the cradle of civilization, boasts a rich artistic heritage. Topics in Mesopotamian art might delve into the symbolism and religious beliefs conveyed through monumental ziggurats, the intricate details of cylinder seals, the royal reliefs adorning palace walls, and the role of art in communicating power and authority in ancient Mesopotamian societies.
• Greek Art : Ancient Greece was a cradle of artistic achievement, with its sculptures, architecture, and pottery serving as enduring legacies. Research paper topics in Greek art might focus on the idealized representations of the human form in classical sculpture, the influence of mythology on Greek vase painting, the architectural wonders of the Acropolis, and the significance of art in shaping Greek identity and civic life.
• Roman Art : The Romans built upon the artistic traditions of the Greeks and created their own unique contributions to the art world. Topics in Roman art could explore the realistic portraiture that adorned public spaces, the engineering marvels of Roman architecture such as the Colosseum and aqueducts, the narrative scenes depicted in wall paintings in Pompeii, and the role of art in propaganda and the projection of imperial power.
• Ancient Near Eastern Art : The ancient Near East encompasses a diverse range of cultures, including Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians. Research paper topics in ancient Near Eastern art might examine the iconic Ishtar Gate of Babylon, the divine symbolism in Assyrian relief sculptures, the development of cuneiform writing and its influence on art, and the connections between art, religion, and politics in the ancient Near East.
• Indus Valley Art : The Indus Valley Civilization flourished in ancient South Asia and left behind a rich artistic legacy. Research paper topics in Indus Valley art could explore the significance of the iconic Dancing Girl sculpture, the intricacies of the seal script, the representation of animals in the art of the region, and the cultural and religious contexts of Indus Valley artworks.
• Chinese Art : China has a long and illustrious artistic tradition spanning thousands of years. Topics in Chinese art could include the symbolism and spirituality of traditional Chinese painting, the intricate craftsmanship of porcelain and jade, the significance of Buddhist sculptures in the ancient Silk Road trade, and the role of art in representing imperial power and social status in ancient China.
• Celtic Art : The art of the ancient Celts is characterized by intricate metalwork, stone carvings, and vibrant designs. Research paper topics in Celtic art might explore the symbolism of Celtic knotwork, the cultural and religious significance of Celtic artifacts, the stylistic variations across different regions and time periods, and the interactions between Celtic art and other ancient artistic traditions.
• African Art : The art of ancient Africa is characterized by its diversity, creativity, and cultural significance. Research paper topics in African art might focus on the spiritual symbolism of masks and sculptures, the aesthetics of body adornment and textiles, the representation of power and authority in royal art, and the cultural exchange and influence between different regions and civilizations in ancient Africa.

The study of ancient art history allows us to explore the rich cultural heritage and artistic achievements of past civilizations. By examining the diverse range of research paper topics in ancient art history, students can gain a deeper understanding of the artistic techniques, cultural contexts, and social functions of art in different ancient societies. From prehistoric cave paintings to the monumental sculptures of ancient Egypt, the refined pottery of ancient Greece, and the intricate artworks of ancient China, the world of ancient art history offers a captivating journey into the past. By conducting research and writing papers on these topics, students can contribute to the ongoing exploration and appreciation of ancient art and its significance in shaping human history.

Choosing Ancient Art History Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic in ancient art history is crucial to the success of your project. It allows you to explore an area of interest, contribute to the existing scholarship, and showcase your analytical and research skills. In this section, we will provide you with expert advice on how to choose compelling and engaging ancient art history research paper topics that will captivate your readers and demonstrate your expertise in the field.

• Define Your Interests : Begin by reflecting on your personal interests within the realm of ancient art history. Consider the time periods, cultures, artistic styles, or specific artworks that intrigue you the most. Are you fascinated by the enigmatic beauty of Egyptian hieroglyphs? Or perhaps you have a passion for the classical sculptures of ancient Greece? Identifying your areas of interest will help narrow down potential research paper topics.
• Explore Uncharted Territory : While it’s important to study well-established topics in ancient art history, there is also value in exploring lesser-known or understudied areas. Look for gaps in the existing literature or unexplored aspects of ancient art that pique your curiosity. By choosing a unique and original research topic, you can make a valuable contribution to the field and generate fresh insights.
• Consider Cross-Cultural Connections : Ancient art was not created in isolation but often influenced by interactions and exchanges between different cultures. Consider exploring the cross-cultural connections and artistic influences between ancient civilizations. For example, you could investigate the influence of Egyptian art on Minoan frescoes or the impact of Hellenistic art on the Gandharan sculptures of ancient India.
• Analyze Artistic Techniques and Materials : Artistic techniques and materials used in ancient art offer a wealth of research possibilities. You can delve into the methods of sculpting, painting, pottery-making, or metalworking employed by ancient artists. Explore how technological advancements or regional resources influenced artistic production and the evolution of artistic styles.
• Investigate Social and Cultural Contexts : Art is a reflection of the society and culture in which it was created. Choose research paper topics that allow you to delve into the social, political, religious, or economic contexts of ancient art. For example, you could explore the role of art in ancient burial practices, the depiction of power and authority in royal artworks, or the symbolism of religious motifs in ancient artistic traditions.
• Study Iconography and Symbolism : Ancient art is often rich in symbolism and iconography, conveying deeper meanings and cultural significance. Analyze the symbols, motifs, and visual language used in ancient artworks and their connections to religious, mythological, or social contexts. Investigate the messages and narratives embedded within the visual representations to gain a deeper understanding of ancient cultures.
• Examine Restoration and Conservation Efforts : Restoration and conservation play a vital role in preserving ancient artworks for future generations. Research topics could focus on the techniques and challenges involved in restoring ancient murals, sculptures, or architectural elements. Explore how modern conservation practices have evolved over time and their impact on our understanding and appreciation of ancient art.
• Investigate Art and Identity : Ancient art provides insights into the formation of individual and collective identities. Choose research paper topics that examine the representation of gender, ethnicity, or social status in ancient art. Explore how artists depicted diverse identities, challenged societal norms, or reinforced cultural hierarchies through their artworks.
• Explore the Intersection of Art and Politics : Art and politics often intersect in powerful ways. Investigate the role of art in political propaganda, cultural diplomacy, or the projection of power in ancient civilizations. Examine how rulers used art to legitimize their authority, promote specific ideologies, or communicate with their subjects.
• Embrace Interdisciplinary Approaches : Ancient art history is a multidisciplinary field that can benefit from interdisciplinary approaches. Consider integrating insights from archaeology, anthropology, history, or other related disciplines into your research paper. This interdisciplinary approach can provide a broader understanding of ancient art and enrich your analysis.

Choosing the right research paper topic in ancient art history requires careful consideration and exploration of your interests, the existing scholarship, and the broader cultural and historical contexts. By defining your areas of interest, exploring uncharted territory, considering cross-cultural connections, analyzing artistic techniques and materials, investigating social and cultural contexts, studying iconography and symbolism, examining restoration and conservation efforts, investigating art and identity, exploring the intersection of art and politics, and embracing interdisciplinary approaches, you can find a captivating and meaningful research topic. Remember to select a topic that not only engages you but also contributes to the scholarly discourse and demonstrates your expertise in the fascinating world of ancient art history.

How to Write an Ancient Art History Research Paper

Writing a research paper in ancient art history requires careful planning, diligent research, and effective organization. In this section, we will provide you with a step-by-step guide on how to write a compelling and well-structured ancient art history research paper that showcases your knowledge and analytical skills.

• Understand the Assignment : Before you begin writing, thoroughly understand the requirements and guidelines of your research paper assignment. Clarify any uncertainties with your instructor to ensure you are on the right track. Pay attention to the formatting style, word count, and specific research parameters.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Gather relevant and reliable sources to support your research paper. Consult scholarly books, academic journals, museum catalogs, and reputable online databases. Take comprehensive notes, highlighting key arguments, supporting evidence, and relevant quotations. Ensure that you use a combination of primary and secondary sources to provide a well-rounded analysis.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that encapsulates the main argument or research question of your paper. Your thesis should be specific, debatable, and supported by evidence from your research. It sets the foundation for your entire paper and guides the direction of your analysis.
• Organize Your Research : Create an outline to organize your research and structure your paper. Divide your paper into logical sections, such as introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis, and conclusion. Within each section, outline the main points and supporting evidence that you will discuss.
• Introduction : In your introduction, provide background information on the topic and context of your research. Present the significance of your research question and explain why it is relevant to the field of ancient art history. Finally, end your introduction with a clear thesis statement that outlines the main argument or objective of your research paper.
• Literature Review : In the literature review section, critically analyze and synthesize the existing scholarship on your chosen topic. Identify the main theories, arguments, and debates within the field of ancient art history related to your research question. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of previous studies and highlight the gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology : If applicable, describe the research methodology and approach you will use in your study. Explain the sources you have used, such as archaeological findings, textual analysis, or visual analysis. Justify your chosen methodology and discuss any limitations or challenges you may encounter.
• Analysis : Present your analysis and interpretation of the evidence gathered from your research. Use a combination of visual examples, textual references, and scholarly arguments to support your analysis. Be clear and concise in your explanations and provide sufficient evidence to back up your claims.
• Use Visuals : Ancient art is primarily visual, so it is essential to include relevant images, illustrations, or diagrams to support your analysis. Ensure that you provide proper captions and citations for all visuals used in your research paper.
• Conclusion : In your conclusion, summarize the main points of your research and restate your thesis statement. Reflect on the significance of your findings and their implications for the field of ancient art history. Discuss any limitations or areas for further research. Leave your readers with a thought-provoking final statement that encourages them to contemplate the broader implications of your research.
• Citations and References : Properly cite all the sources used in your research paper using the appropriate citation style (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago). Create a bibliography or reference list that includes all the sources consulted. Ensure that you follow the formatting guidelines for your chosen citation style accurately.
• Revise and Edit : After completing your initial draft, take the time to revise and edit your research paper. Check for clarity, coherence, and logical flow of ideas. Ensure that your arguments are supported by evidence and that your writing is free of grammatical and spelling errors. Seek feedback from peers or professors to gain different perspectives on your work.
• Proofread : Before submitting your research paper, thoroughly proofread it to eliminate any lingering errors. Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting. Ensure that your paper adheres to the required formatting style and meets all the guidelines set by your instructor.

Writing an ancient art history research paper requires meticulous planning, in-depth research, and effective organization. By following the steps outlined above, you can develop a compelling and well-structured research paper that demonstrates your knowledge and analytical skills in the field of ancient art history. Remember to carefully analyze your sources, develop a strong thesis statement, present a clear and coherent argument, and support your analysis with relevant evidence. With dedication and attention to detail, you can create an exceptional research paper that contributes to the ongoing scholarly discourse in the field of ancient art history.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when it comes to writing ancient art history research papers. We recognize the importance of in-depth research, critical analysis, and effective writing skills required to produce a high-quality paper. That’s why we offer our professional writing services to provide you with the support and expertise you need to excel in your academic journey. Let us be your trusted partner in crafting outstanding ancient art history research papers.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our team of writers consists of experts with advanced degrees in art history and related fields. They possess a deep understanding of ancient art history and have extensive experience in conducting research and writing academic papers. With their expertise, you can be confident that your research paper will be in capable hands.
• Custom Written Works : We believe in delivering custom-written research papers that meet your unique requirements. Our writers carefully analyze your instructions and tailor their approach to address the specific objectives and guidelines of your assignment. Each paper is crafted from scratch, ensuring originality and authenticity.
• In-Depth Research : Research is at the core of any successful ancient art history paper. Our writers are skilled in conducting thorough and comprehensive research using reputable scholarly sources, museum catalogs, archaeological findings, and other relevant materials. They delve into the depths of ancient art history to gather the most current and accurate information for your research paper.
• Custom Formatting : Proper formatting is crucial for an academic research paper. Whether your institution requires APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard style, our writers are well-versed in all major formatting guidelines. They will ensure that your paper adheres to the specified style, including proper citations, references, and formatting of headings, margins, and spacing.
• Top Quality : We are committed to delivering top-quality research papers that meet the highest academic standards. Our writers pay meticulous attention to detail, ensuring accurate information, logical organization, coherent arguments, and impeccable language. Your paper will showcase your knowledge and understanding of ancient art history in a professional and polished manner.
• Customized Solutions : Every research paper is unique, and we understand that your specific research topic may require a tailored approach. Our writers take the time to understand your research objectives, provide personalized guidance, and develop a research paper that aligns with your academic goals. We value your input and ensure that your voice shines through in the final product.
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• Short Deadlines : We recognize that students often face tight deadlines and last-minute assignments. Our writing services are designed to meet your urgent needs. Whether you have a few hours or a few days to submit your research paper, our efficient writers can deliver high-quality work within the specified timeframe.
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