test of problem solving adolescent 3

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Please note that tests are chosen based on the reason for the evaluation and your evaluator’s clinical judgment as to which tests will be most appropriate for an individual. In addition to the tests listed, other testing measures may be used.

• Differential Abilities Scale – 2nd Edition
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children – 2nd Edition
• Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices
• Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – 4th Edition
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 5th Edition
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 5th Edition – Integrated
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 4th Edition – Spanish
• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence – 4th Edition
• Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz, Pruebas de Aprovechamiento
• Gray Oral Reading Test, 5th Edition
• Kaufman Survey of Early Academic Language Skills
• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition
• Nelson-Denny Reading Test
• Scholastic Abilities Test for Adults
• Woodcock Johnson, Tests of Achievement – 4th Edition
• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 3rd Edition
• Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz, Pruebas de Habilidades Cognitivas
• Bilingual Verbal Ability Tests
• Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language
• Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing – 2nd Edition
• Expressive One-Word Vocabulary Test – 4th Edition
• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – 3rd Edition
• SCAN–3:C Test for Auditory Processing Disorders in Children–Revised
• Test of Problem Solving – 3, Elementary
• Test of Problem Solving – 2, Adolescent
• Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning – 2nd Edition
• Woodcock-Johnson IV, Tests of Cognitive Ability
• Woodcock-Johnson IV, Tests of Oral Language
• Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 6th Edition
• Developmental Test of Visual Perception – 6th Edition
• Developmental Test of Motor Coordination – 6th Edition
• Children’s Color Trails Test Category Test
• Controlled Oral Word Association Test
• Delis Kaplan Executive Functioning System
• Finger Oscillation Test
• Grip Strength Test
• Grooved Pegboard Test
• Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test
• Wechsler Memory Scale – 4th Edition
• NEPSY Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment – 2nd Edition
• Reitan-Indiana Aphasia Screening Test
• Reitan-Klove Lateral Dominance Exam
• Reitan-Klove Sensory Perceptual Exam
• Rey Osterrieth Complex Figure
• Seashore Rhythm Test
• Speech Sounds Perception Test
• Stroop Color and Word Test
• Tactual Performance Test
• Trail Making Test
• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
• Children’s Apperception Test
• Children’s Inventory of Anger
• Conduct Disorder Scale
• House-Tree-Person Projective Drawings
• Kinetic Family Projective Drawings
• Kovac’s Children’s Depression Inventory – 2nd Edition
• Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory
• Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory –4th Edition
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory- 2nd Edition, Restructured Form
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale – 2nd Edition
• Robert’s Apperception Test
• Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Sentence Completion Test
• Social Anxiety Scale
• Suicide Probability Scale
• Thematic Apperception Test
• Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children *Additional charge if extensive emotional testing is requested
• Behavior Assessment System for Children – 3rd Edition
• Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function
• Children’s Problem Checklist
• Sensory Profile Questionnaire
• Adaptive Behavior Inventory
• Vineland Adaptive Rating Scales – 2nd Edition
• Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning – 4th Edition
• Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd Edition
• Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd Edition
• Autism Diagnostic Interview – Revised
• Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule – 2nd Edition
• Childhood Autism Rating Scale – 2nd Edition
• Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory
• Social Communication Questionnaire
• Social Responsiveness Scale – 2nd Edition
• Review of School Records
• Review of Past Evaluations and Medical Records
• School Observation
• Telephone contact with teachers, professionals, other relevant individuals

Test of Problem Solving 2: Adolescent

Linda bowers, ma, slp, rosemary huisingh, ma, slp, and carolyn logiudice, ma, ccc-slp, browse products a-z.

Use the TOPS-2: Adolescent to determine how to help teens with language impairments related to the process of thinking, for whom making good decisions and solving problems appropriately may be difficult tasks.

• Focuses on the following cognitive processes: understanding/comprehension, analysis, interpretation, self-regulation, evaluation, explanation, inference, insight, decision making, intent/purpose, problem solving, and acknowledgment.
• Uses a natural context of problem-solving situations related to adolescent experiences: Making Inferences, Determining Solutions, Problem Solving, Interpreting Perspectives, and Transferring Insights.
• Test items presented verbally with the printed stimulus from the Reading Passages Book visible to students.
• The Examiner's Manual contains a Discussion of Performance section, which merges test results with remediation strategies.
• Item pool ( N = 526) and standardization ( N = 1,051) studies represent the U.S. Census for race, gender, age, and educational placement. An additional 138 individuals with language disorders were included in the validity studies.

includes TOPS-2: Adolescent Examiner's Manual, Reading Passages Book, and 20 Test Forms.

Forms and booklets

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Professional resources, assessments, and educational books.

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Test of Problem Solving 3 (TOPS-3)

• Ages 6 to 12
• Grades 1 - 7
• Testing Time 35 minutes
• Administration Individual
• Product Code 34140 ( MR #059004 )

* Qualifications required to purchase this item. Click here to complete the qualifications form.

*DISCONTINUED (*NEW EDITION in Alternatives below)

The student gives a logical explanation about a situation combining what he knows or can see with previous experiences and background information.  The ability to infer is critical for success in the classroom, academics, and social development.

The student determines and explains logical, everyday sequences of events.  This skill is critical to academic performance and requires an understanding of the situation, determining the logical sequence of events, and expressing it clearly.

The student is asked to explain why something would not occur or why one shouldn't take a given action in a situation.  Responses reveal how well your student notices, attends to, understands, and expresses an appropriate response on this subtest.

The student must recognize the problem, think of alternative solutions, evaluate the options, and state an appropriate solution that will work well.  It also includes how to avoid specific problems.

This subtest requires the student to anticipate what will happen in the future.  This requires him to draw from past experiences to reflect on the future.  This skill is an academic as well as a life skill.

The student must give a logical reason for a given aspect of the situation in the paragraph.  To be successful, the student must see the relationship between the action and the outcome.

Series items

• Alternatives
• Additional Information

TOPS-3 Elementary Test Forms (20)

Third Edition

Table of Contents

Alternatives and related items

Test of Problem Solving–Elementary: Normative Update (TOPS-3E: NU)

COMPLETE KIT

• Copyright 2005

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Test of Problem Solving 2: Adolescent (TOPS-2:A)

• MORE INFORMATION
• SPECIFICATIONS
• understanding/comprehension
• interpretation
• self-regulation
• explanation
• inference/insight
• decision-making
• intent/purpose
• problem solving
• acknowledgment
• Subtest A: Making Inferences: The student is asked to give a logical explanation about a situation, combining what he knows or can see with previous experience/background information. Students who do well on this subtest make plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations.
• Subtest B: Determining Solutions: The student is asked to provide a logical solution for some aspect of a situation presented in a passage.
• Subtest C: Problem Solving: This subtest requires a student to recognize the problem, think of alternative solutions, evaluate the options, and state an appropriate solution for a given situation. It also includes stating how to avoid specific problems.
• Subtest D: Interpreting Perspectives: A student who does well on this subtest will evaluate other points of view in order to make a conclusion.
• Subtest E: Transferring Insights: The student is asked to compare analogous situations by using information stated in the passage.

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TOPS-2: Adolescent Kit

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TOPS-3E: NU: Test Of Problem Solving-Third Edition Elementary: Normative Update

Linda bowers • rosemary huisingh • carolyn loguidice.

• Product Number: 34280
• Test Level: B
• Format: KIT
• Weight 2 lbs.10 oz.

Description

This product requires a check of customer qualifications.

Ages: 6-0 through 12-11 Testing time: 35 minutes Administration: Individual

The TOPS-3E: NU assesses a school-age child's ability to integrate semantic and linguistic knowledge with reasoning ability by way of picture stimuli and verbal responses.

The TOPS-3E: NU focuses on students' linguistic ability to think and reason. Language competence is the verbal indicator of how a student's language skills affect his ability to think, reason, problem solve, infer, classify, associate, predict, determine causes, sequence, and understand directions. The test focuses on a broad range of language-based thinking skills, including clarifying, analyzing, generating solutions, evaluating, and showing affective thinking.

While other tests may asses students' thinking skills by tapping mathematical, spatial, or nonverbal potential, the TOPS-3E: NU measures discreet skills that form the foundation of language-based thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving ability.

Although the skills tested on the TOPS-3E: NU are necessary for developing social competence, it is not primarily a test of pragmatic or social language skills. Rather, it should be part of a battery of tests and observations used to assess pragmatic competence.

New Features

• Characteristics of the normative sample were stratified by age relative to region, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors, and other critical variables are the same as those reported for the school-age population reported the ProQuest Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2016 (ProQuest, 2016).
• The Total Score was renamed the Problem Solving Index and calculated as a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
• Each item on the test was evaluated using both conventional item analysis to choose good items and differential item analyses to find and eliminate potentially biased items.
• The index score was thoroughly examined for floor and ceiling effects.
• The test was subjected to diagnostic accuracy analyses, particularly rigorous techniques involving the computation of the receiver operating characteristic/area under the curve (ROC/AUC) statistic.
• The Examiner's Manual was reorganized and rewritten to provide more detailed information on the administration, interpretation, and statistical characteristics of the test.

Description of the Test

The TOPS-3E: NU has three components: an Examiner's Manual, Examiner Record Booklets, and a Picture Book. The Examiner's Manual includes a comprehensive discussion of the test's theoretical and research-based foundation, item development, standardization, administration and scoring procedures, norm tables, and guidelines for using and interpreting the test's results. The Examiner Record Booklet provides space to record responses and transform the raw score to an age equivalent, percentile rank, and the Problem Solving Index. The test kit also includes a Picture Book, which includes the picture stimuli for the test items.

Reliability and validity studies were conducted with individuals who have typical language ability and individuals who had been previously diagnosed with a language impairment or received other special education services. The average coefficient alpha is .82 for the Problem Solving Index. Studies were conducted to examine the ability of the test to differentiate students who receive special education services or have language impairments from those who do not. The results demonstrate that a Problem Solving Index cutoff score of 90 resulted in a sensitivity of .75, a specificity of .85, and a ROC/AUC of .74 for differentiating students who receive special education services; and a cutoff score of 92 resulted in a sensitivity of .69, a specificity of .89, and a ROC/AUC of .73 for differentiating students who have a language impairment. Validity of the test composites was demonstrated by correlations to the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test- Group Abilities Test (UNIT-GAT; Bracken & McCallum, in development). The coefficient for the Analogic Reasoning subtest was .73, and the coefficient for the Quantitative subtest was .89, both very large.

COMPLETE TEST INCLUDES : Examiner's Manual, Picture Book , and 25 Examiner Record Booklets, all in a sturdy storage box (©2018). 

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How Good Is Your Problem Solving?

© iStockphoto Entienou

Use a systematic approach.

Good problem solving skills are fundamentally important if you're going to be successful in your career.

But problems are something that we don't particularly like.

They're time-consuming.

They muscle their way into already packed schedules.

They force us to think about an uncertain future.

And they never seem to go away!

That's why, when faced with problems, most of us try to eliminate them as quickly as possible. But have you ever chosen the easiest or most obvious solution – and then realized that you have entirely missed a much better solution? Or have you found yourself fixing just the symptoms of a problem, only for the situation to get much worse?

To be an effective problem-solver, you need to be systematic and logical in your approach. This quiz helps you assess your current approach to problem solving. By improving this, you'll make better overall decisions. And as you increase your confidence with solving problems, you'll be less likely to rush to the first solution – which may not necessarily be the best one.

Once you've completed the quiz, we'll direct you to tools and resources that can help you make the most of your problem-solving skills.

How Good Are You at Solving Problems?

Instructions.

For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes you. Please answer questions as you actually are (rather than how you think you should be), and don't worry if some questions seem to score in the 'wrong direction'. When you are finished, please click the 'Calculate My Total' button at the bottom of the test.

Your last quiz results are shown.

You last completed this quiz on , at .

Score Interpretation

Answering these questions should have helped you recognize the key steps associated with effective problem solving.

This quiz is based on Dr Min Basadur's Simplexity Thinking    problem-solving model. This eight-step process follows the circular pattern shown below, within which current problems are solved and new problems are identified on an ongoing basis. This assessment has not been validated and is intended for illustrative purposes only. 

Figure 1 – The Simplexity Thinking Process

Reproduced with permission from Dr Min Basadur from "The Power of Innovation: How to Make Innovation a Part of Life & How to Put Creative Solutions to Work" Copyright ©1995

Below, we outline the tools and strategies you can use for each stage of the problem-solving process. Enjoy exploring these stages!

Step 1: Find the Problem

(Questions 7, 12)

Some problems are very obvious, however others are not so easily identified. As part of an effective problem-solving process, you need to look actively for problems – even when things seem to be running fine. Proactive problem solving helps you avoid emergencies and allows you to be calm and in control when issues arise.

These techniques can help you do this:

• PEST Analysis   helps you pick up changes to your environment that you should be paying attention to. Make sure too that you're watching changes in customer needs and market dynamics, and that you're monitoring trends that are relevant to your industry.
• Risk Analysis   helps you identify significant business risks.
• Failure Modes and Effects Analysis   helps you identify possible points of failure in your business process, so that you can fix these before problems arise.
• After Action Reviews   help you scan recent performance to identify things that can be done better in the future.
• Where you have several problems to solve, our articles on Prioritization   and Pareto Analysis   help you think about which ones you should focus on first.

Step 2: Find the Facts

(Questions 10, 14)

After identifying a potential problem, you need information. What factors contribute to the problem? Who is involved with it? What solutions have been tried before? What do others think about the problem?

If you move forward to find a solution too quickly, you risk relying on imperfect information that's based on assumptions and limited perspectives, so make sure that you research the problem thoroughly.

Step 3: Define the Problem

(Questions 3, 9)

Now that you understand the problem, define it clearly and completely. Writing a clear problem definition forces you to establish specific boundaries for the problem. This keeps the scope from growing too large, and it helps you stay focused on the main issues.

A great tool to use at this stage is CATWOE   . With this process, you analyze potential problems by looking at them from six perspectives, those of its Customers; Actors (people within the organization); the Transformation, or business process; the World-view, or top-down view of what's going on; the Owner; and the wider organizational Environment. By looking at a situation from these perspectives, you can open your mind and come to a much sharper and more comprehensive definition of the problem.

Cause and Effect Analysis   is another good tool to use here, as it helps you think about the many different factors that can contribute to a problem. This helps you separate the symptoms of a problem from its fundamental causes.

Step 4: Find Ideas

(Questions 4, 13)

With a clear problem definition, start generating ideas for a solution. The key here is to be flexible in the way you approach a problem. You want to be able to see it from as many perspectives as possible. Looking for patterns or common elements in different parts of the problem can sometimes help. You can also use metaphors   and analogies to help analyze the problem, discover similarities to other issues, and think of solutions based on those similarities.

Traditional brainstorming   and reverse brainstorming   are very useful here. By taking the time to generate a range of creative solutions to the problem, you'll significantly increase the likelihood that you'll find the best possible solution, not just a semi-adequate one. Where appropriate, involve people with different viewpoints to expand the volume of ideas generated.

Don't evaluate your ideas until step 5. If you do, this will limit your creativity at too early a stage.

Step 5: Select and Evaluate

(Questions 6, 15)

After finding ideas, you'll have many options that must be evaluated. It's tempting at this stage to charge in and start discarding ideas immediately. However, if you do this without first determining the criteria for a good solution, you risk rejecting an alternative that has real potential.

Decide what elements are needed for a realistic and practical solution, and think about the criteria you'll use to choose between potential solutions.

Paired Comparison Analysis   , Decision Matrix Analysis   and Risk Analysis   are useful techniques here, as are many of the specialist resources available within our Decision-Making section . Enjoy exploring these!

Step 6: Plan

(Questions 1, 16)

You might think that choosing a solution is the end of a problem-solving process. In fact, it's simply the start of the next phase in problem solving: implementation. This involves lots of planning and preparation. If you haven't already developed a full Risk Analysis   in the evaluation phase, do so now. It's important to know what to be prepared for as you begin to roll out your proposed solution.

The type of planning that you need to do depends on the size of the implementation project that you need to set up. For small projects, all you'll often need are Action Plans   that outline who will do what, when, and how. Larger projects need more sophisticated approaches – you'll find out more about these in the Mind Tools Project Management section. And for projects that affect many other people, you'll need to think about Change Management   as well.

Here, it can be useful to conduct an Impact Analysis   to help you identify potential resistance as well as alert you to problems you may not have anticipated. Force Field Analysis   will also help you uncover the various pressures for and against your proposed solution. Once you've done the detailed planning, it can also be useful at this stage to make a final Go/No-Go Decision   , making sure that it's actually worth going ahead with the selected option.

Step 7: Sell the Idea

(Questions 5, 8)

As part of the planning process, you must convince other stakeholders that your solution is the best one. You'll likely meet with resistance, so before you try to “sell” your idea, make sure you've considered all the consequences.

As you begin communicating your plan, listen to what people say, and make changes as necessary. The better the overall solution meets everyone's needs, the greater its positive impact will be! For more tips on selling your idea, read our article on Creating a Value Proposition   and use our Sell Your Idea   Bite-Sized Training session.

Step 8: Act

(Questions 2, 11)

Finally, once you've convinced your key stakeholders that your proposed solution is worth running with, you can move on to the implementation stage. This is the exciting and rewarding part of problem solving, which makes the whole process seem worthwhile.

This action stage is an end, but it's also a beginning: once you've completed your implementation, it's time to move into the next cycle of problem solving by returning to the scanning stage. By doing this, you'll continue improving your organization as you move into the future.

Problem solving is an exceptionally important workplace skill.

Being a competent and confident problem solver will create many opportunities for you. By using a well-developed model like Simplexity Thinking for solving problems, you can approach the process systematically, and be comfortable that the decisions you make are solid.

Given the unpredictable nature of problems, it's very reassuring to know that, by following a structured plan, you've done everything you can to resolve the problem to the best of your ability.

This site teaches you the skills you need for a happy and successful career; and this is just one of many tools and resources that you'll find here at Mind Tools. Subscribe to our free newsletter , or join the Mind Tools Club and really supercharge your career!

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The Mind Tools Club gives you exclusive tips and tools to boost your career - plus a friendly community and support from our career coaches! 

Comments (220)

• Over a month ago Sonia_H wrote Hi PANGGA, This is great news! Thanks for sharing your experience. We hope these 8 steps outlined will help you in multiple ways. ~Sonia Mind Tools Coach
• Over a month ago PANGGA wrote Thank you for this mind tool. I got to know my skills in solving problem. It will serve as my guide on facing and solving problem that I might encounter.
• Over a month ago Sarah_H wrote Wow, thanks for your very detailed feedback HardipG. The Mind Tools team will take a look at your feedback and suggestions for improvement. Best wishes, Sarah Mind Tools Coach

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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Teens - A Complete Guide

Home » Blog » Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Teens - A Complete Guide

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: what is cbt for teens, chapter 2: cbt's positive effects on teens, chapter 3: how thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are linked, chapter 4: how do negative thoughts affect your teen, chapter 5: how do i know if my thinking is distorted, chapter 6: cbt vs. medication treatment for anxiety and depression, chapter 7: what is likely to happen when you visit a therapist who practices cbt, chapter 8: key takeaways.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can play a pivotal role in aiding teenagers with their mental health issues. This post is aimed at parents and guardians seeking a deeper understanding of CBT's importance in helping their teens.

Adolescence is a period of intense emotional and cognitive development, making it a vulnerable time for mental health challenges. CBT equips teenagers with valuable skills to navigate these challenges. By focusing on identifying and modifying negative thought patterns and behaviors, CBT empowers adolescents to manage stress, anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues effectively.

CBT's structured approach offers practical tools that resonate with teens, aiding them in developing resilience, problem-solving abilities, and emotional regulation skills. Moreover, it provides a safe space for teenagers to express themselves and fosters open communication between teens and their caregivers.

At a time when mental health issues among adolescents are on the rise, understanding CBT's significance can be a lifeline for parents and guardians. It not only helps teens cope with their struggles but also strengthens the parent-teen relationship, ensuring a supportive environment for their emotional well-being.

(CBT is a widely practiced psychotherapeutic approach that focuses on helping individuals recognize and modify unhelpful thought patterns and behaviors to improve their mental health and well-being. It is based on several key principles:

Cognition-Behavior Connection: CBT posits that our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. Negative thought patterns can lead to negative emotions and behaviors, while positive changes in thinking can promote emotional and behavioral well-being.

Identifying Distorted Thinking: CBT teaches teens to identify and challenge distorted thinking patterns, such as cognitive distortions like catastrophizing, black-and-white thinking, and personalization. By recognizing these distortions, individuals can reframe their thoughts more realistically.

Behavioral Modification: CBT emphasizes the importance of changing maladaptive behaviors through gradual exposure, reinforcement of positive behaviors, and the development of coping strategies to manage difficult situations.

Collaborative and Goal-Oriented: Therapy is a collaborative effort between the therapist and the individual. Together, they set specific, measurable, and achievable goals to work towards during treatment.

When applied to teenagers, CBT undergoes some modifications to suit their unique needs:

Developmental Considerations: Therapists adapt CBT techniques to align with the developmental stage and cognitive abilities of adolescents. This includes using age-appropriate language and considering their evolving self-identity.

Family Involvement: In many cases, CBT for teenagers involves family members to address family dynamics and provide support, as family plays a significant role in an adolescent's life.

Emotional Regulation: Adolescents often struggle with emotional regulation. CBT helps them identify and manage intense emotions, equipping them with coping skills for the challenges they face during this transitional period.

CBT is widely accepted as an effective therapeutic approach for adolescents. Its evidence-based nature, practical techniques, and focus on skill-building make it particularly well-suited for addressing issues like anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and behavioral problems in teenagers. 

By providing adolescents with tools to understand and manage their thoughts and behaviors, CBT empowers them to navigate the complexities of adolescence and build a foundation for lifelong mental health.

CBT has demonstrated remarkable positive outcomes for teenagers, leading to improved coping skills, emotional regulation, and self-esteem. This evidence-based therapeutic approach equips adolescents with practical tools to navigate the challenges of adolescence.

Enhanced Coping Skills: CBT empowers teenagers to manage stress, anxiety, and difficult situations. For instance, a 16-year-old struggling with exam anxiety learns to identify irrational thoughts and replace them with realistic ones. Through CBT, they acquire relaxation techniques, like deep breathing or mindfulness, enabling them to stay calm during exams.

Improved Emotional Regulation: Teenagers often grapple with intense emotions. CBT helps them understand the connection between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. For instance, a 15-year-old who previously reacted impulsively when angered learns to recognize triggers and employ anger management strategies. Over time, they respond more calmly and thoughtfully in emotionally charged situations.

Boosted Self-Esteem: Adolescence is a vulnerable period for self-esteem. CBT assists teenagers in challenging negative self-beliefs. Consider a 14-year-old girl who felt inadequate due to body image issues. CBT helps her develop a healthier self-perception by disputing unrealistic standards and fostering self-acceptance.

Success Stories Abound

The following real-life examples underscore CBT's effectiveness in empowering teenagers to develop vital life skills, manage their emotions, and cultivate healthier self-esteem, ultimately promoting their overall well-being during this crucial developmental stage.

Anxiety Disorders

Case 1: Sarah, a 16-year-old student, was struggling with social anxiety , making it difficult for her to participate in class and engage with peers. Through CBT, she learned to challenge and reframe negative thoughts about social interactions. With practice, she gradually became more confident, joined clubs, and even gave a presentation in front of her class.

Case 2: Alex, a 15-year-old athlete, was dealing with performance anxiety that was affecting his performance in sports. CBT helped him identify and manage anxious thoughts before competitions, enabling him to compete at his best. He later earned a scholarship to a prestigious college for his athletic achievements.

Case 3: Emily, a 17-year-old, was experiencing symptoms of depression, including low mood and withdrawal from friends and activities. CBT sessions with a therapist helped her recognize and challenge negative thought patterns. Over time, she regained her interest in hobbies, reconnected with friends, and saw a significant improvement in her mood.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Case 4: Jake, a 14-year-old, was struggling with severe OCD that manifested in obsessive hand-washing and checking rituals. CBT, particularly exposure and response prevention (ERP) techniques, gradually helped him confront and manage his fears. Over time, his OCD symptoms reduced, allowing him to lead a more fulfilling life.

Eating Disorders

Case 5: Megan, a 19-year-old college student, was diagnosed with anorexia nervosa. CBT played a crucial role in her recovery. Through CBT, she learned to challenge distorted body image perceptions and develop healthier eating habits. Megan successfully overcame her eating disorder, completed her degree, and pursued a career in nutrition to help others.

Anger Management

Case 6: Kyle, a 16-year-old, had difficulty controlling his anger , which was leading to conflicts at school and home. CBT equipped him with tools to recognize triggers and implement healthier coping strategies. As a result, he improved his relationships and academic performance.

Self-Esteem and Body Image Issues:

Case 7: Sophia, a 15-year-old, struggled with low self-esteem and body image issues. CBT helped her challenge negative self-perceptions and develop a more positive self-image. Over time, she became more confident, pursued her interests, and formed healthier relationships.

These success stories highlight the effectiveness of CBT in helping teenagers overcome a variety of mental health challenges. It's important to note that the success of CBT often depends on the individual's commitment, the skill of the therapist, and the specific therapeutic techniques used. 

However, these cases demonstrate that with the right support and tools, teenagers can make significant improvements in their mental health and well-being through CBT.

Understanding the link between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in teens is important for supporting their emotional well-being and guiding their actions. Think of it as the key to decoding your teen's behavior and helping them navigate their teenage years.

Imagine your teenager comes home upset because they didn't get invited to a party. Their thoughts might be, "Nobody likes me, I'm a loser." These negative thoughts can trigger emotions like sadness and low self-esteem. As a result, your teen might withdraw, avoid social events, or even become irritable at home. Understanding their thoughts and feelings can help you offer comfort and reassurance.

| On the other hand, if your teen thinks, "Maybe they had a limited guest list," they might feel less hurt and more understanding. These positive thoughts can lead to emotions of resilience and empathy. Consequently, your teen may be more likely to engage in behaviors like reaching out to friends, discussing their feelings, or finding other enjoyable activities to do.

Another example is academic stress. If your teen thinks, "I'm never going to pass this test," they may feel overwhelmed or anxious. These emotions can result in behaviors like procrastination or even avoiding schoolwork altogether. As a parent, helping them reframe their thoughts to "I can prepare and do my best" can foster a sense of control and motivation, leading to more productive study habits and better outcomes.

Recognizing the connection between your teen's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors allows you to offer guidance and support more effectively. By addressing their thoughts and emotions, you can help them make healthier choices and build resilience during these challenging teenage years.

Negative thought patterns can profoundly impact a teenager's mental health and daily life, as adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the challenges of navigating their emotions, self-esteem, and identity. 

These patterns of thinking can become a pervasive and destructive force, undermining their overall well-being. Here are some insights into common negative thinking patterns among teens and their consequences:

Catastrophizing: Teens often engage in catastrophic thinking, imagining the worst-case scenarios for their problems or situations. This can lead to excessive anxiety and stress, making it difficult to concentrate on daily tasks or sleep well at night.

Negative Self-Talk: Many teenagers battle with harsh self-criticism, constantly berating themselves for perceived flaws or mistakes. This erodes self-esteem and can lead to a persistent sense of worthlessness.

Black-and-White Thinking: Adolescents tend to view situations in extreme terms, seeing things as either all good or all bad. This rigid perspective can limit their ability to find middle-ground solutions and can strain relationships.

Overgeneralization: Teens often generalize one negative experience to their entire life, believing that a single failure defines their capabilities. This can deter them from trying new things and stifle personal growth.

Comparing to Others: The ubiquitous presence of social media exacerbates the tendency for teenagers to compare themselves to their peers. This fosters feelings of inadequacy and fuels a sense of constant competition.

Mind Reading: Many teenagers assume they know what others are thinking about them, often assuming negative judgments. This can lead to social anxiety and isolation.

Emotional Filtering: Teens may focus exclusively on the negative aspects of a situation while ignoring any positives. This skews their perception of reality and can lead to depression.

Personalization: Adolescents sometimes blame themselves for external events or circumstances beyond their control. This can lead to excessive guilt and feelings of responsibility for things they couldn't have changed.

These negative thought patterns not only impact a teenager's mental health but also their daily life by affecting relationships, academic performance, and overall well-being. 

Recognizing these patterns and seeking support through therapy or building resilience skills can be crucial steps toward breaking free from these destructive cycles and fostering a more positive mindset.

Recognizing cognitive distortions in teenagers is key for parents as it allows them to provide appropriate support and guidance during these formative years. Adolescence is often marked by emotional turbulence, self-discovery, and heightened vulnerability to distorted thinking patterns. 

Here is a list of common cognitive distortions parents should watch for in their teens and guidance on recognizing them:

All-or-Nothing Thinking: Teens may see situations in black-and-white terms. They may perceive any mistake as a complete failure. Encourage them to see the shades of gray and acknowledge progress.

Catastrophizing: Teens tend to exaggerate the negative outcomes of situations, assuming the worst will happen. Help them evaluate the likelihood of their feared outcomes and explore more realistic alternatives.

Mind Reading: Adolescents may believe they know what others are thinking or assume negative judgments without evidence. Encourage open communication to clarify misunderstandings and promote empathy.

Discounting the Positive: Teens often downplay their achievements and focus on their shortcomings. Celebrate their successes, no matter how small, to boost self-esteem.

Labeling and Self-Blame: Teens may use derogatory labels for themselves based on mistakes or failures. Help them understand that making errors is part of growth, and self-compassion is essential.

Should Statements: Teenagers may impose unrealistic expectations on themselves, leading to anxiety and frustration. Encourage them to set realistic goals and embrace flexibility.

Emotional Reasoning: Teens might believe their feelings define reality. Teach them that emotions are not always accurate reflections of the truth and can be influenced by cognitive biases.

Filtering: Adolescents may focus solely on negative aspects, filtering out positive experiences. Encourage them to maintain a balanced perspective.

Personalization: Teens often assume responsibility for external events beyond their control. Help them differentiate between what they can influence and what they cannot.

Comparisons: Teens may constantly compare themselves to their peers, leading to feelings of inadequacy. Foster a sense of individuality and emphasize that everyone progresses at their own pace.

To recognize these distortions, engage in open conversations with your teen, actively listen to their thoughts and concerns, and be empathetic. 

If distorted thinking patterns persist and significantly affect their well-being, consider seeking professional help from a therapist or counselor who specializes in adolescent mental health. 

Remember that providing a supportive and nonjudgmental environment is key to helping your teen navigate these challenging cognitive distortions.

When considering the treatment options of CBT and medication for teenagers, it's necessary to weigh their benefits and limitations, keeping in mind the unique needs of adolescents.

• CBT offers several advantages for teens. It's a non-pharmacological approach, which means it avoids potential medication side effects. CBT equips teenagers with valuable life skills, helping them manage and cope with their mental health challenges effectively. 
• It encourages self-awareness and empowers teens to take an active role in their recovery. Furthermore, CBT addresses the underlying thought patterns and behaviors contributing to their issues, potentially leading to longer-lasting results.
• However, CBT may not be suitable for all situations or teenagers. It requires a certain level of cognitive development and motivation to actively engage in therapy, which some adolescents may lack. 
• Additionally, CBT may not provide immediate relief for severe symptoms, such as those associated with acute crises.
• Medication treatment can be beneficial for teens when their mental health condition is particularly severe or when they require rapid symptom relief. 
• It can stabilize mood and alleviate symptoms, making it easier for teens to engage in therapy. However, medication should be used cautiously in teens due to potential side effects and the risk of dependency.
• CBT is often preferred or recommended for teenagers dealing with anxiety disorders, depression, and behavioral problems. It can also be effective for teens with eating disorders, self-esteem issues, or trauma-related symptoms. 
• In cases of severe mental illness like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder , a combination of CBT and medication may be the most effective approach, providing both immediate relief and long-term coping strategies for teens. 
• The choice between CBT and medication should be made in consultation with mental health professionals, considering the specific needs and circumstances of each adolescent.

A typical Cognitive Behavioral Therapy session for teenagers is designed to address a range of emotional and behavioral issues, helping them develop coping strategies and improve their mental well-being. These sessions are usually 45-60 minutes long and involve a structured, collaborative approach between the therapist and the teenager.

Introduction and Agenda Setting: The therapist starts by welcoming the teenager and setting the agenda for the session. They create a safe and non-judgmental environment, emphasizing confidentiality and trust.

Assessment and Goal Setting: The therapist may review the progress from the previous session and inquire about any changes or developments in the teenager's life. Together, they set specific, measurable goals for the session.

Cognitive Exploration: The heart of CBT involves identifying and challenging negative thought patterns and beliefs. The therapist engages in a dialogue with the teenager, encouraging them to express their thoughts and feelings. Through questioning and exploration, the therapist helps the teenager recognize distorted or unhelpful thinking patterns.

Behavioral Strategies: CBT is action-oriented. Therapists work with teenagers to develop practical strategies to address their issues. This might include homework assignments, relaxation techniques, or practicing social skills.

Problem-Solving: Adolescents often face various real-life problems. In a CBT session, the therapist helps the teenager break down these issues into manageable parts and collaboratively brainstorm solutions.

Homework and Skill Building: Between sessions, teenagers are usually assigned homework to practice the skills they've learned. The therapist ensures that they understand their assignments and are motivated to complete them.

Feedback and Summary: At the end of the session, the therapist summarizes the key takeaways and collaborates with the teenager to plan for the next session.

The therapist's role in CBT for teenagers is to facilitate self-awareness, provide guidance, and empower them to become their own therapists. It's an interactive process, with the therapist acting as a supportive coach, encouraging the teenager to actively participate in their own growth and change. 

This collaborative approach helps teenagers build resilience and develop lifelong skills for managing their mental health. Over time, the teenager gains a better understanding of their thoughts and emotions, leading to improved mental well-being and the ability to cope with life's challenges.

• Emphasize the value of CBT in supporting teenagers' mental health and overall well-being.
• Encourage parents and guardians to consider CBT as a viable option for their teens.
• Provide information on what to consider when looking for qualified CBT therapists for adolescents.

| Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) can be a valuable tool for teenagers and their parents to manage various emotional and behavioral issues. Here's a list of resources, including books, websites, and other materials, that can help teenagers and parents learn more about CBT:

Books for Teenagers

"The Anxiety Workbook for Teens" by Lisa M. Schab

This workbook offers practical exercises and techniques to help teenagers manage anxiety.

"The CBT Toolbox for Children and Adolescents" by Lisa Phifer and Amanda Crowder

A comprehensive guide with strategies and activities for CBT tailored to young people.

"The Self-Esteem Workbook for Teens" by Lisa M. Schab

This workbook focuses on improving self-esteem using CBT techniques.

"Mindfulness for Teen Anxiety: A Workbook for Overcoming Anxiety at Home, at School, and Everywhere Else" by Christopher Willard and Mitch Abblett

Integrates mindfulness with CBT to address anxiety in teens.

Books for Parents

"Parenting a Teen Who Has Intense Emotions" by Pat Harvey and Jeanine Penzo

Offers guidance on helping teens with emotional regulation using DBT (Dialectical Behavior Therapy) and CBT principles.

"The Anxiety and Phobia Workbook" by Edmund J. Bourne

Although not specific to teenagers, this book provides valuable insights into managing anxiety disorders, which can be helpful for parents.

"The Explosive Child: A New Approach for Understanding and Parenting Easily Frustrated, Chronically Inflexible Children" by Ross W. Greene

Focuses on understanding and addressing challenging behavior in children and teenagers using a collaborative problem-solving approach.

Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA ): ADAA has a section with resources specifically for teens and their parents, including articles, webinars, and recommended reading lists.

Website: https://adaa.org/living-with-anxiety/children

Child Mind Institute: This website provides a wealth of information on child and adolescent mental health, including articles and resources on CBT techniques.

Website: https://childmind.org/

Psychology Today: The website offers a directory of therapists and articles on various mental health topics, including CBT.

Website: https://www.psychologytoday.com/

Online Courses and Apps

MoodGYM: An online CBT program designed to help teenagers and young adults manage depression and anxiety.

Website: https://moodgym.com.au/

Woebot: An AI-powered chatbot that uses CBT principles to help users manage their mental health, including anxiety and depression.

Website: https://woebot.io/

Therapy Services

Local Therapists: Consider seeking out local therapists or counseling services specializing in CBT for teenagers. Websites like Psychology Today can help you find therapists in your area.

School Counselors: Many schools have counselors who can provide CBT-based support to students or refer them to appropriate resources. Please note that while these resources can be helpful, they are not a substitute for professional mental health care. If a teenager or parent is dealing with significant mental health issues, it's essential to consult with a qualified mental health professional such as those at Clearfork Academy for personalized guidance and treatment.

Anna graduated from Texas Tech University in 2012 with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and from Texas Wesleyan University in 2015 with a Master of Arts in Professional Counseling. Anna has been in the mental health field since 2015 and held a variety of leadership roles since 2017 in Residential, Inpatient, PHP/IOP and private practice levels of care. Anna approaches therapy and leadership with the mindset that we are all one life event from seeking care ourselves and aims to foster an environment in which both the client and staff well-being are the priority. Anna is an introverted foodie who enjoys reading, watching dateline/sports and spending time with her husband, daughter, and fur babies, Dora & Teddy.

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TOPS 2 Adolescent Test Forms (20)

By Linda Bowers, Rosemary Huisingh, and Carolyn LoGiudice

Ages 12;0-17;11

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Pack of 20 Test Forms for the TOPS-2 Adolescent . The Test of Problem Solving-2 Adolescent ( TOPS-2 Adolescent ) assesses language-based, critical thinking abilities. The TOPS-2 Adolescent focuses on cognitive processes such as self-regulation, inference, analysis, evaluation, insight, problem solving, interpretation, explanation, and decision making. Test items require a student to pay careful attention, process, and think about what they hear and read. When responding to test items, students must think about problems with a purpose in mind, resist the urge to be impulsive, and express answers verbally.

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Can the Effect of Problem Solvers’ Characteristics on Adolescents’ Cooperative Problem Solving Ability Be Improved by Group Sizes?

Chuanhua gu.

1 School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

2 Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China

Xiaoqing Ma

Qianqian li.

3 Department of Preschool Education, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Cooperative problem solving (CPS) is an essential ability in people’s daily life. When individuals with different problem-solvers’ characteristics (orientation and style) are assigned to different group sizes to solve social tasks, what are the differences in the performance of CPS ability? Based on this, through online experimental tasks, the present study examined the effect of problem-solving orientation and style on CPS ability in online social tasks. Meanwhile, it explored the role of group sizes as an environmental variable. The results showed that the more positive the problem-solving orientation, the better the performance of individual CPS ability. In addition, the more rational the problem-solving styles and the larger the group sizes, the higher the scores of participants’ CPS ability. This study provides a new theoretical perspective for the complex relationship between the characteristics of problem solvers and CPS ability, and also provides empirical support for the cultivation of the CPS ability of adolescents.

1. Introduction

Cooperation with others has been regarded as the core form of human activities [ 1 ], and cooperation is also one of the factors that promote social progress. The social division of labor makes people pay more and more attention to the cultivation of cooperative problem-solving (CPS) ability. The OECD (2017) [ 2 ] pointed out that CPS is an essential ability for people in education and work. It refers to the ability of an individual to effectively participate in the problem-solving process of two or more agents. In this process, individuals share the understanding and efforts needed to reach a solution to the problem, and at the same time, they combine their knowledge, skills, and efforts to achieve the solution reached.

In recent years, CPS ability has been widely studied in the field of education. It was found that students’ individual factors (including subject knowledge, personality, emotion, experience, motivation, and cognitive ability) will affect their cooperation and problem-solving process [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, these individual factors are mainly concentrated in the cognitive dimension, while the individual characteristics in the social dimension (orientation and style) have not been investigated yet. Previous studies have shown that problem situation, task characteristics, and groups composition can affect the type of cooperation and the process of problem solving [ 2 , 5 , 6 ]. At present, most CPS ability research uses “scientific tasks” as experimental tasks, while there is little research that uses “social tasks” in social fields. “Social tasks” is regarded as the basic task of solving social problems, which covers a wide area and has strong applicability, so the social tasks research should be increased.

General cognitive tasks (i.e., balance problems, memory tasks, conservation tasks, and mathematical problems) are usually used in problem-solving research. The relevant research focuses more on the individual, but research on the individual’s CPS ability in the groups is rarely involved. Group social creativity refers to the ability of group members to cooperate with each other in a specific way and jointly propose or solve social problems in personal life, interpersonal relationships, and social environments. It often shows unique, novel, appropriate, and effective problem-solving strategies. Compared with the independent thinking of individuals, the nature of CPS creativity can be shown in the study of groups accomplishing tasks together.

This study uses the method of an online cooperative problem-solving experiment to investigate the effect of an individual’s problem-solving orientation/style on their CPS ability, and effectively intervene in their CPS ability to find the best conditions to promote their CPS performance, to provide theoretical support for the cultivation of this ability.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. collaborative problem solving.

People pay more and more attention to the cultivation and promotion of CPS ability [ 7 ]. Cooperation is considered to be a kind of coordinated and synchronous activity to continuously establish and maintain a common idea about a certain problem [ 8 ]. Problem solving refers to the process in which an individual tries to find a way to achieve the goal based on the present situation in a problem situation where the solution is unclear [ 9 ]. With the improvement of the refined level of social division of labor, cooperation between two or more people has become the basic mode to solve problems in various fields, and cooperation and problem solving have gradually been integrated into CPS [ 10 ].

Compared with individual problem solving, the advantages of CPS are obvious: (1) CPS has a more effective division of labor, which makes the problem solved faster and better; (2) solutions to problems can include knowledge, opinions, and experience from various sources; (3) the ideas of other group members can improve the quality of individual solutions [ 11 ]. CPS includes two key dimensions: cognitive dimension and social dimension [ 9 , 12 ]. In the cognitive dimension, group members need to work together, exchange information, form a common understanding of problems, and discuss the most appropriate strategies to solve problems. Then, they should supervise and modify the strategies to solve problems until the group’s goals are achieved. In the social dimension, the main process is group communication, which can promote or hinder the progress of cooperation in the cognitive dimension.

Combined with previous studies, it is found that most of the empirical studies on the effect factors of adolescents’ CPS ability focus on students’ individual factors: gender and cooperative attitude; family factors: family socioeconomic status; school factors: teacher–student relationship and the teacher’s method of teaching [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. The effect of individual differences on students’ CPS ability is also very different.

2.2. Social Problem Solving

Social problem solving is defined as a self-oriented cognitive-behavioral process in which individuals try to identify special problems encountered in daily life and find effective solutions [ 18 ]. The structure of social problem-solving skills is multidimensional and multifaceted. D’Zurilla and Goldfried put forward the theoretical model of social problem solving, which was developed and modified by D’Zurilla and Nezu [ 19 ]. The theoretical model of social problem solving divides social problem solving into two relatively independent parts: (1) problem-solving orientation; (2) problem-solving styles. Problem-solving orientation includes two dimensions: positive problem-solving orientation and negative problem-solving orientation, while problem-solving styles consist of three dimensions: rational problem-solving styles, impulse/neglect problem-solving styles, and escape problem-solving styles.

Generally, the research on solving social problems can be divided into two categories: the first is theoretical model research [ 20 , 21 ]; the second is applied research [ 22 , 23 ]. The first type of research is represented by the research of D’Zurilla who put forward a five-factor model for solving social problems. In the second type of research, the researchers explored the effectiveness of social problem-solving ability and studied its relationship with specific behaviors and health. On this basis, the related factors of social problem-solving ability were investigated, followed by a series of intervention studies [ 24 , 25 ].

2.3. Group Sizes

Cooperation is everywhere, and most students’ learning activities in school need to be carried out through interaction with peers. When students solve a problem together, they need to adjust the differences in problem understanding among the members of the group by establishing a common understanding, and they should negotiate the behaviors of the members of the group. Then, they form a solution to the problem and reach a consensus to finally achieve the group goals [ 26 ]. Cooperation is the core of this process.

Previous studies have found that researchers mostly measure the scale of cooperative groups in the form of two-person groups or three-person groups, for example, the measurement of cooperative problem solving in PISA2015 [ 2 ]. Moreover, these studies pay more attention to the “problem solving” of cooperative problem-solving ability, but as one of the core dimensions of cooperative problem solving, “the size of the cooperative group” seems to have not been systematically explored by researchers.

3. Current Study

According to the analysis of the existing research, it was found that the individual will be different from person to person when solving social problems, which is mainly manifested in the differences in the characteristics of two problem solvers: problem orientation and problem style. Based on previous studies, this study explores the influence of different orientations/styles on teenagers’ CPS ability by two behavioral experiments, and finds ways to promote individuals’ CPS ability.

4. Experiment 1

4.1. hypotheses.

Previous studies have indicated that the performance of individual CPS ability is mainly focused on individual factors, family economic status, and the relationship between teachers and students [ 13 , 14 , 27 ]. Experiment 1 was intended to investigate the effect of problem-solving orientation (positive and negative) and the number of group sizes (small and large) on CPS ability. We proposed the following hypotheses:

Problem-solving orientation affects participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and participants with a positive problem-solving orientation have a higher CPS ability than those with a negative problem-solving orientation .

Group sizes affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and the CPS of individuals in tasks is significantly improved if they are provided with bigger groups .

There is a significant interaction effect between participants’ problem-solving orientation, size of the groups, and CPS ability; individuals show a higher level of CPS ability if they have a positive problem-solving orientation and are presented with large group sizes .

4.2. Method

4.2.1. participants and design.

A total of 238 copies of Social Problem-Solving Inventory were randomly distributed online to students at a high school in Shandong Province in China; 224 valid questionnaires were collected. All participants were aged 15 years old (100 female; 123 male). Social Problem-Solving Inventory scores were standardized using the method proposed by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. Thirty-six participants (22 female; 14 male) whose scores on positive problem-solving orientation and negative problem-solving orientation were higher than one standard deviation, were selected as the participants of experiment 1.

All participants had normal or corrected vision, had never participated in similar experiments before, and participated voluntarily. Participants were familiar with the use of Tencent QQ (PC version) and could type no less than 25 words per minute. Informed consent was obtained from participants and the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the university.

4.2.2. Apparatus and Stimuli

Measures of social problem-solving : The problem-solving orientation of participants was measured using the Social Problem-Solving Inventory compiled by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. The revised scale, from the original 52 questions that were reduced to 32 questions, adopted a five-point Likert scoring method, with “1” being representative of not being in complete conformity, and “5” being representative of character completely. Problem-solving orientation has two dimensions: positive tendency of four topics (i.e., When I have a problem, I believe it can be resolved); negative problem-solving orientation tends to be a total of five topics (i.e., when there is an important problem need to solve, I feel scared).

The social tasks : The social task in this study used a question compiled by PISA 2015. The question was: There are a group of foreign students who want to visit the area where the students take part in the test. The students who take part in the test need to make a visit plan with other students, negotiate the tour guide plan together, determine which students are the guides for which foreign students, and deal with emergencies during the visit. Because the testing system used in PISA 2015 is not open, this study adjusted the sample questions of PISA 2015, so the tasks and requirements of the questions remained unchanged while the tasks were adjusted in the context of Chinese culture.

Instruments : Tencent QQ and a timer. Tencent QQ is an internet-based instant messaging (IM) software developed by Tencent in 1999 based on ICQ, which allows communication in single and multiparticipant modes.

4.2.3. Procedure

Bringing the screened participants into the laboratory individually, according to the pre-divided two-person group or three-person group, the participants were invited to sit and wait quietly, and the main test introduced the experimental process before the experiment formally started.

The experiment was conducted in a quiet and network-stable laboratory. After arriving at the laboratory, the participants were asked to carefully read the online experiment rules of CPS; then, the subjects were asked to use the Tencent QQ to complete the experiment, and they could not open any other program interface unrelated to the experiment during the experiment.

Participants completed a consent form with their basic information. The researcher created a discussion group in Tencent QQ, and the researcher and participants were added. There were three members, one researcher and two participants in the discussion group, who participated in the two-person groups; there were four members, one researcher and three participants in the discussion group, who participated in the three-person group. The researcher introduced the procedure, rules, and specific instructions of the experiment to participants, informing them that they would complete the experiment with the other (two or three) participants.

The researcher sent the task materials of the experiment to the discussion group. The participants in both two-person groups as well as three-person groups had 20 min to complete the CPS task. After the experiment, the researcher saved the data produced by each individual, removing it from the chat history before the next group started to keep the data sorted into relevant groups.

4.2.4. Measurement

The social task of this study was formulated with reference to the sample questions of PISA 2015, and the evaluation of task results should also refer to the sample questions evaluation method of PISA 2015. PISA 2015 takes three core competencies of CPS and four problem-solving tasks at a personal level as the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the matrix, respectively, which constitutes 12 CPS-specific skills. According to the matrix of 12 CPS-specific skills, PISA divided the three dimensions of CPS ability (that is, to establish and maintain consensus; take appropriate actions to solve problems; establish and maintain group organization form) into three levels: low, medium, and high. Grading was performed using scores, where a low grade was one point, a medium grade was two points, and a high grade was three points. The three core competencies of CPS were obtained by adding the specific skill scores of the corresponding columns in the matrix.

The social tasks consisted of three specific tasks, including: (1) determine where foreign students are going to play, (2) determine who is the guide for foreign students, and (3) how to deal with emergencies. The three specific tasks were graded according to the grading standard of CPS core ability.

Both raters were asked to rate a common set of 25% of the ideas to establish reliability. The reliability was satisfactory (the ICC value for the CPS was 0.877). Then, one rater was asked to rate the remaining ideas for novelty [ 28 ].

4.3. Results

4.3.1. descriptive statistics.

Experimental data were sorted and coded in Microsoft Excel. IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 was used for data analysis including descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. In Experiment 1, the dependent variable index was the CPS ability of the participants. The results are shown in Table 1 .

CPS scores under different problem-solving orientations and group sizes (M ± SD).

Note. M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

As can be seen from Table 1 , regardless of whether the two-person group or the three-person group was considered, the CPS ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was clearly higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. For individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation, the performance of individuals in a three-person group was higher than that of individuals in a two-person group, while individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation were just the opposite, that is, the performance of individuals in a two-person group was higher than that of individuals in a three-person group.

4.3.2. Interaction Analysis

A one-way ANOVA of participants’ gender with problem-solving orientation and CPS found that when the gender of participants was taken as an independent variable, there were some significant differences in various dimensions of problem-solving orientation ( t (1, 34) = −2.319, p = 0.015 < 0.05).

To control for the effect of gender on the results, a 2 (problem-solving orientation: positive and negative) × 2 (sizes of groups: small and large) between-group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted, with problem-solving orientation and group sizes as independent variables, CPS ability as the dependent variable, and gender as a covariate. The results of ANCOVA are presented in Table 2 .

Variance analysis of CPS scores under different problem-solving orientations and team sizes.

Note. * p < 0.05.

Table 2 showed that after controlling for the gender of the participants, the main effect of problem-solving orientation on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 31) = 10.878, p = 0.002 < 0.05, η 2 p = 0.260. This suggests that problem-solving orientation can significantly affect the individual’s CPS ability. However, the main effect of group sizes on CPS ability was not significant: F (1, 31) = 0.021, p = 0.087 > 0.05. This suggests that group size does not affect the individual’s ability of CPS. The interaction effect between problem-solving orientation and group sizes was not significant on effectiveness: F (1, 31) = 0.890, p = 0.353 > 0.05. This suggests that problem-solving orientation had a direct effect on effectiveness and was moderated by group sizes.

Further analysis showed that the score of the CPS core ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was much higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. For individuals with a positive orientation, the three-person group produced better CPS scores than those in the two-person group, but the results of this phenomenon were inconsistent for individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. Therefore, in Experiment 1, the problem-solving orientation had a significant impact on the CPS ability scores of the participants, but there was no significant difference in group sizes.

4.4. Discussion

Experiment 1 investigated the CPS ability of participants under experimental conditions with different group sizes and different problem-solving orientations by controlling the size of groups presented in the experiment. We found that problem-solving orientation had a significant effect on CPS ability. The scores of individuals with a positive orientation were much higher than those with a negative orientation. However, in experiment 1, there was no significant effect of different group sizes on the ability of individual CPS.

Problem-solving orientation can promote the individual’s CPS ability, which accords with some expectations of Experiment 1 and supports existing research. The more positive the individual, the higher the score of their own CPS ability and the better the individual performance in the groups. This may be because individuals with a positive orientation believe more in their ability to solve problems in cooperation with others, so they are willing to put more effort into group work. However, individuals with a negative orientation do not think they have the ability to solve problems, so their mentality and cooperative attitude are negative, and they do not make a great effort in group cooperation. Wigfield and Eccles’ research in 2000 can confirm this view. They put forth the idea that the degree of individual effort depends on whether individuals think they have the ability to succeed [ 29 ]. The research of Dweck (2006) [ 30 ] also verifies that having a good growth mentality (affirmation of one’s own ability) has positive effects on efforts, persistence, and achievements.

However, experiment 1 did not find a significant effect of group size on the ability of an individual’s CPS. However, it can provide a reference for future research and design. This result can mainly be explained from two aspects. First, this study divided the group sizes into two-person groups and three-person groups with reference to several studies, such as the measurement of CPS in PISA 2015 and the measurement of He (2019) [ 31 ]. These studies both measured the individual’s CPS ability in a systematic way, which is different from the online experimental form of this study. This shows that if online experiments are used to measure the individual’s CPS ability, it is necessary to consider the size of the groups. Second, in this study, the online experiment of CPS was conducted online, and there was no real contact between the participants. It is precisely because there was no real contact that the participants could only find the support of group partners from their “cold words,” which, to a certain extent, limits the performance of the participants [ 32 ].

5. Experiment 2

Experiment 1 found that the interaction between problem-solving tendency and group size was not significant. This suggests that only manipulating the problem-solving orientation cannot affect the CPS ability of individuals in different groups and that it is necessary to consider the effect of other individual factors. Therefore, experiment 2 will explore the effect of problem-solving style and group size on CPS ability by manipulating another dimension of problem solving (problem-solving style) and controlling the scale of individual participation in team size.

5.1. Hypotheses

Experiment 2 was intended to investigate the effect of problem-solving styles (rational and impulsive/neglect and evasion) and the number of group sizes (small and large) on CPS ability. If individuals can look at problems from a more rational perspective when facing tasks, they are more willing to take actions in tasks. However, if the individual’s cognition becomes unreasonable, the individual’s emotion will become negative and their behavior will deviate. We proposed the following hypotheses:

Problem-solving styles affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and participants with more rational problem-solving styles have a higher CPS ability than those with irrational (impulsive/neglect and evasion) problem-solving styles .

Group sizes affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and the CPS of individuals is significantly improved if they are provided with bigger group in tasks .

There is a significant interaction effect between participants’ problem-solving styles, the number of group sizes, and CPS ability; individuals show a higher level of CPS ability if they have a rational problem-solving orientation and are presented with large group sizes .

5.2. Method

5.2.1. participants and design.

A total of 238 copies of Social Problem-Solving Inventory were randomly distributed online to students at a high school in Shandong Province in China; 224 valid questionnaires were collected. All participants were aged 15 years old (100 female; 123 male). Social Problem-Solving Inventory scores were standardized using the method proposed by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. Fifty-seven participants (29 female; 28 male) whose scores on the rational problem-solving styles and impulsive/neglect problem-solving styles and evasion problem-solving styles were higher than one standard deviation, were selected as participants for experiment 2.

5.2.2. Apparatus and Stimuli

Measures of social problem solving: The problem-solving orientation of participants was measured using the Social Problem-Solving Inventory compiled by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. The revised scale, from the original 52 questions that were reduced to 32 questions, adopted a five-point Likert scoring method, with “1” being representative of not being in complete conformity, and “5” being representative of character completely. The rational problem-solving style included 13 topics (i.e., when trying to solve problems, I often come up with a variety of methods and synthesize some of them to form better methods). There were six topics in the escaping from problem-solving style (i.e., when I encounter a problem in my life, I will delay solving it as much as possible) and the impulsive/negligent problem solving style consisted of four topics (i.e., when I need to make a decision, I will not consider the impact of each choice on others).

The social tasks: The same as in experiment 1.

Instruments : The same as in experiment 1.

5.2.3. Procedure

Experiment 2 followed the same procedure as Experiment 1.

5.2.4. Measurement

The measurement standard of CPS ability in experiment 2 was the same as that in experiment 1.

5.3. Results

5.3.1. descriptive statistics.

Experimental data were sorted and coded in Microsoft Excel. IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 was used for data analysis including descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. In Experiment 2, the dependent variable index was the CPS ability of the participants. The results are shown in Table 3 .

CPS scores under different problem-solving styles and group sizes (M ± SD).

As can be seen from Table 3 , whether it was a two-person group or a three-person group, the CPS ability scores of individuals with a rational problem-solving style were significantly higher than those with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style and an evasive problem-solving style. Compared with those who evade the problem-solving style, individuals with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style had higher CPS ability scores. For individuals with a rational problem-solving style and an evasive problem-solving style, the performance of individuals in the group-scale cooperative of two-person groups was higher than that of individuals in three-person groups. However, the impulsive/negligent problem-solving style was just the opposite; the performance of the individual in the group-scale cooperative of the three-person group was higher than that of the two-person group.

5.3.2. Interaction Analysis

A one-way ANOVA of participants’ gender with problem-solving styles and CPS found that when the gender of participants was taken as an independent variable, there were some significant differences in various dimensions of CPS scores ( F (1, 55) = 5.835, p = 0.019 < 0.05).

To control for the effect of gender on the results, a 3 (problem-solving styles: rational and impulsive/neglect and evasion) × 2 (sizes of groups: small and large) between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted, with problem-solving styles and group sizes as independent variables, CPS ability as the dependent variable, and gender as a covariate. The results of ANCOVA are presented in Table 4 .

Variance analysis of CPS scores under different problem-solving styles and team sizes.

Note. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

Table 4 shows that after controlling for the gender of the participants, the main effect of problem-solving styles on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 50) = 32.214, p < 0.001, η 2 p = 0.563. It suggests that problem-solving styles can significantly affect the individual’s CPS ability.

Based on Table 4 , the main effect of group sizes on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 50) = 4.634, p = 0.036 < 0.05, η 2 p = 0.085. This suggests that group size can also significantly affect the individual’s ability of CPS.

The interaction effect between problem-solving orientation and group sizes was not significant on effectiveness: F (1, 50) = 0.890, p = 0.094 > 0.05. This suggests that problem-solving style was not moderated by group size, and group size was not moderated by problem-solving style.

In sum, in Experiment 2, both problem-solving style and group size had an impact on the individual’s CPS ability, but one was not regulated by the other. In other words, problem-solving style was not regulated by group size, and group size was not regulated by problem-solving style.

Further analysis showed that the scores of rational-style individuals in CPS ability were much higher than those with an impulsive/negligent style and an evasive style. For individuals with a rational style and an evasive style, the three-person groups could produce better CPS scores than the two-person groups could, but this phenomenon was inconsistent in impulsive/negligent-style individuals. Therefore, in experiment 2, the problem-solving styles had a significant impact on the CPS ability scores of the subjects, and the group size could also significantly affect the CPS ability scores of individuals, but there was no moderating effect between them.

5.4. Discussion

Experiment 2 investigated the CPS ability of participants under experimental conditions with different group sizes and different problem-solving styles by controlling the size of groups presented in the experiment. We found that problem-solving styles had a significant effect on CPS ability. The scores of individuals with more rational problem-solving styles were much higher than those with irrational problem-solving styles. However, in experiment 2, there was no significant interactive effect of problem-solving styles and group sizes on CPS ability.

Based on experiment 2, we found that problem-solving style had a significant effect on the individual’s CPS ability, which is in line with some expectations of experiment 2 and is also a confirmation supplement to previous research results. Compared with the escapist problem-solving teenagers and impulsive/negligent problem-solving teenagers, the CPS ability of rational problem-solving teenagers was higher. Cognitive behavioral theory can help explain the results of this study. A series of emotional and behavioral problems caused by people are not caused by events themselves, but by people’s interpretation and evaluation of events. That is to say, excluding things themselves, if individuals can look at problems from a more rational perspective when facing tasks, they are more willing to take actions in tasks and try their best to solve problems in tasks. However, if the individual’s cognition becomes unreasonable (for example, the cognition of evasion and negligence appears), the individual’s emotion will become negative and their behavior will deviate, and they will be unwilling to cooperate with other members to solve problems in cooperative tasks.

Consistent with previous research results, experiment 2 found that group size significantly affected the performance of an individual’s CPS ability. As Dennis and Valacich reported in their research in 1993, large groups have more positive effects on individuals than small groups [ 33 ]. The advantage of a group is that the ideas shared by different members can be used as the knowledge reserve put forward by individuals for their ideas [ 34 ]. In addition, the ideas of group members can stimulate individuals to produce ideas that were not previously available in related fields [ 35 ]. This means that in large groups, individuals are more likely to have access to other people’s ideas, strengthen their ability to cooperate and solve problems, and enjoy the process of cooperation more fully, thus promoting their personal performance in the group. Furthermore, the research of Paulus and Yang (2000) [ 36 ] also showed that if individuals are motivated to pay attention to shared ideas or viewpoints, the effect of these existing ideas and answers on individuals will be enhanced. This study emphasizes the importance of cooperation and requires the participants and group members to complete the CPS task together. In this process, individuals should constantly communicate with others and think about other people’s ideas and viewpoints; it is this process that strengthens the positive effect of shared ideas on individual performance.

6. General Discussion

The present study explored the effect of problem-solvers’ characteristics and group sizes and their interaction effect on the CPS ability of individuals through two online experiments. The experiments were intended to answer two major questions: (1) How do problem-solvers’ characteristics affect participants’ CPS ability in a social task? (2) What is the role of group sizes in such a relationship?

In our results, problem-solvers’ characteristics (problem-solving orientation and problem-solving styles) were found to be conducive to the CPS ability of individuals. In addition, group size was found to have some effect on the CPS ability of individuals. However, an interaction effect between intrinsic motivation and the quantity and novelty of cues on CPS ability was not found.

This paper verified that better problem-solvers’ characteristics can promote individuals to perform better in CPS. In experiment 1, it was found that problem-solving orientation significantly promoted the CPS core ability of individuals, and the score of the CPS core ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was much higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. The explanation of “positive problem-solving orientation” and “negative problem-solving orientation” by D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] can help us confirm this. Individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation believe that they can solve problems even if they feel those problems are difficult. They believe that group members can solve tasks together, and they have a stronger sense of self-efficacy and positive behavior cognition. When they encounter problems, their emotions are optimistic and clear, instead of being passive and choosing to avoid problems. On the contrary, individuals with a negative orientation are more “complaining” in their attitude when they encounter things. Most of the time, they think they cannot solve problems. Even if the group cooperates, everyone cannot solve problems through cooperation. Individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation are more likely to have negative emotions and cognitive behavioral deviations.

In experiment 2, the problem-solving style significantly promoted the ability of an individual’s CPS. Individuals with a rational problem-solving style scored much higher in the ability of CPS than those with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style or an evasive problem-solving style. D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] pointed out in their theoretical interpretation of “rational problem-solving style” that individuals with a rational style are more willing to adopt a comprehensive and systematic way to solve problems, which can encourage individuals to think deliberately, only immerse themselves in problems and discussions with group members, and aspire to obtain correct solutions through effort. The research of McGuire (2005) [ 38 ] also confirmed this view. When D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] mentioned the “impulsive/negligent problem-solving style,” they explained that most of these individuals would not seriously consider problems when they encountered them, and usually only chose the first scheme and did not consider whether the scheme was really feasible, which was prone to “perfunctory things.” Those individuals who like to avoid problems are the opposite of rational individuals; when they encounter problems, their first reaction is to escape. They do not want to solve the problem, and they even turn a blind eye and pretend that they do not have a task [ 37 ].

Although the effect of group size on individual CPS ability was not found in experiment 1, the main effect of group size on individual CPS ability was significant in experiment 2. When an individual is in a multi-crew group, their CPS ability is better. This is because the number of ideas members have increase in larger group sizes, and the ideas of other members can stimulate the remote nodes in the original semantic network of individuals [ 39 ]. According to the activation diffusion model, when an individual node is activated, other closely connected nodes will be activated accordingly [ 40 ]. In short, the more ideas the group members have, the more active the individual nodes will be, and the better their performance will be.

In summary, this study conducted two online experiments on CPS. The results show that better problem-solvers’ characteristics can result in individuals’ better CPS performance, and group size can also affect individuals’ CPS ability.

The above conclusions are of great practical significance to the improvement of middle school students’ CPS ability, especially the change in CPS attitude and thinking mode. In the future, educators can set different forms of cooperation for individuals with different problem-solvers’ characteristics and improve their CPS ability through training and practice.

7. Limitations and Future Directions

This research has a few limitations. First, the CPS task was conducted online, and the performance of CPS ability may be reduced due to “evaluation concerns.” In addition, the participants could only complete the experimental tasks through online cooperation instead of communication in real situations, which may lead to the phenomenon of “words fail to reach the meaning.” Compared with laboratory experiments, this experiment is closer to the real CPS task and has higher ecological validity, but future research needs to further balance the effect of ecological validity and interference factors on the experiment by perfecting experimental rules.

Second, this study divided the group sizes into two-person groups and three-person groups. Although it refers to the paradigm provided in previous research, no significant effect of group size on cooperative problem-solving ability was found in the first study, indicating that there may be other criteria for the division of group sizes. Group size has been a regular focus of research. In the research of the creative field, most researchers divide groups into three-person groups and nine-person groups. Previous studies found that the larger the number of participants in the group, the more creative ideas the participants produced [ 35 , 41 , 42 ]. Similarly, the number of members can affect the performance of an individual’s CPS, and group size and group type can be the focus of future research.

Third, this study refers to the age choice of participants in PISA, so only 15-year-old teenagers were selected as the research object. Due to the limitation of sampling, this study only conducted experiments from senior students in a certain area, so it may not be extended to other grades or sections. Future research can explore the effect of social problem solving and team size on adolescents’ cooperative problem-solving ability from multiple sections.

Finally, this study comprehensively provided an understanding of the effect of problem-solvers’ characteristics and group size on CPS ability. However, because of the relative independence of each index, we ultimately received the overall evaluation of CPS ability rather than a complete understanding of the cooperative process and the problem-solving process. Future research can consider a variety of task types or set different task difficulties in similar tasks. “Cooperation” and “problem solving” are two dimensions of CPS, and the thinking process of participants in these two processes and the generation of “cooperation” and “problem solving” can also be the focus of future research.

8. Conclusions

This study found that different groups have a different effect on CPS ability. Although this study only found the role of group size in the effect of problem-solving style and group size on teenagers’ CPS ability, it is probable that the larger the group size is for an individual, the better their performance of CPS will be. This study also enriches the research results of group size in the field of CPS. It provides a research direction on how to promote the improvement of an individual’s CPS ability, and underlines the necessity to cultivate an individual’s problem-solving characteristics. Educators can set different types of cooperation forms for individuals with different characteristics of problem solvers, and improve their CPS ability through training and practice.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by “Effects of Individual and Situational Characteristics on Creativity in Online Interaction” of National Education Science Planning Grant of China (grant number: BBA180080).

Author Contributions

Investigation, Q.L.; writing—original draft preparation, C.G.; writing—review and editing, X.M.; project administration, C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Qingdao University (protocol code QDU-IRB-202103-009 of approval).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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