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Six Tough Questions About Climate Change

Whenever the focus is on climate change, as it is right now at the  Paris climate conference , tough questions are asked concerning the costs of cutting carbon emissions, the feasibility of transitioning to renewable energy, and whether it’s already too late to do anything about climate change. We posed these questions to Laura Segafredo , manager for the Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project . The decarbonization project comprises energy research teams from 16 of the world’s biggest greenhouse gas emitting countries that are developing concrete strategies to reduce emissions in their countries. The Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project is an initiative of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network .

• Will the actions we take today be enough to forestall the direct impacts of climate change? Or is it too little too late?

There is still time and room for limiting climate change within the 2˚C limit that scientists consider relatively safe, and that countries endorsed in Copenhagen and Cancun. But clearly the window is closing quickly. I think that the most important message is that we need to start really, really soon, putting the world on a trajectory of stabilizing and reducing emissions. The temperature change has a direct relationship with the cumulative amount of emissions that are in the atmosphere, so the more we keep emitting at the pace that we are emitting today, the more steeply we will have to go on a downward trajectory and the more expensive it will be.

Today we are already experiencing an average change in global temperature of .8˚. With the cumulative amount of emissions that we are going to emit into the atmosphere over the next years, we will easily reach 1.5˚ without even trying to change that trajectory.

Two degrees might still be doable, but it requires significant political will and fast action. And even 2˚ is a significant amount of warming for the planet, and will have consequences in terms of sea level rise, ecosystem changes, possible extinctions of species, displacements of people, diseases, agriculture productivity changes, health related effects and more. But if we can contain global warming within those 2˚, we can manage those effects. I think that’s really the message of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports—that’s why the 2˚ limit was chosen, in a sense. It’s a level of warming where we can manage the risks and the consequences. Anything beyond that would be much, much worse.

• Will taking action make our lives better or safer, or will it only make a difference to future generations?

It will make our lives better and safer for sure. For example, let’s think about what it means to replace a coal power plant with a cleaner form of energy like wind or solar. People that live around the coal power plant are going to have a lot less air pollution, which means less asthma for children, and less time wasted because of chronic or acute diseases. In developing countries, you’re talking about potentially millions of lives saved by replacing dirty fossil fuel based power generation with clean energy.

It will also have important consequences for agricultural productivity. There’s a big risk that with the concentration of carbon and other gases in the atmosphere,   agricultural yields will be reduced, so preventing that means more food for everyone.

And then think about cities. If you didn’t have all that pollution from cars, we could live in cities that are less noisy, where the air’s much better, and have potentially better transportation. We could live in better buildings where appliances are more efficient. And investing in energy efficiency would basically leave more money in our pockets. So there are a lot of benefits that we can reap almost immediately, and that’s without even considering the biggest benefit—leaving a planet in decent condition for future generations.

• How will measures to cut carbon emissions affect my life in terms of cost?

To build a climate resilient economy, we need to incorporate the three pillars of energy system transformation that we focus on in all the deep decarbonization pathways. Number one is improving energy efficiency in every part of the economy—buildings, what we use inside buildings, appliances, industrial processes, cars…everything you can think of can perform the same service, but using less energy. What that means is that you will have a slight increase in the price in the form of a small investment up front, like insulating your windows or buying a more efficient car, but you will end up saving a lot more money over the life of the equipment in terms of decreased energy costs.

The second pillar is making electricity, the power sector, carbon-free by replacing dirty power generation with clean power sources. That’s clearly going to cost a little money, but those costs are coming down so quickly. In fact there are already a lot of clean technologies that are at cost parity with fossil fuels— for example, onshore wind is already as competitive as gas—and those costs are only coming down in the future. We can also expect that there are going to be newer technologies. But in any event, the fact that we’re going to use less power because of the first pillar should actually make it a wash in terms of cost.

The Australian deep decarbonization teams have estimated that even with the increased costs of cleaner cars, and more efficient equipment for the home, etc., when the power system transitions to where it’s zero carbon, you still have savings on your energy bills compared to the previous situation.

The third pillar that we think about are clean fuels, essentially zero-carbon fuels. So we either need to electrify everything— like cars and heating, once the power sector is free of carbon—or have low-carbon fuels to power things that cannot be electrified, such as airplanes or big trucks. But once you have efficiency, these types of equipment are also more efficient, and you should be spending less money on energy.

Saving money depends on the three pillars together, thinking about all this as a whole system.

• Given that renewable sources provide only a small percentage of our energy and that nuclear power is so expensive, what can we realistically do to get off fossil fuels as soon as possible?

There are a lot of studies that have been done for the U.S. and for Europe that show that it’s very realistic to think of a power sector that is almost entirely powered by renewables by 2050 or so. It’s actually feasible—and this considers all the issues with intermittency, dealing with the networks, and whatever else represents a technological barrier—that’s all included in these studies. There’s also the assumption that energy storage, like batteries, will be cheaper in the future.

That is the future, but 2050 is not that far away. 35 years for an energy transition is not a long time. It’s important that this transition start now with the right policy incentives in place. We need to make sure that cars are more efficient, that buildings are more efficient, that cities are built with more public transit so less fossil fuels are needed to transport people from one place to another.

I don’t want people to think that because we’re looking at 2050, that means that we can wait—in order to be almost carbon free by 2050, or close to that target, we need to act fast and start now.

• Will the remedies to climate change be worse than the disease? Will it drive more people into poverty with higher costs?

I actually think the opposite is true. If we just let climate go the way we are doing today by continuing business as usual, that will drive many people into poverty. There’s a clear relationship between climate change and changing weather patterns, so more significant and frequent extreme weather events, including droughts, will affect the livelihoods of a large portion of the world population. Once you have droughts or significant weather events like extreme precipitation, you tend to see displacements of people, which create conflict, and conflict creates disease.

I think Syria is a good example of the world that we might be going towards if we don’t do anything about climate change. Syria is experiencing a once-in-a-century drought, and there’s a significant amount of desertification going on in those areas, so you’re looking at more and more arid areas. That affects agriculture, so people have moved from the countryside to the cities and that has created a lot of pressure on the cities. The conflict in Syria is very much related to the drought, and the drought can be ascribed to climate change.

And consider the ramifications of the Syrian crisis: the refugee crisis in Europe, terrorism, security concerns and 7 million-plus people displaced. I think that that’s the world that we’re going towards. And in a world like that, when you have to worry about people being safe and alive, you certainly cannot guarantee wealth and better well-being, or education and health.

• So finally, doing what needs to be done to combat climate change all comes down to political will?

The majority of the American public now believe that climate change is real, that it’s human induced and that we should do something about it.

But there’s seems to be a disconnect between what these numbers seem to indicate and what the political discourse is like… I can’t understand it, yet it seems to be the situation.

I’m a little concerned because other more immediate concerns like terrorism and safety always come first. Because the effects of climate change are going to be felt a little further away, people think that we can always put it off. The Department of Defense, its top-level people, have made the connection between climate change and conflict over the next few decades. That’s why I would argue that Syria is actually a really good example to remind us that if we are experiencing security issues today, it’s also because of environmental problems. We cannot ignore them.

The reality is that we need to do something about climate change fast—we don’t have time to fight this over the next 20 years. We have to agree on this soon and move forward and not waste another 10 years debating.

Read the Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project 2015 report . The full report will be released Dec. 2.

Laura Segafredo was a senior economist at the ClimateWorks Foundation, where she focused on best practice energy policies and their impact on emission trajectories. She was a lead author of the 2012 UNEP Emissions Gap Report and of the Green Growth in Practice Assessment Report. Before joining ClimateWorks, Segafredo was a research economist at Electricité de France in Paris.

She obtained her Ph.D. in energy studies and her BA in economics from the University of Padova (Italy), and her MSc in economics from the University of Toulouse (France).

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Columbia Climate School has once again been selected as university partner for Climate Week NYC, an annual convening of climate leaders to drive the transition, speed up progress and champion change. Join us for events and follow our coverage .

Many find low wages prohibits saving. Changing personal vehicles and heating systems costs. Will there be financial support for people on low wages?

The energy innovation and dividend bill has already been introduced in the house. It’s a carbon fee and dividend plan. The carbon fee rises every year and 100% of it goes back directly into the hands of the people by a check each month. This helps offset rising costs, especially for lower income folks.

81 cosponsors now Tell your rep in Congress to support this HR 763!

Results show that yields for all four crops grown at levels of carbon dioxide remaining at 2000 levels would experience severe declines in yield due to higher temperatures and drier conditions. But when grown at doubled carbon dioxide levels, all four crops fare better due to increased photosynthesis and crop water productivity, partially offsetting the impacts from those adverse climate changes. For wheat and soybean crops, in terms of yield the median negative impacts are fully compensated, and rice crops recoup up to 90 percent and maize up to 60 percent of their losses.

When is Russia, China, and Mexico going to work toward a better environment instead of the United States trying to do it all? They continue to pollute like they have for years. Who is going to stop the deforestation of the rain forest?

I’m curious if climate change has any effect on seismic activity. It seems with ice melting on the poles and increasing water dispersement and temp of that water, it might cause the plates to shift to compensate. Is there any evidence of this?

this isn’t because of doldrums or jet streams. the pattern keeps having the same action. we must save trees :3

How long do we have, before it’s too late?

Climate Change isn’t nearly as big of a deal as everyone makes it out to be. Meaning no disrespect to the author, but I really don’t see how this is something that we should be worrying about given that one human recycling their soda cans or getting their old phone refurbished rather than dumping it isn’t going to restore the polar ice caps or lower the temperature of the planet. And supposedly agriculture is the problem, but I point-blank refuse to give up my beef night, or bacon and eggs for breakfast on Saturdays. Also, nuclear power is supposed to be a solution, but the building of the power plants is going to add more greenhouse gases than the plant will take out. The whole planet needs a reality check. Earth isn’t going to explode because it’s slightly hotter than it used to be!

Thank you and I need in your help

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Frequently Asked Questions About Climate Change

Below are answers to some frequently asked questions about climate change. For information about evidence of climate change, the greenhouse effect, and the human role in climate change, please see EPA Climate Science .

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What is the difference between weather and climate?

What is climate change, what is the difference between global warming and climate change, what is the difference between climate change and climate variability, why has my town experienced record-breaking cold and snowfall if the climate is warming, is there scientific consensus that people are causing today’s climate change, do natural variations in climate contribute to today’s climate change, why be concerned about a degree or two change in the average global temperature, how does climate change affect people’s health, who is most at risk from the impacts of climate change, how can people reduce the risks of climate change, what are the benefits of taking action now.

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"Weather" refers to the day-to-day state of the atmosphere such as the combination of temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, and other factors. "Climate" describes the weather of a place averaged over a period of time, often 30 years. Think about it this way: climate is something that can be expected to happen in general, like a cold winter season, whereas weather is what a person might experience on any given day, like a snowstorm in January or a sunny day in July.

Climate change involves significant changes in average conditions—such as temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other aspects of climate—that occur over years, decades, centuries, or longer. Climate change involves longer-term trends, such as shifts toward warmer, wetter, or drier conditions. These trends can be caused by natural variability in climate over time, as well as human activities that add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere like burning fossil fuels for energy.

The terms "global warming" and "climate change" are sometimes used interchangeably, but global warming is just one of the ways in which climate is affected by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases. "Global warming" describes the recent rise in the global average temperature near the earth's surface, which is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere from human activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy.

Climate change occurs over a long period of time, typically over decades or longer. In contrast, climate variability includes changes that occur within shorter timeframes, such as a month, season, or year. Climate variability explains the natural variability within the system. For example, one unusually cold or wet year followed by an unusually warm or dry year would not be considered a sign of climate change.

Today’s Climate Change

Even though the planet is warming, some areas may be experiencing extra cold or snowy winters. These cold spells are due to variability in local weather patterns, which sometimes lead to colder-than-average seasons or even colder-than-average years at the local or regional level. In fact, a warmer climate traps more water vapor in the air, which may lead to extra snowy winters in some areas. As long as it is still cold enough to snow, a warming climate can lead to bigger snowstorms.

Yes. Climate scientists overwhelmingly agree that people are contributing significantly to today’s climate change, primarily by releasing excess greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy, cultivating crops, raising livestock, and clearing forests. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Sixth Assessment Report , which represents the work of hundreds of leading experts in climate science, states that "it is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land. Widespread and rapid changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere have occurred.”

The 2018 National Climate Assessment , developed by the U.S. Global Change Research Program—which is composed of 13 federal scientific agencies—concluded that scientific evidence consistently points to human activities, rather than natural climate trends, as the “dominant cause” behind the rapid global temperature increase of 1.8°F from 1901 to 2016 (see Figure 1). Hundreds of independent and governmental scientific organizations have released similar statements, both in the United States and worldwide, including the World Meteorological Organization , the American Meteorological Society , and the American Geophysical Union .

The earth does go through natural cycles of warming and cooling caused by factors such as changes in the sun or volcanic activity. For example, there were times in the distant past when the earth was warmer than it is now. However, natural variations in climate do not explain today’s climate change. Most of the warming since 1950 has been caused by human emissions of greenhouse gases that come from a variety of activities, including burning fossil fuels.

A degree or two change in average global temperature might not sound like much to worry about, but relatively small changes in the earth’s average temperature can mean big changes in local and regional climate, creating risks to public health and safety , water resources , agriculture , infrastructure , and ecosystems . Among the many examples cited by the 2018 National Climate Assessment are an increase in heat waves and days with temperatures above 90°F; more extreme weather events such as storms, droughts, and floods; and a projected sea level rise of 1 to 4 feet by the end of this century, which could put certain areas of the country underwater.

Climate change poses many threats to people’s health and well-being. Among the health impacts cited by the 2018 National Climate Assessment are the following:

• Atmospheric warming has the potential to increase ground-level ozone in many regions, which can cause multiple health issues (e.g., bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma) and worsen lung function.
• Higher summer temperatures are linked to an increased risk of heat-related illnesses and death . Older adults, pregnant women, and children are at particular risk, as are people living in urban areas because of the additional heat associated with urban heat islands .
• Climate change is expected to expose more people to ticks that carry Lyme disease or other bacterial and viral agents, and to mosquitoes that transmit West Nile and other viruses.
• More frequent extreme weather events such as droughts , hurricanes , floods , and wildfires will not only put people’s lives at risk, but can also worsen underlying medical conditions, increase stress, and lead to adverse mental health effects.
• Rising temperatures and extreme weather have the potential to disrupt the availability, safety, and nutritional quality of food.

See EPA’s Climate Indicators website for more information about the effects of climate change in the United States.

Everyone will be affected by climate change, but some people may be more affected than others. Among the most vulnerable people are those in overburdened, underserved, and economically distressed communities. Three key factors influence a person’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change:

• Exposure . Some people are more at risk simply because they are more exposed to climate change hazards where they live or work. For example, people who live on the coast can be more vulnerable to sea level rise, coastal storms, and flooding.
• Sensitivity . Some people are more sensitive to the impacts of climate change, such as children, pregnant women, and those with pre-existing medical conditions such as asthma.
• Adaptability . Older adults, those with disabilities, those with low income, and some indigenous people may have more difficulty than others in adapting to climate change hazards.

In addition, there is a wide range of other factors that influence people’s vulnerability. For example, people with less access to healthcare, adequate housing, and financial resources are less likely to rebound from climate disasters. People who are excluded from planning processes, experience racial and ethnic discrimination, or have language barriers are also more vulnerable to and less able to prepare for and avoid the risks of climate change.

Learn more about the connections between climate change and human health .

People can reduce the risks of climate change by making choices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and by preparing for the changes expected in the future. Decisions that people make today will shape the world for decades and even centuries to come. Communities can also prepare for the changes in the decades ahead by identifying and reducing their vulnerabilities and considering climate change risks in planning and development . Such actions can ensure that the most vulnerable populations —such as young children, older adults, and people living in poverty—are protected from the health and safety threats of climate change.

The longer people wait to act on climate change, the more damaging its effects will become on the planet and people’s health. If people fail to take action soon, more drastic and costly measures to prevent greenhouse gases from exceeding dangerous levels could be needed later. The most recent National Climate Assessment found that global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions could avoid tens of thousands of deaths per year in the United States by the end of the century, as well as billions of dollars in damages related to water shortages, wildfires, agricultural losses, flooding, and other impacts. There are many actions that people can take now to help reduce the risk of climate change while also improving the natural environment, community infrastructure and transportation systems, and overall health.

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• Greenhouse gas emissions: Conventional tillage, which involves frequently turning the soil, disrupts the soil and releases stored carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This contributes to the greenhouse effect and global warming.
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• Soil health: Tillage disrupts soil structure and can lead to erosion. Healthy soil acts as a carbon sink, storing carbon dioxide. When soil health declines, it loses its ability to store carbon as effectively.
• Water conservation: Conservation tillage practices leave crop residue on the soil surface. This residue helps retain moisture in the soil, which is crucial during droughts.
• Reduced erosion: By minimizing soil disturbance, conservation tillage reduces wind and water erosion, protecting valuable topsoil during dry periods.
• Improved soil health: Over time, conservation tillage practices can improve soil health by promoting the growth of beneficial microbes and increasing organic matter content. This healthier soil holds water more effectively, making crops more resilient to drought.
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• Shifts in Growing Seasons : Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns have altered traditional growing seasons, leading to shifts in planting and harvesting times. Farmers are adapting by adjusting their planting calendars and crop varieties to match the new climate conditions.
• Changes in Crop Yields : Erratic weather patterns, including extreme heat, droughts, floods, and storms, have led to fluctuations in crop yields. Farmers are implementing practices such as crop diversification, improved water management, and the use of drought-resistant crop varieties to mitigate the impacts of climate variability on yields.
• Water Management : Changes in precipitation patterns and increased water scarcity have necessitated improved water management practices. Farmers are adopting techniques such as drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and soil moisture monitoring to optimize water use efficiency and mitigate drought risk.
• Soil Conservation : Soil degradation and erosion exacerbated by climate change threaten agricultural productivity. Farmers are implementing soil conservation practices such as conservation tillage, cover cropping, and agroforestry to improve soil health, enhance water retention, and prevent erosion.
• Pest and Disease Management : Climate change has facilitated the spread of pests and diseases, posing additional challenges to crop production. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, biological control methods, and the development of pest-resistant crop varieties are being employed to minimize crop losses due to pest and disease outbreaks.
• Crop Diversification : Farmers are diversifying their crops and incorporating resilient and climate-tolerant varieties into their farming systems to reduce the risk of crop failure and enhance resilience to climate variability.
• Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) : Climate-smart agricultural practices, which aim to increase agricultural productivity, enhance resilience to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, are being adopted by farmers worldwide. CSA practices include conservation agriculture, agroforestry, precision agriculture, and the use of climate-resilient crop varieties.
• Knowledge Exchange and Capacity Building : Farmers are engaging in knowledge exchange networks, participating in training programs, and accessing information on climate-smart agricultural practices to build their capacity to adapt to climate change effectively.
• Policy Support : Governments and agricultural organizations are providing policy support, financial incentives, and technical assistance to farmers to facilitate the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and enhance agricultural resilience to climate change.

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• Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions :Alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power generate electricity without emitting greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, thus helping to mitigate climate change.
• Decreasing Dependency on Fossil Fuels :Transitioning to alternative energy sources reduces reliance on fossil fuels, which are major contributors to global warming and air pollution.
• Promoting Sustainable Development :Alternative energy sources support sustainable development by providing clean, renewable energy that can meet current and future energy needs without depleting natural resources or harming the environment.
• Enhancing Resource Efficiency :Sustainable agricultural practices such as precision farming, organic farming, and agroforestry optimize resource use, minimizing waste and environmental degradation.
• Promoting Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health :Diversified cropping systems, habitat restoration, and conservation agriculture practices support biodiversity, soil health, and ecosystem resilience.
• Mitigating Climate Change :Climate-smart agricultural practices such as carbon sequestration, reduced deforestation, and improved land management contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation efforts.
• Ensuring Food Security :Sustainable agricultural systems ensure food security by maintaining soil fertility, enhancing resilience to climate change, and promoting equitable access to nutritious food.
• Empowering Communities :Sustainable agriculture fosters community resilience by promoting local food systems, empowering small-scale farmers, and enhancing socio-economic well-being.
• Adopting Sustainable Agricultural Practices : Conservation Agriculture : Techniques such as no-till farming, crop rotation, and cover cropping enhance soil health and carbon sequestration. Agroforestry : Integrating trees into farming systems to capture carbon and improve biodiversity.
• Efficient Water Management : Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation : Reducing water use and associated energy consumption. Rainwater Harvesting : Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural use.
• Optimizing Fertilizer Use : Precision Agriculture : Applying the right amount of fertilizers at the right time to minimize nitrous oxide emissions. Organic Farming : Using organic fertilizers and compost to enhance soil health and reduce emissions.
• Improving Livestock Management : Feed Quality Improvement : Reducing methane emissions by improving the quality of livestock feed. Manure Management : Implementing systems to capture methane from manure for use as biogas.
• Renewable Energy Adoption : Solar-Powered Irrigation : Utilizing solar energy for irrigation to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Wind and Biomass Energy : Incorporating renewable energy sources into agricultural operations.
• Increased Temperature and Heatwaves : Crop Shifts : Changing to heat-tolerant crop varieties and adjusting planting schedules. Heat Stress Management : Implementing shading and cooling systems for livestock.
• Altered Rainfall Patterns : Drought-Resistant Crops : Adopting drought-resistant crop varieties. Efficient Irrigation : Implementing water-efficient irrigation techniques.
• Frequent Extreme Weather Events : Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure : Building stronger infrastructure to withstand storms and floods. Early Warning Systems : Utilizing advanced weather forecasting to prepare for extreme weather events.
• Water Scarcity : Water Conservation Techniques : Implementing rainwater harvesting and efficient irrigation systems. Crop Diversification : Growing crops that require less water.
• Pest and Disease Pressure : Integrated Pest Management (IPM) : Using biological controls and resistant crop varieties to manage pests and diseases. Crop Rotation and Diversification : Reducing the buildup of pests and diseases through crop rotation and diversification.
• Carbon Sequestration : Agroforestry : Integrating trees into agricultural systems captures carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores it in biomass and soils. Cover Crops and No-Till Farming : These practices enhance soil organic carbon content by minimizing soil disturbance and maintaining soil cover.
• Reduced Emissions : Efficient Fertilizer Use : Precision agriculture techniques optimize fertilizer application, reducing nitrous oxide emissions from over-fertilization. Improved Livestock Management : Practices such as improved feed quality and manure management reduce methane emissions from livestock.
• Sustainable Water Management : Water-Efficient Irrigation : Techniques like drip irrigation reduce water usage and energy consumption, leading to lower greenhouse gas emissions from energy-intensive water extraction and distribution.
• Renewable Energy Use : Solar-Powered Irrigation : Using solar energy for irrigation systems reduces reliance on fossil fuels, cutting down greenhouse gas emissions.
• Awareness : Growing Recognition : Many farmers are increasingly aware of the changes in weather patterns and their impacts on crop yields and farming practices. Regional Differences : Awareness and perception can vary widely across different regions, depending on the severity of climate impacts and access to information.
• Perceived Risks : Yield Variability : Farmers commonly perceive risks associated with unpredictable rainfall, extended droughts, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. Economic Impact : Concerns about income instability and increased costs of adaptation measures are prevalent among farmers.
• Adaptation Strategies : Traditional Knowledge : Some farmers rely on traditional knowledge and practices to cope with climate variability. Adoption of New Practices : There is a growing willingness to adopt new technologies and practices, such as drought-resistant crop varieties and efficient irrigation systems, though this can be limited by financial constraints and access to resources.
• Support and Education : Extension Services : Effective extension services and education programs are crucial in enhancing farmers' understanding of climate change and encouraging the adoption of resilient practices. Government and NGO Initiatives : Support from government and non-governmental organizations in terms of subsidies, training, and resources significantly influences farmers' perceptions and actions.
• Reduced Crop Yields : Heat Stress : Higher temperatures can decrease yields of staple crops like wheat, rice, and maize. Altered Growing Seasons : Changes in temperature and precipitation can shift growing seasons, disrupting traditional planting and harvesting schedules.
• Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events : Droughts and Floods : More frequent and severe droughts and floods can damage crops and reduce productivity. Storms and Cyclones : Extreme weather can destroy crops, livestock, and infrastructure, further impacting food production.
• Water Scarcity : Irrigation Challenges : Reduced water availability due to changing precipitation patterns and melting glaciers affects irrigation-dependent agriculture.
• Soil Degradation : Erosion and Nutrient Loss : Increased soil erosion and loss of soil fertility due to extreme weather events and unsustainable agricultural practices reduce the productivity of arable land.
• Pest and Disease Proliferation : Expanded Ranges : Warmer temperatures can expand the ranges of pests and diseases, increasing their impact on crops and livestock.
• Developing Climate-Resilient Crop Varieties : Drought-Tolerant and Heat-Resistant Varieties : Breeding and using crop varieties that can withstand extreme weather conditions.
• Improving Water Management : Efficient Irrigation Techniques : Adopting drip and sprinkler irrigation to optimize water use. Rainwater Harvesting : Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural use.
• Implementing Sustainable Agricultural Practices : Conservation Agriculture : Practices such as no-till farming, crop rotation, and maintaining soil cover to improve soil health and water retention. Agroforestry : Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes to enhance biodiversity and resilience.
• Enhancing Early Warning Systems and Disaster Preparedness : Weather Forecasting : Using advanced meteorological tools to predict and prepare for extreme weather events. Disaster Management Plans : Developing and implementing plans to protect crops, livestock, and infrastructure from climate-related disasters.
• Promoting Diversified Farming Systems : Crop Diversification : Growing a variety of crops to spread risk and improve resilience to climate impacts. Integrated Farming : Combining crop production with livestock and aquaculture to enhance food security and reduce dependency on a single food source.
• Supporting Policy and Financial Mechanisms : Subsidies and Incentives : Providing financial support for farmers to adopt climate-smart practices. Insurance Schemes : Developing crop and livestock insurance to protect farmers against climate-induced losses.
• 22 May 2024
• Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Patterns : Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns can lead to changes in growing seasons, water availability, and crop yields.
• Increased Frequency of Extreme Weather Events : Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, heatwaves, and storms, which can damage crops, livestock, and infrastructure.
• Shifts in Pests and Diseases : Warmer temperatures and altered climatic conditions can lead to shifts in pest and disease patterns, affecting crop health and productivity.
• Water Stress : Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation rates can lead to water stress in agricultural regions, reducing crop yields and increasing competition for water resources.
• Loss of Biodiversity : Climate change can lead to habitat loss, species extinction, and changes in biodiversity, affecting ecosystem services essential for agriculture, such as pollination and pest control.
• Impact on Livelihoods and Food Security : Climate change-related disruptions to agricultural production can jeopardize livelihoods, increase food insecurity, and exacerbate poverty and inequality, particularly in vulnerable communities.
• Diversification of Crop and Livestock Systems : Diversifying crop and livestock systems can enhance resilience to climate change impacts by spreading risk and reducing vulnerability to pests, diseases, and extreme weather events.
• Conservation Agriculture : Conservation agriculture practices such as minimum tillage, crop rotation, and cover cropping can improve soil health, water retention, and resilience to climate change.
• Water Management : Implementing water-efficient irrigation technologies, rainwater harvesting, and water-saving practices can mitigate water stress and enhance water availability for agricultural production.
• Agroforestry : Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes through agroforestry practices can provide multiple benefits, including soil conservation, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration.
• Climate-Resilient Crop Varieties : Developing and deploying climate-resilient crop varieties that are adapted to local climatic conditions can enhance crop resilience to climate change impacts such as heat stress, drought, and pests.
• Livelihood Diversification : Promoting livelihood diversification strategies such as off-farm income generation, alternative livelihoods, and income diversification can enhance the resilience of rural communities to climate change impacts on agriculture.
• Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions : Develop and deploy clean energy technologies such as solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear power to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate GHG emissions from energy production.
• Improving Energy Efficiency : Develop energy-efficient technologies for buildings, transportation, and industrial processes to reduce energy consumption and lower GHG emissions.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) : Develop CCS technologies that capture CO2 emissions from industrial processes and power plants and store them underground, preventing them from entering the atmosphere.
• Enhancing Carbon Removal Technologies : Research and develop technologies that remove CO2 from the atmosphere, such as afforestation, reforestation, direct air capture, and ocean alkalinity enhancement.
• Advancing Agricultural Practices : Develop climate-smart agricultural technologies that reduce methane emissions from livestock and rice cultivation, enhance soil carbon sequestration, and improve crop resilience to climate change.
• Promoting Sustainable Land Use : Develop land-use planning and management technologies that reduce deforestation, promote afforestation and reforestation, and enhance ecosystem resilience to climate change.
• Adapting Infrastructure : Develop resilient infrastructure technologies that can withstand extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and other climate change impacts.
• Remote Sensing and Monitoring : Utilize remote sensing technologies such as satellites, drones, and sensors to monitor changes in climate, ecosystems, and natural resources, facilitating informed decision-making for climate adaptation and mitigation.
• Data Analytics and Modeling : Develop advanced data analytics and modeling tools to predict and assess climate change impacts, identify vulnerable areas, and prioritize adaptation and mitigation strategies.
• Public Awareness and Education : Utilize technology to raise public awareness about climate change, its impacts, and the importance of mitigation and adaptation efforts, fostering widespread support for climate action.

• 26 Mar 2024
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• 21 May 2024
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Climate Change Stories

Climate Change FAQs

You asked. Our scientists answered. Use this guide to have the best info about climate change and how we can solve it together.

December 09, 2018 | Last updated November 13, 2023

Top Question: What Can I Do About Climate Change?

• Start a conversation. Talking about climate change is the best way to kickstart action , says Chief Scientist Kath arine Hayhoe.
• Vote at the ballot box (and the store). At every level, elected leaders have influence on policies that affect us all. And support companies taking climate action.
• Take personal action. Calculate your carbon footprint and share what you’ve learned to make action contagious.

Climate Change Basics

Click items to expand answers.

Each of these terms describes parts of the same problem—the fact that the average temperature of Earth is rising. As the planet heats up (global warming), we see broad impacts on Earth’s climate, such as shifting seasons, rising sea level, and melting ice.

As the impacts of climate change become more frequent and more severe, they will create—and in many cases they already are creating—crises for people and nature around the world. Many types of extreme weather, including heatwaves, heavy downpours, hurricanes and wildfires are becoming stronger and more dangerous.

Left unchecked, these impacts will spread and worsen, affecting our homes and cities, economies, food and water supplies as well as the species, ecosystems, and biodiversity of this planet we all call home.

All of these terms are accurate, and there’s no perfect one that will make everyone realize the urgency of action. Whatever you choose to call it, the most important thing is that we act to stop it.

Yes, scientists agree that the warming we are seeing today is entirely human-caused.

Climate has changed in the past due to natural factors such as volcanoes, changes in the sun’s energy and the way the Earth orbits the sun.  In fact, these natural factors should be cooling the planet. However, our planet is warming.

Scientists have known for centuries that the Earth has a natural blanket of greenhouse or heat-trapping gases. This blanket keeps the Earth more than 30 degrees Celsius (over 60 degrees Fahrenheit) warmer than it would be otherwise. Without this blanket, our Earth would be a frozen ball of ice.

Greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide and methane, trap some of the Earth’s heat that would otherwise escape to space. The more heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere, the thicker the blanket and the warmer it gets.

Over Earth’s history, heat-trapping gas levels have gone up and down due to natural factors. Today, however, by burning fossil fuels, causing deforestation ( forests are key parts of the planet’s natural carbon management systems), and operating large-scale industrial agriculture, humans are rapidly increasing levels of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.

The human-caused increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is much greater than any observed in the paleoclimate history (i.e. ancient climate data measured through ice sheets, tree rings, sediments and more) of the earth. As a result, temperature in the air and ocean is now increasing faster than at any time in human history.

Scientists have looked at every other possible reason why climate might be changing today, and their conclusions are clear. There’s no question: it’s us.

One of the main reasons scientists are so worried about climate change is the speed at which it is occurring. In many cases, these changes are happening faster than animals, plants, and ecosystems can safely adapt to – and the same is true for human civilization.

We’ve never seen climate change this quickly, and it is putting our food and water systems, our infrastructure, and even our economies at risk. In some places, these changes are already crossing safe levels for ecosystems and humans.

That’s why, the more we do to mitigate these risks, the better off we will all be.

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change is affecting our planet in many ways. Average temperatures are increasing; rainfall patterns are shifting; snow lines are retreating; glaciers and ice sheets are melting; permafrost is thawing; sea levels are rising ; and severe weather is becoming more frequent.

In particular, heatwaves are becoming more frequent and more intense. Tropical cyclones like hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones are intensifying faster and dumping more rain. Wildfires are burning greater area, and in many areas around the world, heavy rainfall is becoming more frequent and droughts are getting stronger.

All of these impacts are concerning because they can harm and even potentially lead to the collapse of ecosystems and human systems. And it’s clear that they become more severe  the more heat-trapping gases we produce.

Rapid changes in climate can directly and indirectly impact animals across the world. Many species are approaching—or have already reached—the limit of where they can go to find hospitable climates. In the polar regions, animals like polar bears that live on sea ice are now struggling to survive as that ice melts.

It’s not just how climate change affects an animal directly; it’s about how the warming climate affects the ecosystem and food chain to which an animal has adapted. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, moose are being affected by an increase in ticks and parasites that are surviving the  shorter, milder winters .

In western North America, salmon rely on steady-flowing cold rivers to spawn. As climate change alters the temperature and flow of these waterways, some salmon populations are dwindling. This change in salmon population affects many species that rely on salmon like orcas or grizzly bears.

Changes in temperature and moisture are causing some species to migrate in search of new places to live. For instance, in North America, species are shifting their ranges an average of 11 miles north and 36 feet higher in elevation each decade to find more favorable conditions. The Central Appalachians are one resilient climate escape route  that may help species adapt to changing conditions.

There are some natural places with enough topographical diversity such that, even as the planet warms, they can be  resilient strongholds for plant and animal species . These strongholds serve as breeding grounds and seed banks for many plants and animals that otherwise may be unable to find habitat due to climate change. However, strongholds are not an option for all species, and some plants and animals are blocked from reaching these areas by human development like cities, highways and farmland.

Here at The Nature Conservancy, we use science to identify such locations and work with local partners and communities to do everything we can to protect them.

From reducing agricultural productivity to threatening livelihoods and homes, climate change is affecting people everywhere. You may have noticed how  weather patterns near you are shifting  or how more frequent and severe storms are developing in the spring. Maybe your community is experiencing more severe flooding or  wildfires .

Many areas are even experiencing “sunny day flooding” as rising sea levels cause streets to flood during high tides. In Alaska, some entire coastal communities are being moved because the sea level has risen and what used to be permanently frozen ground has thawed to the point where their original location is no longer habitable.

Climate change also  exacerbates the threat of human-caused conflict  resulting from a scarcity of resources like food and water that become less reliable as growing seasons change and rainfall patterns become less predictable.

Many of these impacts are disproportionately affecting low-income, Indigenous, or marginalized communities. For example, in large cities in North America, low-income communities are often hotter during heatwaves, more likely to flood during heavy downpours, and the last to have their power restored after storms.

Around the globe, many of the poorest nations are being impacted first and most severely by climate change, even though they have contributed far less to the carbon pollution that has caused the warming in the first place. Climate change affects us all, but it doesn’t affect us all equally: and that’s not fair.

Whether you live close to a coast or far from one, what happens in oceans matters to our lives .

Earlier, we described how greenhouse gases trap heat around the planet. Only a small fraction of the extra heat being trapped by the carbon pollution blanket is going into heating up the atmosphere. Almost 90% of the heat is going into the ocean, causing the ocean to warm.

Warmer water takes up more space, causing sea level to rise. As land-based ice melts, this addition of water from land to the ocean causes the ocean to rise even faster.

Warmer oceans can drive fish migrations and lead to coral bleaching and die off.

As the ocean surface warms, it’s less able to mix with deep, nutrient-rich water, which limits the growth of phytoplankton (little plants that serve as the base of the marine food web and that also produce a lot of the oxygen we breathe). This in turn affects the whole food chain.

In addition to taking up heat, the oceans are also absorbing about a quarter of the carbon pollution that humans produce. In addition to warming the air and water of our planet, some of this extra carbon dioxide is being absorbed by the ocean, making our oceans more acidic. In fact, the rate of ocean acidification is the highest it has been in 300 million years!

This acidification negatively impacts many marine habitats and animals, but is a particular threat to shellfish, which struggle to grow shells as water becomes more acidic.

There’s also evidence that warming surface waters may contribute to slowing ocean currents. These currents act like a giant global conveyor belt that transports heat from the tropics toward the poles. This conveyor belt is critical for bringing nutrient-rich waters towards the surface near the poles where giant blooms of food web-supporting phytoplankton occur (this is why the Arctic and Antarctic are known for having such high abundance of fish and marine mammals). With continued warming, these processes may be at risk.

Climate change is disrupting weather patterns, leading to more extreme and frequent heatwaves, droughts, and flooding events that directly threaten harvests. Warmer seasons are also contributing to rising populations of insect pests that eat a higher share of crop yields, and higher carbon dioxide levels are causing plants to grow faster, while decreasing their nutritional content.

Flooding, drought, and heatwaves have decimated crops in China. In Bangladesh, rising sea levels are threatening rice crops. In the midwestern United States, more frequent and intense rains have caused devastating spring flooding, which delays—and sometimes prevents—planting activities.

These impacts make it more difficult for farmers to grow crops and sustain their livelihoods. Globally, one recent study finds that staple crop yield failures will be 4.5 times higher by 2030 and 25 times higher by mid-century. That means a major rice or wheat failure every other year, and higher probabilities of soybean and maize failures.

However, farmers are poised to play a significant role in addressing climate change. Agricultural lands are among the Earth’s largest natural reservoirs of carbon , and when farmers use soil health practices like cover crops, reduced tillage, and crop rotations, they can draw carbon out of the atmosphere .

These practices also help to improve the soil’s water-holding capacity, which is beneficial as water can be absorbed from the soil by crops during times of drought, and during heavy rainfalls, soil can help reduce flooding and run-off by slowing the release of water into streams.

Healthier soils can also improve crop yields, boost farmers’ profitability, and reduce erosion and fertilizer runoff from farm fields, which in turn means cleaner waterways for people and nature. That’s why climate-smart agriculture is a win-win!

Solutions to Climate Change

Yes, deforestation, land use change, and agricultural emissions are responsible for about a quarter of heat-trapping gas emissions from human activities. Agricultural emissions include methane from livestock digestion and manure, nitrous oxide from fertilizer use, and carbon dioxide from land use change.

Forests are one of our most important types of natural carbon storage , so when people cut down forests, they lose their ability to store carbon. Burning trees—either through wildfires or controlled burns-- releases even more carbon into the atmosphere.

Forests are some of the best natural climate solutions we have on this planet. If we can slow or stop deforestation , manage natural land so that it is healthy, and use other natural climate solutions such as climate-smart agricultural practices, we could achieve up to one third of the emission reductions needed by 2030 to keep global temperatures from rising more than 2°C (3.6°F). That’s the equivalent of the world putting a complete stop to burning oil.

When it comes to climate change, there’s no one solution that will fix it all. Rather, there are many solutions that, together, can address this challenge at scale while building a safer, more equitable, and greener world.

First, we need to reduce our heat-trapping gas emissions as much as possible, as soon as possible. Through efficiency and behavioral change, we can reduce the amount of energy we need.

At the same time, we have to  transition all sectors of our economy away from fossil fuels  that emit carbon, through increasing our use of clean energy sources like wind and solar. This transition will happen much faster and more cost-effectively if governments enact an economy-wide price on carbon.

Second, we need to harness the power of nature to capture carbon and deploy agricultural practices and technologies that capture and store carbon. Our research shows that proper land management of forests and farmlands, also called natural climate solutions, can provide up to one-third of the emissions reductions necessary to reach the Paris Climate Agreement’s goal.

The truth, however, is that even if we do successfully reach net zero carbon emissions by 2050, we will still have to address harmful climate impacts. That’s why there is a third category of climate solutions that is equally important: adaptation to the impacts of global warming.

Adaptation consists of helping our human and natural systems prepare for the impacts of a warming planet. Greening urban areas helps protect them from heat and floods; restoring coastal wetlands helps protect from storm surge; increasing the diversity of ecosystems helps them to weather heat and drought; growing super-reefs helps corals withstand marine heatwaves. There are many ways we can use technology, behavioral change, and nature to work together to make us more resilient to climate impacts.

Climate change affects us all, but it doesn’t affect us all equally or fairly. We see how sea level rise threatens communities of small island states like Kiribati and the Solomon Islands and of low-lying neighborhoods in coastal cities like Mumbai, Houston and Lagos. Similarly, people living in many low-income neighborhoods in urban areas in North America are disproportionately exposed to heat and flood risk due to a long history of racist policies like redlining.

Those who have done the least to contribute to this problem often bear the brunt of the impacts and have the fewest resources to adapt. That’s why it is particularly important to help vulnerable communities adapt and become more resilient to climate change.

We need to  increase renewable energy at least nine-fold  from where it is today to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement and avoid the worst climate change impacts. Every watt that we can reduce through efficiency or shift from fossil fuel to renewables like wind power or solar power is a step in the right direction.

The best science we have tells us that to avoid the worst impacts of global warming, we must globally achieve net-zero carbon emissions no later than 2050. To do this, the world must immediately identify pathways to reduce carbon emissions from all sectors: transportation, agriculture, electricity, and industry. This cannot be achieved without a major shift to renewable energy.

Clean energy and technological innovation are not only helping mitigate climate change, but also helping create jobs and support economic growth in communities across the world. Renewable energy such as wind and solar have experienced remarkable growth and huge cost improvements over the past decade with no signs of slowing down.

Prices are declining rapidly, and renewable energy is becoming increasingly competitive with fossil fuels all around the world. In some places, new renewable energy is already cheaper than continuing to operate old, inefficient, and dirty fossil fuel-fired power plants.

However, it’s important that renewable energy development isn’t built at the expense of protecting unique ecosystems or important agricultural lands. Without proactive planning, renewable energy developments could displace up to 76 million acres of farm and wildlife habitat—an area the size of Arizona.

Fortunately, TNC studies have found that  we can meet clean energy demand 17 times over  without converting more natural habitat. The key is to deploy new energy infrastructure on the wealth of previously converted areas such as agricultural lands, mine sites, and other transformed terrain, at a  lower cost .

Thoughtful planning is required at every step. For instance, much of the United States’ wind potential is in the Great Plains, a region with the best remaining grassland habitat on the continent. TNC has mapped out the right places to site wind turbines  in this region in order to catalyze renewable energy responsibly, and we’re doing the same analysis for India and Europe as well.

There can also be unique interventions to protect wildlife where clean energy has already been developed. In Kenya, for instance, a wind farm employs biodiversity monitors to watch for migrating birds , and can order individual turbines to shut down in less than a minute.

The Nature Conservancy is committed to tackling the dual crises of climate change and biodiversity loss. These two crises are, as our chief scientist says, two sides of the same coin .

What we do between now and 2030 will determine if we get on track to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement while also conserving enough land and water to slow accelerated species loss. That’s why we have ambitious 2030 goals that focus on people and the planet.

We're combatting these dual crises by:

• Enhancing nature’s ability to draw down and store carbon across forests, farmlands and wetlands by  accelerating the deployment of natural climate solutions .
• Mobilizing action for a clean energy future  and new, low-carbon technologies in harmony with nature.
• Supporting the leadership of Indigenous Peoples and local communities .
• Building resilience through natural defenses such as restored reefs, mangroves and wetlands that reduce the impact of storms and floods.
• Restoring and bolstering the resilience of vulnerable ecosystems like coral reefs and coastal wetlands.
• Helping countries around the globe, like India and Croatia , implement and enhance their commitments to the Paris Agreement.

Visit  Our Goals for 2030  to learn more about TNC’s actions and partnerships to tackle climate change this decade.

Why We Must Urgently Act on Climate

Some amount of change has already occurred, and some future changes are inevitable due to our past choices. However, the good news is that we know what causes it and what to do to stop it. It will take courage, ambition, and a push to create change, but it can be done.

Reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050 is an ambitious goal, one that’s going to require substantial effort across every sector of the economy. We don’t have a lot of time, but if we are prepared to act now, and act together, we can substantially reduce the rate of global warming and prevent the worst impacts of climate change from coming to pass.

The even better news is that the low carbon economy that we need to create will also give us cleaner air, more abundant food and water, more affordable energy choices, and safer cities. Likewise, many of the solutions to even today’s climate change impacts benefit both people and nature.

When we really understand the benefits of climate action—how it will lead us to a world that is safer and healthier, more just and equitable—the only question we have left is: What are we waiting for?

Scientific studies show that climate change, if unchecked, would overwhelm our communities and pose an existential threat to certain ecosystems.

These catastrophic impacts include sea level rise from melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica that would flood most major global coastal cities; increasingly common and more severe storms, droughts, and heatwaves; massive crop failures and water shortages; and the large-scale destruction of habitats and ecosystems, leading to species extinctions .

To avoid the worst of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says that “every bit of warming matters.” When it comes to limiting climate change, there’s no magic threshold: the faster we reduce our emissions, the better off we will be.

In 2015, all the countries in the world came together and signed the Paris Agreement . It’s a legally binding international treaty in which signatories agree to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C (3.5° F) above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C (2.7°F) above pre-industrial levels.”

Every day that goes by, we are releasing carbon into the atmosphere and increasing our planetary risk. Scientists agree that we need to begin reducing carbon emissions  RIGHT NOW .

To reach the goal of the Paris Agreement, the world must make significant progress toward decarbonization (reducing carbon from the atmosphere and replacing fossil fuels in our economies) by 2030 and commit ourselves to reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050. This is no small feat and will require a range of solutions applied together, to reach the goal.

As the IPCC says, “every action matters.” You can be part of the climate change solution and you can activate others, too.

It’s really important that we use our voices for climate action.  Tell your policy makers that you care about climate change  and want to see them enact laws and policies that address greenhouse gas emissions and climate impacts.

One of the simplest—and most important—things that everyone can do is to  talk about climate change with family and friends . We know these conversations can seem like a recipe for discord and hard feelings. It starts with meeting people where they are. TNC has resources to help you break the climate silence and pave the way for action on global warming.

You can also talk about climate change where you work, and with any other organization you’re part of. Join an organization that shares your values and priorities, to help amplify your voice. Collective change begins with understanding the risks climate change poses and the actions that can be taken together to reduce emissions and build resilience.

Lastly, you can calculate your carbon footprint  and take actions individually or with your family and friends to lower it. You might be surprised which of your activities are emitting the most heat-trapping gases. But don’t forget to talk about the changes you’ve made, to help make them contagious —contagious in a good way, of course!

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Talking About Climate

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COP28 takes place November 30-December 12, 2023 in United Arab Emirates. This guide will tell you what to expect at COP28, why TNC will be there, and what it all means for you.

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Renewable Energy Transition

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Climate change questions and answers

Why is our climate changing? What are the impacts? Here we address some of the common questions raised about the changing climate and the science involved in studying it.

What is climate change?

Climate change refers to any long-term trends or shifts in climate over many decades.

How has climate changed in the past?

There is a great deal of evidence that the Earth's climate has warmed over the past century, with recent years the warmest on record.

Why do sea levels change?

Sea levels can change for a variety of reasons over a range of different time scales.

How are large scale climate processes responding in a changing climate?

Large-scale climate processes, such as El Niño and the Indian Ocean Dipole, affect Australia’s climate. Climate change may make the impacts of these processes more extreme.

How is climate likely to change in the future?

The Earth's future climate will depend on whether the world manages to slow or reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but warming is likely to continue.

How do greenhouse gases warm the planet?

The greenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s climate liveable, but human activities have increased the amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the air, warming the planet and changing our climate.

What are the sources of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

About 90 per cent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the burning of fossil fuels, and most of Australia’s emissions also comes from energy production, followed by transport, agriculture, and industrial processes.

How are greenhouse gases measured, estimated, and reported?

The Australian Government uses a ‘bottom-up’ approach to estimate the country’s greenhouse emissions, which is complemented by CSIRO measurements to provide ‘top-down’ estimates.

How can we address the causes of climate change?

We need to address climate change through mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation addresses the cause of climate change, primarily through emissions reductions.

How can we adapt to climate change?

Adaption to climate change can prepare communities, industries and infrastructure for the future. Adaptation can build resilience and reduce the risks posed by climate change, but there are barriers and limits. Some risks are unavoidable.

How does CSIRO contribute to climate change knowledge?

Our climate researchers contribute significantly to the international effort of weather and climate understanding.

What are the impacts of extreme weather and climate events?

Increases in extreme climate events pose challenges for Australia now and in the future.

How will climate extremes change Australia?

Australia experiences many different climate types across its large area, including a range of climate extremes from freezing mountains to scorching deserts. As climate changes, Australia’s weather and climate extremes will also change.

How fast is the climate changing?

While our climate has always changed, it is now changing at a rate that is unprecedented for many thousands of years and is due to human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air.

How confident are we about the science of climate change?

The main impacts and mechanisms of physical climate change are scientifically well-understood, but specific estimates of these impacts are uncertain.

Where can I find more information about climate change?

Check where information comes from to ensure it is based on reliable and quality-assured sources of climate change science, such as peer-reviewed papers.

Find out how we can help you and your business. Get in touch using the form below and our experts will get in contact soon!

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You Asked, We Answered: Some Burning Climate Questions

Reporters from the Climate Desk gathered reader questions and are here to help explain some frequent puzzlers.

What’s one thing you want to know about climate change? We asked, and hundreds of you responded.

The topic, like the planet, is vast. Overwhelming. Complex. But there’s no more important time to understand what is happening and what can be done about it.

Why are extreme cold weather events happening if the planet is warming?

I understand that scientists believe that some extreme cold weather events are due to climate change, but I don’t quite understand how, especially if Earth is getting warmer overall. Could you explain this? — Gabriel Gutierrez, West Lafayette, Ind.

By Maggie Astor

The connection between climate change and extreme cold weather involves the polar jet stream in the Northern Hemisphere, strong winds that blow around the globe from west to east at an altitude of 5 to 9 miles. The jet stream naturally shifts north and south, and when it shifts south, it brings frigid Arctic air with it.

A separate wind system, called the polar vortex , forms a ring around the North Pole. When the vortex is temporarily disrupted — sometimes stretched or elongated, and other times broken into pieces — the jet stream tends to take one of those southward shifts. And research “suggests these disruptions to the vortex are happening more often in connection with a rapidly warming, melting Arctic, which we know is a clear symptom of climate change,” said Jennifer A. Francis, a senior scientist at the Woodwell Climate Research Center.

In other words, as climate change makes the Arctic warmer, the polar vortex is being more frequently disrupted in ways that allow Arctic air to escape south. And while temperatures are increasing on average, Arctic air is still frigid much of the time. Certainly frigid enough to cause extreme cold snaps in places like, say, Texas that are not accustomed to or prepared for them.

Where the extreme cold occurs depends on the nature of the disruption to the polar vortex. One type of disruption brings Arctic air into Europe and Asia. Another type brings Arctic air into the United States, and “that’s the type of polar vortex disruption that’s increasing the fastest,” said Judah L. Cohen, the director of seasonal forecasting at Atmospheric and Environmental Research, a private organization that works with government agencies.

It is important to note that these atmospheric patterns are extremely complicated, and while studies have shown a clear correlation between the climate-change-fueled warming of the Arctic and these extreme cold events, there is some disagreement among scientists about whether the warming of the Arctic is directly causing the extreme cold events. Research on that question is ongoing.

How will climate change affect biodiversity?

What impact will climate change have on biodiversity? How are they interlinked? How do the roles of developing versus developed countries differ, for example the United States and India? — A reader in India

By Catrin Einhorn

Warmer oceans are killing corals . Rising sea levels threaten the beaches that sea turtles need for nesting, and hotter temperatures are causing more females to be born. Changing seasons are increasingly out of step with the conditions species have evolved to depend on.

And then there are the polar bears , long a symbol of what could be lost in a warming world.

Climate change is already affecting plants and animals in ways that scientists are racing to understand. One study predicted sudden die offs , with large segments of ecosystems collapsing in waves. This has already started in coral reefs, scientists say, and could start in tropical forests by the 2040s.

Keeping global warming under 2 degrees Celsius, or 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, the upper limit outlined by the Paris Agreement, would reduce the number of species exposed to dangerous climate change by 60 percent, the study found.

Despite these grim predictions, climate change isn’t yet the biggest driver of biodiversity loss. On land, the largest factor is the ways in which people have reshaped the terrain itself, creating farms and ranches, towns and cities, roads and mines from what was once habitat for myriad species. At sea, the main cause of biodiversity loss is overfishing. Also at play: pollution, introduced species that outcompete native ones, and hunting. A sobering report in 2019 by the leading international authority on biodiversity found that around a million species were at risk of extinction, many within decades.

While climate change will increasingly drive species loss, that’s not the only way in which the two are interlinked. Last year the same biodiversity panel joined with its climate change counterpart to issue a paper declaring that neither crisis could be addressed effectively on its own. For example, intact ecosystems like peatlands and forests both nurture biodiversity and sequester carbon; destroy them, and they turn into emitters of greenhouse gasses as well as lost habitat.

What to do? The science is clear that the world must transition away from fossil fuels far more quickly than is happening. Deforestation must stop . Consuming less meat and dairy would free up farmland for restoration , providing habitat for species and stashing away carbon. Ultimately, many experts say, we need a transformation from an extraction-based economy to a circular one. Like nature’s cycle, our waste — old clothes, old smartphones, old furniture — must be designed to provide the building blocks of what comes next.

Countries around the world are working on a new United Nations biodiversity agreement , which is expected to be approved later this year. One sticking point: How much money wealthy countries are willing to give poorer ones to protect intact natural areas, since wealthy countries have already largely exploited theirs.

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What’s the status of U.S. climate legislation and emissions?

Where is the trimmed back version of climate legislation at? Joe Manchin reportedly said he would support such a bill. What do you know about the bill and will it pass with just Democrats? — Richard Buttny, Virgil, N.Y.

What is the current stated U.S. goal regarding reducing greenhouse gases and climate change, and how likely is it that we will achieve that goal? What do we need to do today to make progress toward achieving that goal? — Kathy Gray, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

By Lisa Friedman

Richard, as to the last part of your question, honestly, at this point your guess is as good as ours.

But here is what we know so far. Senator Joe Manchin III, Democrat of West Virginia, the most powerful man in Congress because his support in an evenly divided Senate is key, effectively killed President Biden’s Build Back Better climate and social spending legislation when he ended months of negotiations last year, saying he could not support the package .

A few weeks ago amid talks of revived discussions, Mr. Manchin was blunt. “There is no Build Back Better legislation,” he told reporters. Mr. Manchin also has not committed to passing a smaller version of the original $1 trillion spending plan. He has, however, voiced support for an “all of the above” energy package that increases oil and gas development.

Democrats hope that billions of dollars in tax incentives for wind, solar, geothermal and electric vehicle charging stations can also make its way into such a package. But relations between the White House and Mr. Manchin are rocky and it is unclear whether such a bill could pass before lawmakers leave town for an August recess.

To your emissions question, Kathy, Mr. Biden has pledged to cut United States emissions 50 to 52 percent below 2005 levels by 2030 . Energy experts say it is a challenging but realistic goal, and critical for helping the world avert the worst impacts of climate change.

It’s not going to be easy. So far there are few regulations and even fewer laws that can help achieve that target. Mr. Biden’s centerpiece legislation, the Build Back Better Act, includes $550 billion in clean energy tax incentives that researchers said could get the country about halfway to its goal. But, as noted, that bill is stalled in the Senate . Even if it manages to win approval this year, the administration will still have to enact regulations on things like power plants and automobile emissions to meet the target.

Will our drinking water be safe?

A lot of coverage on climate change deals with rising sea levels and extreme weather — droughts, floods, etc. My question is more about how climate change will affect drinking water and access to safe clean water. Are we in danger within our current lifetime to see an impact to safe water within the U.S. due to climate change? — Jessica, Silver Spring, Md.

By Christopher Flavelle

Climate change threatens Americans’ access to clean drinking water in a number of ways. The most obvious is drought: Rising temperatures are reducing the snowpack that supplies drinking water for much of the West.

But drought is far from the only climate-related threat to America’s water. Along the coast, cities like Miami that draw drinking water from underground aquifers have to worry about rising seas pushing saltwater into those aquifers , a process called saltwater intrusion. And rising seas also push up groundwater levels, which can cause septic systems to stop working, pushing unfiltered human waste into that groundwater.

Even in cities far from the coast, worsening floods are overwhelming aging sewer systems , causing untreated storm water and sewage to reach rivers and streams more frequently . And some 2,500 chemical sites are in areas at risk of flooding, which could cause those chemicals to leach into the groundwater.

In some cases, protecting drinking water from the effects of climate change is possible, so long as governments can find enough money to upgrade infrastructure — building new systems to contain storm water, for example, or better protect chemicals from being released during a flood.

Far harder will be finding new supplies of water to make up for what’s lost as temperatures rise. Some communities are responding by pumping more water from the ground. But if those aquifers are depleted faster than rainwater can replenish them, they will eventually run dry, a concern with the Ogallala Aquifer that supports much of the High Plains.

Even with significant reductions in water use, climate change could reduce the number of people that some regions can support, and leave more areas dependent on importing water.

Can you solve drought by piping water across the country?

Why don’t we create a national acequia system to capture excess rain falling primarily in the Eastern United States and pipeline it to the drought in the West? — Carol P. Chamberland, Albuquerque, N.M

The idea of taking water from one community and giving it to another has some basis in American history. In 1913, Los Angeles opened an aqueduct to carry water from Owens Valley, 230 miles north of the city, to sustain its growth.

But the project, in addition to costing some $23 million at the time, greatly upset Owens Valley residents, who so resented losing their water that they took to dynamiting the aqueduct. Repeatedly .

Today, there are some enormous water projects in the United States, though building a pipeline that spanned a significant stretch of the country would be astronomically more difficult. The distance between Albuquerque, for example, and the Mississippi River — perhaps the closest hypothetical starting point for such a pipeline — is about 1,000 miles, crossing at least three states along the way. Moving that water all the way to Los Angeles would mean piping it at least 1,800 miles across five states.

So the engineering and permitting challenges alone would be daunting. And that’s assuming the local and state governments that would have to give up their water would be willing to do so.

China dealt with similar challenges to build a colossal network of waterways that is transferring water from the country’s humid south to its dry north. But of course, China’s system of government makes engineering feats of that scale somewhat more feasible to pull off.

For the United States, it would be easier to just build a series of desalination plants along the West coast, according to Greg Pierce, director of the Human Right to Water Solutions Lab at the University of California, Los Angeles. And before turning to desalination, which is itself energy-intensive and thus expensive, communities in the West should work harder at other steps, such as water conservation and recycling, he said.

“It’s not worth it,” Dr. Pierce said of the pipeline idea. “You’d have to exhaust eight other options first.”

Is the weather becoming more extreme than scientists predicted?

How can we have faith in climate modeling when extreme events are much worse than predicted? Given “unexpected” extreme events like the 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave and extreme heat in Antarctica that appear to shock scientists, it’s difficult for me to trust the I.P.C.C.’s framing that we haven’t run out of time. — Kevin, Herndon, Va.

By Raymond Zhong

Climate scientists have said for a long time that global warming is causing the intensity and frequency of many types of extreme weather to increase. And that’s exactly what has been happening. But global climate models aren’t really designed to simulate extreme events in individual regions. The factors that shape individual heat waves, for instance, are very local. Large-scale computer models simply can’t handle that level of detail quite yet.

That said, sometimes there are events that seem so anomalous that they make scientists wonder if they reflect something totally new and unforeseen, a gap in our understanding of the climate. Some researchers put the 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave in that category, and are working to figure out whether they need to re-evaluate some of their assumptions.

For its part, the I.P.C.C. has hardly failed to acknowledge what’s happening with extreme weather. But its mandate is to assess the whole range of climate research, which might make it lean toward the middle of the road in its summaries. A decade ago, when a group of researchers looked back at the panel’s assessments from the early 2000s, they found that it generally underestimated the actual changes in sea level rise, increases in surface temperatures, intensity of rainfall and more. They blamed the instinct of scientists to avoid making conclusions that seem “excessively dramatic,” perhaps out of fear of being called alarmist.

The panel’s latest report, from April , concluded that we haven’t run out of time to slow global warming, but only if nations and societies make some huge changes right away. That’s a big if.

How can I hear from climate scientists themselves?

Why are climate change scientists faceless, aloof, terrible communicators and absent from social media? — A reader in Dallas

Climate science may not yet have its Bill Nye or its Neil deGrasse Tyson, but plenty of climate scientists are passionate about communicating their work to the public. Lots of them are on Twitter. Here’s a (very small) cross-section of people to follow, in alphabetical order:

Alaa Al Khourdajie : Senior scientist in London with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the body of experts convened by the United Nations that puts out regular, authoritative surveys of climate research. Tweets on climate change economics and climate diplomacy.

Andrew Dessler : Professor of atmospheric sciences at Texas A&M University. Elucidator of energy and renewables, climate models and Texas.

Zeke Hausfather : Climate research lead at the payment processing company Stripe and scientist at Berkeley Earth, a nonprofit research group. A seemingly tireless chronicler, charter and commentator on all things climate.

David Ho : Climate scientist at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and École Normale Supérieure in Paris. Talks oceans and carbon dioxide removal, with wry observations on transit, cycling and life in France, too.

Twila Moon : Deputy lead scientist at the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Colo. Covers glaciers, polar regions and giant ice sheets, and why we should all care about what happens to them.

Maisa Rojas : Climatologist at the University of Chile and Chile’s current environment minister. Follow along for slices of life at the intersection of science and government policy.

Sonia I. Seneviratne : Professor of land-climate dynamics at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. Tweets on extreme weather, greenhouse gas emissions and European energy policy.

Chandni Singh : Researcher on climate adaptation at the Indian Institute for Human Settlements in Bangalore. Posts about how countries and communities are coping with climate change, in both helpful ways and not so helpful ones.

Kim Wood : Geoscientist and meteorologist at Mississippi State University. A fount of neat weather maps and snarky GIFs.

What kind of trees are best to plant for the planet?

The world is trying to reforest the planet by planting nonnative trees like eucalyptus. Is this another disastrous plan? Shouldn’t they be planting native trees? — Katy Green, Nashville

Ecologists would say planting native trees is the best choice. We recently published an article on this very topic , examining how tree planting can resurrect or devastate ecosystems, depending on what species are planted and where.

To be sure, people need wood and other tree products for all kinds of reasons, and sometimes nonnative species make sense. But even when the professed goal is to help nature, the commercial benefits of certain trees, like Australian eucalyptus in Africa and South America or North American Sitka spruce in Europe, often win out.

A new standard is in development that would score tree planting projects on how well they’re doing with regard to biodiversity, with the aim of helping those with poor scores to improve.

The same ecological benefit of planting native species also holds true for people’s yards. Doug Tallamy, a professor of entomology at the University of Delaware, worked with the National Wildlife Federation to develop this tool to help people find native trees, shrubs and flowers that support the most caterpillars, which in turn feed baby birds .

Can we engineer solutions to atmospheric warming?

Why are we not investing in scalable solutions that can remove carbon or reduce solar radiation? — Hayes Morehouse, Hayward, Calif.

By Henry Fountain

As a group, these types of solutions are referred to as geoengineering, or intentional manipulation of the climate. Geoengineering generally falls into two categories: removing some of the carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere so Earth traps less heat, known as direct air capture, or reducing how much sunlight reaches Earth’s surface so that there is less heat to begin with, usually called solar radiation management.

There are a few companies developing direct air capture machines, and some have deployed them on a small scale. According to the International Energy Agency, these projects capture a total of about 10 thousand tons of CO2 a year, a tiny fraction of the roughly 35 billion tons of annual energy-related emissions. Removing enough CO2 to have a climate impact would take a long time and require many thousands of machines, all of which would need energy to operate.

The captured gas would also have to be securely stored to keep it from re-entering the atmosphere. Those hurdles make direct air capture a long shot, especially since, for now at least, there are few financial incentives to overcome them. No one wants to pay to remove carbon dioxide from the air and bury it underground.

Solar radiation management is a different story. The basics of how to do it are known: inject some kind of chemical (perhaps sulfur dioxide) into the upper atmosphere, where it would reflect more of the sun’s rays. Relatively speaking, it wouldn’t be all that expensive (a fleet of high-flying planes would probably suffice) although once started it would have to continue indefinitely.

The major hurdle to developing the technology has been grave concern among many scientists, policymakers and others about unintended consequences that might result, and about the lack of a structure to govern its deployment. To date, there have been almost no real-world studies of the technology .

How do we know how warm the planet was in the 1800s?

One key finding of climate science is that global temperatures have increased by 2 degrees Fahrenheit since the late 1800s. How can we possibly have reliable measures of global temperatures from back then, keeping in mind that oceans cover about 70 percent of the globe and that a large majority of land has never been populated by humans to any significant degree? — Robert, Madison, Wis.

The mercury thermometer was invented in the early 1700s, and by the mid- to late 19th century, local temperatures were being monitored continuously in many locations, predominantly in the United States, Europe and the British colonies. By 1900, there were hundreds of recording stations worldwide, but over half of the Southern Hemisphere still wasn’t covered. And the techniques could be primitive. To measure temperatures at the sea’s surface, for instance, the most common method before about 1940 was to toss a bucket overboard a ship, haul it back up with a rope and read the temperature of the water inside.

To turn these spotty local measurements into estimates of average temperatures globally, across both land and ocean, climate scientists have had to perform some highly delicate analysis . They’ve used statistical models to fill in the gaps in direct readings. They’ve taken into account when weather stations changed locations or were situated close to cities that were hot for reasons unrelated to larger temperature trends.

They have also used some clever techniques to try to correct for antiquated equipment and methods. Those bucket readings , for example, might be inaccurate because the water in the bucket cooled down as it was pulled aboard. So scientists have scoured various nations’ maritime archives to determine what materials their sailors’ buckets were made of — tin, wood, canvas, rubber — during different periods in history and adjusted the way they incorporate those temperature recordings into their computations.

Such analysis is fiendishly tricky. The numbers that emerge are uncertain estimates, not gospel truth. Scientists are working constantly to refine them. Today’s global temperature measurements are based on a much broader and more quality-controlled set of readings, including from ships and buoys in the oceans.

But having a historical baseline, even an imperfect one, is important. As Roy L. Jenne, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, wrote in a 1975 report on the institution’s collections of climate data: “Although they are not perfect, if they are used wisely they can help us find answers to a number of problems.”

Does producing batteries for electric cars damage the environment more than gas vehicles do?

Is the environmental damage collecting metals/producing batteries for electric cars more dangerous to the environment than gas powered vehicles? — Sandy Rogers, San Antonio, Texas

By Hiroko Tabuchi

There’s no question that mining the metals and minerals used in electric car batteries comes with sizable costs that are not just environmental but also human.

Much of the world’s cobalt, for example, is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo , where corruption and worker exploitation has been widespread. Extracting the metals from their ores also requires a process called smelting, which can emit sulfur oxide and other harmful air pollution.

Beyond the minerals required for batteries, electric grids still need to become much cleaner before electric vehicles are emissions free.

Most electric vehicles sold today already produce significantly fewer planet-warming emissions than most cars fueled with gasoline, but a lot still depends on how much coal is being burned to generate the electricity they use.

Still, consider that batteries and other clean technology require relatively tiny amounts of these critical minerals, and that’s only to manufacture them. Once a battery is in use, there are no further minerals necessary to sustain it. That’s a very different picture from oil and gas, which must constantly be drilled from the ground, transported via pipelines and tankers, refined and combusted in our gasoline cars to keep those cars moving, said Jim Krane, a researcher at Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy in Houston. In terms of environmental and other impacts, he said, “There’s just no comparison.”

How close are alternatives to fuel-powered aircraft?

As E. V.s are to gas-powered cars, are there greener alternatives to fuel-powered planes that are close to commercialization? — Rashmi Sarnaik, Boston

There are alternatives to fossil-fuel-powered aircraft in development, but whether they are close to commercialization depends on how you define “close.” It’s probably fair to say that the day when a significant amount of air travel is on low- or zero-emissions planes is still far-off.

There has been some work on using hydrogen , including burning it in modified jet engines. Airbus and the engine manufacturer CFM International expect to begin flight testing a hydrogen-fueled engine by the middle of the decade.

As with cars, though, most of the focus in aviation has been on electric power and batteries. The main problem with batteries is how little energy they supply relative to their weight. In cars that’s less of an obstacle (they don’t have to get off the ground, after all) but in aviation, batteries severely limit the size of the plane and how far it can fly.

One of the biggest battery-powered planes to fly so far was a modified Cessna Grand Caravan, test-flown by two companies, Magnix and Aerotec. Turboprop Grand Caravans can carry 10 or more people up to 1,200 miles. The companies said theirs could fly four or five people 100 miles or less.

The limitations of batteries, at least for now, have led some companies to work on other designs. Some use fuel cells, which work like batteries but can continuously supply electricity using hydrogen or other fuel. Others use hybrid systems — like hybrid cars, combining batteries and fossil-fuel-powered engines. In one approach, the engines provide some power and also keep the batteries charged. In another, the engines are used in takeoff and descent, when more power is needed, and the batteries for cruising, which requires less power. That keeps the number of batteries, and the weight, down.

Can countries meet the goals they set in the Paris agreement?

What countries, if any, have a realistic chance of meeting their Paris agreement pledges? — Michael Svetly, Philadelphia

According to Climate Action Tracker , a research group that analyzes climate goals and policies, very few. Ahead of United Nations talks in Glasgow last year, the organization found most major emitters of carbon dioxide, including the United States and China, are falling short of their pledge to stabilize global warming around 1.5 degrees Celsius, or 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit.

A few are doing better than most, including Costa Rica and the United Kingdom. Just one country was on track to meet its promises: Gambia, a small West African nation that has been bolstering its renewable energy use.

What will happen to N.Y.C.?

How is N.Y.C. planning for relocation or redevelopment, or both, of its many low-lying neighborhoods as floodwaters become too high to levee? — A reader in North Bergen, N.J.

New York City has yet to announce plans to fully relocate entire neighborhoods threatened by climate change, with all the steps that would entail: determining which homes to buy, getting agreement from homeowners, finding a new patch of land for the community, building new infrastructure, securing funding and so on.

Relocation projects on that scale, often described as “managed retreat,” remain extremely rare in the United States. What projects have been attempted so far have mostly been in rural areas or small towns , and their success has been mixed.

And the idea of pulling back from the water, while never easy, is especially fraught in New York City, which has some of the highest real estate values in the country. Those high values have been used to justify fantastically expensive projects to protect low-lying land in the city, rather than abandon it — like a $10 billion berm along the South Street Seaport , or a $119 billion sea wall in New York Harbor .

Perhaps unsurprisingly, then, the city’s most recent Comprehensive Waterfront Plan , issued in December, makes no mention of managed retreat. But the plan does include what it calls “housing mobility” — policies aimed at helping individual households move to safer areas, for example by giving people money to buy a new home on higher ground, as well as paying for moving and other costs. The city also says it is limiting the density of new development in high-risk areas.

Robert Freudenberg, a vice president of the Regional Plan Association, a nonprofit planning group in New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, gave city officials credit for beginning to talk about the idea that some areas can’t be protected forever.

“It’s an extremely challenging topic,” Mr. Freudenberg said. But as flooding gets worse, he added, “we can’t not talk about it.”

As oceans rise, will the Great Lakes, too?

The oceans are predicted to rise and affect coastal areas and cities, however, does this rise also affect the coastal areas of the Great Lakes, as the lakes are connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River and one would have to assume they would eventually be impacted? — Terri Messinides, Madison, Wis.

The Great Lakes are not directly threatened by rising oceans because of their elevation: The lowest of them, Lake Ontario, is about 240 feet above sea level. The St. Lawrence River carries water from the lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, but because of the elevation change, rising waters in the Atlantic can’t travel in the other direction.

That said, climate change is causing increasingly frequent and intense storms in the Great Lakes region, and the effects, including higher water levels and more flooding, are in many respects the same as those caused by rising seas. It’s just a different manifestation of climate change.

When it comes to precipitation, the past five years, from April 2017 through March 2022, the last month for which complete data is available, have been the second-wettest on record for the Great Lakes Basin, according to records kept by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The water has risen accordingly. In 2019, water levels in the lakes hit 100-year highs , causing severe flooding and shoreline erosion.

At the same time, higher temperatures increase the rate of evaporation, which can lead to abnormally low water levels. People who live around the Great Lakes can expect to see both extremes — high water driven by severe rainfall, and low water driven by evaporation — happen more often as the climate continues to warm.

What is the environmental cost of cryptocurrency?

Can you tell us about the damage being done to our environment by crypto mining? I’ve heard the mining companies are trying to switch to renewable energy, yet at the same time reopening old coal power plants to provide the huge amounts of electricity they need. — Barry Engelman, Santa Monica, Calif.

Cryptomining, the enigmatic way in which virtual cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are created (and which is also behind technology like NFTs ), requires a whole lot of computing power, is highly energy-intensive and generates outsize emissions. We delved into that process, and its environmental impact in this article — but suffice to say the problem isn’t going away soon.

The way Bitcoin is set up, using a process called “proof of work,” means that as interest in cryptocurrencies grows and more people start mining, more energy is required to mine a single Bitcoin. Researchers at Cambridge University estimate that mining Bitcoin uses more electricity than midsize countries like Norway. In New York, an influx of Bitcoin miners has led to the reopening of mothballed power plants.

But you might wonder about the traditional financial system: doesn’t that use energy, too? Yes, of course. But Bitcoin, for all its hype, still makes up just a few percent of all the world’s money or its transactions. So even though one industry study estimated that Bitcoin consumes about a 10th of the energy required by the traditional banking system, that still means Bitcoin’s energy use is outsize.

To address its high emissions footprint, cryptomining has increasingly tapped into renewable forms of energy, like hydroelectric power. But figuring out exactly just how much renewable energy Bitcoin miners use can be tricky. For one, we don’t exactly know where many of these miners are. We do know a lot of crypto miners used to be in China, where they had access to large amounts of hydro power. But now that they’ve largely been kicked out, cryptomining’s global climate impact has likely gotten worse .

In the United States, cryptominers have started to tap an unconventional new energy source: drilled gas, collected at oil and gas wells. The miners argue that this gas would otherwise have been flared or vented into the atmosphere, so no excess emissions are created. The reality is not that clear cut: If the presence of those cryptominers disincentivizes oil and gas companies from piping away that gas to be used elsewhere, any savings effect is blunted.

Other efforts are afoot to make cryptomining less damaging for the environment, including an alternative way of cryptomining involving a process called “proof of stake,” that doesn’t require miners to use as much energy. But unless Bitcoin, the most popular cryptocurrency, switches over, that’s going to do little to dent miners’ energy use.

How much do volcanoes contribute to global warming?

What does the data look like for greenhouse gas emissions in the last 200 years if volcanic activity was subtracted out? — Haley Rowlands, Boston

Volcanic activity generates 130 million to 440 million tons of carbon dioxide per year, according to the United States Geological Survey . Human activity generates about 35 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year — 80 times as much as the high-end estimate for volcanic activity, and 270 times as much as the low-end estimate. And that’s carbon dioxide. Human activity also emits other greenhouse gases, like methane, in far greater quantities than volcanoes.

The largest volcanic eruption in the past century was the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines; if an explosion that size happened every day, NASA has calculated , it would still release only half as much carbon dioxide as daily human activity does. The annual emissions from cement production alone, one small component of planet-warming human activity, are greater than the annual emissions from every volcano in the world.

There is also no evidence that volcanic activity has increased over the past 200 years. While there have been more documented eruptions, researchers at the Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program found that this was attributable not to an actual trend, but rather to “increases in populations living near volcanoes to observe eruptions and improvements in communication technologies to report those eruptions.”

All told, volcanic activity accounts for less than 1 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, which is not enough to contribute in any meaningful way to the increase we’ve seen over the past 200 years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change found in 2013 (see Page 56 of its report ) that the climatic effects of volcanic activity were “inconsequential” over the scale of a century.

Do carbon dioxide concentrations vary around the globe?

Why is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii used as the global reference? It’s only one point on Earth. Do concentrations vary between different parts of the world? — Evan, Boston

At any given moment, levels of carbon dioxide in the air vary from place to place, depending on the amount of vegetation and human activity nearby. Which is why, as a location to monitor the average state of the atmosphere, at least over a large part of the Northern Hemisphere, a barren volcano in the middle of the Pacific has much to offer. It’s high above the ground and far enough from major sources of industrial pollution but still relatively accessible to researchers.

Today, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration studies global carbon dioxide levels by looking at readings from Mauna Loa Observatory and a variety of other sources. These include observatories in Alaska, American Samoa and the South Pole, tall towers across the United States, and samples collected by balloons, aircraft and volunteers around the world. ( Here’s a map of all those sites.)

NOAA also checks its measurements at Mauna Loa against others from the same location, including ones taken independently, using different methods, by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . On average, the difference in their monthly estimates is tiny.

Could a ‘new ice age’ offset global warming?

Will increases in global temperature associated with climate change be mitigated by the coming of a new “ice age?” — Suzanne Smythe, Essex, Conn.

In a “mini ice age,” if it occurred, average worldwide temperatures would drop, thus offsetting the warming that has been caused by emissions of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels in the last century and a half.

It’s a nice thought: a natural phenomenon comes to our rescue. But it’s not happening, nor is it expected to.

The idea is linked to the natural variability in the amount of the sun’s energy that reaches Earth. The sun goes through regular cycles, lasting about 11 years, when activity swings from a minimum to a maximum. But there are also longer periods of reduced activity, called grand solar minimums. The last one began in the mid-17th century and lasted seven decades.

There is some debate among scientists whether we are entering a new grand minimum . But even if we are, and even if it lasted for a century, the reduction in the sun’s output would not have a significant effect on temperatures. NASA scientists, among others, have calculated that any cooling effect would be overwhelmed by the warming effect of all the greenhouse gases we have pumped, and continue to pump, into the atmosphere.

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Once in a while, you may find yourself wanting to consult or share a good source of basic climate-change information – a primer or introduction that’s short but not overly simple. Here are some recommendations for that situation.

(Incidentally, in America, primer in this sense usually rhymes with swimmer; in Britain, with timer.)

“ Climate Science, Risk & Solutions: Climate Knowledge for Everyone. ” Assembled by leading MIT climate scientist (and hurricane guru) Kerry Emanuel, this site is terrific, with lots of cool graphics and clearly explained, sophisticated information. It even has an audio version.

NASA’s “ Climate Change ” homepage isn’t in itself a primer, but look at the drop-down menus under “Facts,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” and “Vital Signs” for good, readable information, with links and graphics.

The New York Times has consistently had some of the best coverage of climate change. This FAQ (“Have Climate Questions? Get Answers Here”) from 2021 is still current and quite good.

At the bottom of the United Nations “ Climate Action ” homepage is a collection of topical links to good explainers and primers on many key subjects. Global reach, and lots of links included.

“ Report charts climate change’s growing impact in the U.S., while stressing benefits of action. ” Marianne Lavelle, Katie Surma, Kiley Price, Nicholas Kusnetz, Inside Climate News. A good overview of the Fifth U.S. National Climate Assessment (2023), with links.

The European Environment Agency’s “Climate change impacts, risks and adaptation” is Europe-focused, solid, and interesting. Look under the “more information” topics at the bottom of the homepage, especially “ climate change impacts, risks, and adaptation ” and “ climate change mitigation .”

Good primer for the climate scenarios as used by the IPCC: “This interactive primer gives an introduction to what climate change scenarios are and how they are connected to socioeconomics, energy & land use, emissions, climate change and climate impacts.”

“ Where the World Is (and Isn’t) Making Progress on Climate Change .” Brad Plumer and Nadja Popovich, New York Times. A good summary of where we were late in 2023.

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Climate change, energy, environment and sustainability topics research guide

What is climate change.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. The world is now warming faster than at any point in recorded history, which disrupts the usual balance of nature and is a threat to human beings and other forms of life on Earth. This topic guide includes sample keywords and search terms, databases to find sources, and samples of online books.

Example keywords and subtopics

Example keywords or search terms:  

• Climate change
• global warming
• greenhouse effect or greenhouse gas
• climate crisis
• environmental change
• clean energy
• alternative energy or renewable energy
• green energy or renewable energy or clean energy
• Low carbon or carbon neutral
• Carbon offsetting
• sustainability environment or sustainability
• environmental protection
• pollution or contamination
• impact or effect or influence
• cost or price or expense or money or financial
• fossil fuels or coal or oil or gas

Tip: This is a big topic with lots written so you can often focus on one or two subtopics. This will help to find more relevant sources, more quickly and be a better fit for an assignment. 

Possible subtopics ideas:  Pick one or two subtopics and then add those words to your search.

• Health impacts of climate changes (e.g. air pollution, water pollution, etc.)
• impacts on a specific city, state, region or country
• political impacts (e.g. voting, government policy, etc.)
• impact on specific population or culture (e.g. children, elderly, racial or ethic group, country, etc.)
• specific types of renewable or alternative energy (e.g. solar, wind, bio, etc.) 
• example of new technology (e.g. electric cars or electric vehicles or hybrid vehicles
• economic impacts (e.g. business, employment, industry (e.g. oil, coal, etc.)
• weather and impacts (e.g. rising sea levels, flooding, droughts or heat waves, etc.)
• media aspects (e.g. news coverage, advertising, misinformation, movies, music, etc.) 
• Tutorial: Creating an effective search strategy

• Use meaningful keywords to find the best sources
• Apply search strategies like AND and OR to connect keywords
• Tutorial: What is a library database and why should I use one?

• Identify what a library database is
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• Understand why searching a library database is different than searching the general internet

Databases for finding sources

Article Databases - 

Use articles to find new research, specific information and evidence to support or refute a claim. You can also look at the bibliography or works cited to find additional sources. Some articles give an overview of a specific topic -- sometimes called "review articles" or "meta-analyses" or "systematic review." Databases are like mini-search engines for finding articles (e.g. Business Source Premier database searches business journals, business magazines and business newspapers). Pick a database that searches the subject of articles you want to find. 

• Agricultural & Environmental Science Database Search journals and literature on agriculture, pollution, animals, environment, policy, natural resources, water issues and more. Searches tools like AGRICOLA, Environmental Sciences & Pollution Management (ESPM), and Digests of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) databases.
• GreenFILE Collection of scholarly, government and general-interest titles. Multidisciplinary by nature, GreenFILE draws on the connections between the environment and agriculture, education, law, health and technology. Topics covered include global climate change, green building, pollution, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy, recycling, and more.
• Ethnic NewsWatch Ethnic NewsWatch is a current resource of full-text newspapers, magazines, and journals of the ethnic and minority press from 1990, providing researchers access to essential, often overlooked perspectives.
• Opposing Viewpoints in Context Find articles on current issues, including viewpoint articles, topic overviews, statistics, primary documents, magazine and newspaper articles.

Sample of online books

Below are a selection of online books and readings on the broad topic. We have more online books, journal articles, and sources in our Libraries Search and article databases.  

• A climate policy revolution : what the science of complexity reveals about saving our planet by Roland Kupers ISBN: 9780674246812 Publication Date: 2020 "In this book, Roland Kupers argues that the climate crisis is well suited to the bottom-up, rapid, and revolutionary change complexity science theorizes; he succinctly makes the case that complexity science promises policy solutions to address climate change."

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Climate Crisis Survey Reveals Scientists’ Willingness to Act – and Barriers to Action

• Triveni Sheshadri - [email protected]

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• Inga Kiderra - [email protected]

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Increasing global temperatures. Rising sea levels. Shrinking ice sheets. Warmer ocean water. Over the last several decades, scientists worldwide have amassed compelling evidence on climate change. However, little is known about the personal beliefs and attitudes of climate scientists and scientists and academics in other disciplines about what they are or are not doing beyond research to deal with what appears to be accelerated global heating and its impacts on the biosphere.

A large-scale survey conducted by a team of international researchers led by investigators at the University of Amsterdam has found that scientists worldwide and across disciplines are extremely concerned about climate change and its cascading effects on every sphere of life. Many scientists surveyed in the study report making changes in their own lifestyles and engaging in advocacy and protest, and more are willing to do so in the future. Importantly, they also pointed to key psychological, social and institutional barriers to more advocacy and protest.

Adam Aron, professor of psychology in the School of Social Sciences at the University of California San Diego, is a co-author of the study published Aug. 5 in the journal Nature Climate Change .

“Climate change is one of the biggest threats to humanity,” said Aron whose research is now focused on the social psychology of collective action on the climate and ecological crisis. “Governments, corporations and many institutions continue to make empty promises that downplay the level of transformation that’s required to prevent climate breakdown and to equitably adapt societies to deal with the impacts that are already here.”

The researchers surveyed more than 9,000 scientists from 115 countries about their views on climate change and the extent to which they are engaged in climate action. Climate change worried the majority of respondents (83%). Many more (91%) believed that fundamental changes in social, political and economic systems are needed to mitigate the effects of climate change. When asked about their own actions to combat the climate crisis, many said they have already made significant changes to their lifestyle. They were driving less (69%), flying less (51%) and switching to a more plant-based diet (39%).

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Barriers to engagement and action

The researchers found that the majority of scientists who responded to the survey believed in the effectiveness of climate activist groups to bring about positive change. They were also in support of more engagement on the part of the scientific community in climate advocacy and even protest. Their own responses to the crisis included climate advocacy (29%), participation in legal protest (23%) and/or acts of civil disobedience (10%). About half said they would be willing to engage in some of these in the future.

Based on these results, the authors of the study propose a two-step model of engagement. First, in order for scientists to be willing to engage, they need to break through intellectual barriers that impede climate action such as lack of belief in the effectiveness of the actions, lack of identification with activists, lack of knowledge, fear of losing credibility, and fear of repercussions. Second, they need to overcome mostly practical barriers including perceived lack of skills, lack of time, lack of opportunities, and not knowing any groups involved in climate action.

“This study makes clear that scientists from all disciplines are very worried and are calling for fundamental transformation,” Aron said.  “I hope this helps wake people up and that they get engaged, as more and more scientists are.”

About the survey

Out of the 250,000 targeted emails sent to solicit participation in the study, the research team received more than 9,000 survey responses from scientists and academics in 115 countries in various disciplines and career stages. The researchers acknowledge that respondents who were already involved in climate change may have been more likely to self-select to participate in the survey, which could affect the extent to which the reported results reflect the views of the scientific community as a whole.

Learn more about research and education at UC San Diego in: Climate Change

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Climate Change

Frequently asked questions about climate change.

The Earth’s climate is changing. Rising temperatures are already driving changes in climate around the globe, including changes in precipitation patterns and the frequency or intensity of extreme events such as storms, floods, droughts, and heat waves.The warmer climate has also led to rising sea levels, changes in snow and ice cover, longer growing seasons, and impacts on infrastructure, public health, and ecosystems. Many of these observed changes are linked to the rising levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, caused by human activities.  [1]  

See the frequently asked questions below to learn more about the causes of climate change, why it matters, and what we can do about it.

Climate refers to average weather conditions over many years. For example, the climate in Minnesota is cold and snowy in the winter, while the climate in Hawai'i is warm and humid all year long. Weather, in contrast, refers to a specific event or condition that happens over a period of hours or days. For example, a thunderstorm, a snowstorm, and today's temperature all describe weather. 

Climate change involves significant changes, over several decades or longer, in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other aspects of climate. Weather varies naturally from year to year, so one unusually cold or wet year followed by an unusually warm or dry year would not be considered a sign of climate change. Climate change involves longer-term trends, such as a gradual shift toward warmer, wetter, or drier conditions. 

“Global Warming” vs. “Climate Change”

Global warming is just one aspect of climate change. It’s a term used to describe the recent rise in the global average temperature near Earth's surface, which is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere. The terms “global warming” and “climate change” are sometimes used interchangeably, but warming is only one of the ways in which climate is affected by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases.

Hundreds of independent lines of evidence confirm that our climate is changing. For example, scientists have documented long-term changes around the world in temperature , precipitation , sea level , and the amount of heat stored in the ocean . Especially dramatic changes are underway in the Arctic , where warming is amplified by powerful feedbacks. Reductions in sea ice , land-based ice, and snow cover, along with the thawing of permafrost, are having profound impacts in the Arctic and beyond. Rising sea levels, caused mainly by the expansion of seawater as it warms, along with billions of tons of water added to the ocean each year from melting glaciers , ice caps, and ice sheets, are affecting coastal communities in many parts of the world, including places like South Florida, Chesapeake Bay, and low-lying communities along the Gulf Coast in the United States. Changes in the length of growing seasons and pollen seasons , the timing of bird migrations , and range shifts in plants and wildlife provide still more evidence for recent changes in climate.

The Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases, such as CO 2 , methane, and nitrous oxide, act like a blanket around the planet. They trap energy in the atmosphere and cause it to warm. This phenomenon, called the greenhouse effect, is natural and necessary to support life on Earth: without it the Earth’s average temperature would be around 0°F. But scientists agree that the continuing buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels for energy—will upset the natural energy balance and change Earth's climate, with potentially dangerous risks to human health, infrastructure, the economy, and ecosystems. 

Climate scientists have concluded that humans are largely responsible for the climate change that has occurred since the 1950s. [1]  Human activities—such as burning fossil fuels for energy, cultivating crops, raising livestock, and clearing forests—are releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere . These greenhouse gases are being emitted faster than forests and the oceans can remove them, causing them to build up in the atmosphere. 

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has increased by more than 40% since pre-industrial times, and the current CO 2  level is higher than it has been in at least 800,000 years. [1] We know that human activities are the cause of this increase because the CO 2  emitted by burning fossil fuels carries a distinct chemical fingerprint that’s detectable in the atmosphere. [2]

Scientists have known since the 1800s that greenhouse gases trap heat, preventing it from escaping to space. The warming effect of greenhouse gases is amplified by feedbacks, especially from water vapor (a powerful and plentiful natural greenhouse gas), leading to more warming and changes in climate. [1] Natural influences on climate, such as changes in solar radiation, natural cycles, volcanic eruptions, and the climate’s normal year-to-year variability, can‘t fully explain the current warming trend. [1]  The climate changes observed in recent decades follow a number of patterns—such as cooling at high altitudes and more warming at night than during the day—that are consistent with what scientists would expect from an increase in greenhouse gases rather than changes in solar variability or other natural causes. [1]

The Earth’s average temperature has risen by 1.5°F over the past century, and climate scientists estimate it will rise another 0.5 to 8.6°F by the end of this century, depending, in part, on future emissions. [1]  That may not sound like much to worry about, since most of us experience much greater temperature changes over the course of a day or from season to season. But the global average temperature during the height of the last ice age was only 5 to 9°F cooler than it is today. [3]  Relatively small changes in the planet’s average temperature can mean big changes in local and regional climate , creating risks to public health and safety [4] ,  water resources , agriculture , infrastructure , and ecosystems . [5]  Following are some examples:  [5]

• Increasing heat waves: Heat waves have become more frequent in the United States in recent decades. Climate scientists expect the number of days with temperatures above 90°F to increase in the United States as the climate changes, especially toward the end of this century. 
• More extreme weather: In addition to heat waves, changes in precipitation patterns, including extreme precipitation events, storms, and floods, are becoming more common and more severe in many regions, and this is expected to continue. 
• Intensified droughts: Higher temperatures lead to increased rates of evaporation and can lead to more rapid drying of soils. Without reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions, longer-term droughts are expected to intensify in much of the Southwest, the Great Plains, and the Southeast.
• Impacts on crops: Over the past 40 years, climate disruptions to agricultural production have increased, and this is expected to continue.
• Impacts on health: Climate change is increasing our exposure to extreme temperatures, extreme weather events; degraded air quality; diseases transmitted through food, water, and insects; and stresses to mental health and well-being. These threats to human health are expected to increase with continued climate change.
• More wildfires: The area burned by wildfire in parts of western North America is expected to double (or more) for each 1.8°F increase in global average temperature. [6]
• Rising sea levels: Global sea level has risen by about eight inches since the late 1800s, and is projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by the end of this century. Flooding is becoming more frequent along the U.S. coastline, especially in the Mid-Atlantic region where the land is simultaneously sinking.

Climate change endangers our health by affecting our food and water sources, the air we breathe, the weather we experience, and our interactions with the built and natural environments. As the climate continues to change, the risks to human health continue to grow.

Although every American is vulnerable to the health impacts associated with climate change, some populations are disproportionately vulnerable , including those with low income, some communities of color, immigrant groups (including those with limited English proficiency), Indigenous peoples, children and pregnant women, older adults, vulnerable occupational groups, persons with disabilities, and persons with preexisting or chronic medical conditions. [4]

By making choices that reduce greenhouse gas pollution , and preparing for the changes expected in the future, we can reduce risks from climate change. Our decisions today will shape the world we live in and the world we leave to our children and grandchildren. 

Due to time lags in the climate system and the fact that CO 2 stays in the atmosphere for hundreds or thousands of years, the climate will continue to warm until at least mid-century regardless of what we do today to reduce emissions (see graph below). If we fail to make substantial cuts to greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth will keep warming for centuries to come. [1]

But it is not too late to address climate change and reduce the risks of impacts in the second half of this century and beyond. Doing so will require substantial cuts in greenhouse emissions. This will require stepping up improvements in energy efficiency, reducing waste, slowing deforestation, and shifting to cleaner energy sources. 

Communities can also prepare for the changes in the decades ahead by identifying and reducing their vulnerabilities and incorporating consideration of climate change risks into planning and development. Such actions can ensure that the most vulnerable populations—such as young children, older adults, and people living in poverty—are protected from health and safety threats from climate change.

Economic studies suggest that the longer we wait to act on climate change, the more expensive it will be. There are many technologies already available, and actions we can take today, that will help us reduce our risks. Many of the actions that we can take to address climate change will have immediate benefits, such as cleaner, healthier air, as well as significant future climate benefits. A recent EPA study found that global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions could avoid tens of thousands of deaths annually in the U.S. by the end of the century and avoid billions of dollars in damages related to water shortages, agricultural losses, flooding, and other impacts.

Yes – small actions really add up! There are many actions that individuals and business can take to reduce their carbon footprint and act on climate change. Simple actions such as using energy-efficient light bulbs, looking for the ENERGY STAR label on appliances and other products, recycling and composting, purchasing green power, using public transit, and bicycling or walking instead of driving can make a difference by reducing your household’s carbon footprint.

As thousands of households and businesses have already discovered, improving energy efficiency in our homes and products can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and also save money. EPA’s ENERGY STAR program, a voluntary initiative that drives more widespread use of energy-efficient products and practices, has saved U.S. businesses, organizations, and consumers more than $362 billion in energy costs since 1992 while avoiding more than 2 billion metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions.

• EPA’s Climate Change site provides details on the science and impacts of climate change, sources of emissions, a household emissions calculator, and much more.
• What You Can Do about Climate Change  on EPA's Climate Change site offers suggestions for what you can do at home, at the office, at school, and on the road to reduce your greenhouse gas emissions.
• Climate.gov , run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, serves as a source for news and features on U.S. and global climate, maps and data, and resources for teachers.
• NASA’s Global Climate Change site provides news, educational information, apps, images, multimedia, and other resources.
• The U.S. Global Change Research Program conducts the U.S. National Climate Assessment and conducts a wide range of other research on climate change.
• Climate Change Evidence and Causes , a report by the National Academy of Sciences, looks at 20 common questions about climate change and provides authoritative answers from leading climate scientists. 

Top of Page

1. IPCC (2013). Summary for Policymakers. In:  Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.  Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2. IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Frequently Asked Questions . FAQ 7.1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 3. IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Executive Summary. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4.​ USGCRP (2016). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment .  Crimmins, A., J. Balbus, J.L. Gamble, C.B. Beard, J.E. Bell, D. Dodgen, R.J. Eisen, N. Fann, M.D. Hawkins, S.C. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D.M. Mills, S. Saha, M.C. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, and L. Ziska, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program. 5. USGCRP (2014). Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment . Melillo, Jerry M., Theres (T.C.) Richmond, and Gary W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program. 6. National Research Council (2011). Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millenia. National Academies Press.

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• Published: 22 August 2024

Personalising climate change—how activists from Fridays for Future visualise climate action on Instagram

• David Shim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0230-912X 1 , 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1073 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies

The visual communication of climate change by social movements has become an emerging subject of research in recent years. Much of the existing literature on visual climate change communication focuses on how environmental movements and protests are depicted by mainstream media outlets. This exploratory study examines the visual climate change communication by social movements themselves. Its focus is on one ‘new narrator’ in the mediated politics of climate change: Fridays for Future (FFF), arguably one of the most significant communicators of climate change. The research question seeks to understand how FFF activists narrate climate action through images posted on Instagram. I discuss examples from major branches of FFF and contribute to existing research by emphasising personalisation as a powerful tool in climate storytelling. The paper’s visual thematic analysis presents three themes that illustrate the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists: localising the effects of global climate change, using performances to convey climate messages, and visualising contentious politics. The implications of this research further underpin the need to recognise climate activists as important actors in the visual communication of climate change.

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Introduction.

Fridays for Future (FFF) has become an authoritative voice in public climate change communication and mobilisation (Berker and Pollex, 2022 ). Starting with a teenager, Greta Thunberg, who began demonstrating in August 2018 outside the Swedish parliament to demand greater action on climate change, FFF had mobilised millions around the world by a year later (Taylor et al. 2019 ). This exploratory study presents research from a one-year project (2021–2022) on social movements’ climate change communication, something which has become an emerging subject of study in recent years (see also Belotti et al., 2022 ; Stammen and Meissner, 2022 ; Wahlström et al., 2019 ; Zamponi et al., 2022 ). It examines how FFF activists visually narrate climate action on Instagram to wider audiences. Claiming that the visual dimension is the most crucial in the movement’s climate activism (see also Casas and Williams, 2019 ; Doerr, 2017 ; Doerr et al., 2013 ; Mattoni and Teune, 2014 ; Uldam and Askanius, 2013 ), I focus on Instagram—a visual medium par excellence (Leaver et al., 2020 ). I explore in more detail one particular strategy of FFF’s visual climate storytelling: personalising climate change.

The focus on personalisation is my contribution to a rich literature on the visual communication of climate change (Anderson, 2009 ; Born, 2019 ; Culloty et al., 2019 ; DiFrancesco and Young, 2011 ; O’Neill and Smith, 2014 ; Painter et al., 2018 ; Schneider and Nocke, 2014 ). I draw on scholarship which has explored the role of personalisation in social media and its impact on social movements (Bennett and Segerberg, 2012 ; Gerbaudo, 2012 ; Milan, 2015 ). For instance, Bennett and Segerberg ( 2012 ) have shown that personalisation in social media can lead to more adaptable forms of activism, where collective identity is built through shared personal expressions. Gerbaudo ( 2012 ) points to the critical role of social media in providing a space for the personal narratives of activists which help create a sense of collective identities and actions. Milan ( 2015 : p. 894) argues that social media enables “personalised yet universal narratives,” allowing individual stories and experiences to resonate with broader social and political themes. This would reflect a shift in how social movements construct their identities and mobilise supporters, emphasising the centrality of personalisation in contemporary activism. Others contend that the use of personalised visual strategies can help to make messages more credible and relatable to younger audiences (Couldry and Hepp, 2017 ; Parmelee et al., 2022 ).

I refer to personalisation as the strategy by which individual FFF activists leverage their unique perspectives, stories and experiences to craft a personalised narrative of climate change and activism (see also San Cornelio et al., 2024 ). I thus understand personalised communication in terms of the individual rather than necessarily as part of a coherent organisation or coalition, which centrally customises the personalisation of political action (see for instance Bennett and Segerberg, 2011 ). Personalising climate change may take the form of self-made imagery, videos or stories that reflect the activists’ individual engagement with climate action. While current scholarship has made important contributions to our improved understanding of how climate protests are visualised by media outlets (e.g. Hayes and O’Neill, 2021 ; Painter et al., 2018 ; Schäfer and Schlichting, 2014 ), I seek to emphasise that climate activists and movements themselves are important actors in the visual communication of climate change (see also Doerr et al., 2015 ; Hopke and Hestres, 2018 ).

The next section situates the piece in the wider debate of visual climate change communication. I then outline the paper’s research design. The empirical section discusses personalised storytelling as a powerful tool for climate narratives. I present three themes which illustrate the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists: localising the effects of global climate change, using performances to convey climate messages and visualising contentious politics. The concluding section addresses the implications of this study and points to further avenues of research.

On protest paradigms and personalisation in (social) media narratives about climate change

Communicating global climate change to public audiences has been an ongoing subject of study for many scholars in recent years. Much of the existing literature on visual climate change communication focuses on how environmental movements and protests are visually depicted by mainstream media outlets (Bergmann and Ossewaarde, 2020 ; Born, 2019 ; DiFrancesco and Young, 2011 ; Hayes and O’Neill, 2021 ; O’Neill, 2013 ; Painter et al., 2018 ). Scholars in communication research have introduced the term “protest paradigm” to describe the tendency of news media to (visually) portray social protests as deviant, disruptive or violent, even when they are predominantly peaceful (Boyle et al., 2012 ; Di Cicco, 2010 ; Kilgo and Harlow, 2019 ; Lee, 2014 ). The mainstream media’s dependence on official sources and framing of protests as disruptions would often marginalise activists and their causes (Corrigall-Brown and Wilkes, 2012 ). Consequently, the dominance of official narratives can silence perspectives that challenge existing power structures and hierarchies, resulting in their downplay or even disparagement (von Zabern and Tulloch, 2021 ).

As a result, climate protests have frequently fallen into the protest paradigm as traditional media organisations, with their extensive audiences and budgets, have wielded significant influence over news content (Hayes and O’Neill, 2021 ). With the rise of social media, however, these conditions have changed radically. Now climate movements and other social groups have the opportunity to tell their own stories and directly communicate to and with a wider public; including voices, which, for instance, are sceptical of or deny climate change (Chen et al., 2022 ; Kidd and McIntosh, 2016 ). One way to gain attention on social media is to generate emotionally appealing content in the form of memes, collages or performances which provoke responses and attract followers. This has led some observers to refer to FFF as ‘new narrators’ in the mediated politics of climate change (Bevan et al., 2020 : p. 1). Recent climate protests have thus been framed less by traditional media or elite stakeholders and increasingly by direct engagement with the online sphere.

For instance, Chen et al. ( 2022 ) found a significant divergence between the framing of the climate movement by mainstream media and by movement actors themselves on Twitter. Mainstream media primarily focused on global politicians’ (in)action toward climate policy, the consequences of climate change and the industry’s response to the climate crisis. Conversely, climate movement actors on Twitter emphasised advocating for political actions, policy changes as well as addressing social justice issues related to climate change (see also Raftopoulos and Specht, 2022 ). These findings highlight the transformative power of social media platforms in shaping discourses around political issues and collective action. They also illustrate the potential for these platforms to subvert the traditional protest paradigm found in mainstream media. Beyond this more asymmetrical relationship between climate movements and traditional media (see McCurdy, 2012 ), which suggests that traditional media often have more influence and control over the narrative surrounding climate-related issues compared to climate groups, social media allows climate activists (as well as deniers) to spread their narratives to global audiences on their own terms. It is within this context that this study aims to examine how Instagram, another popular social media platform, is used for climate activism by FFF.

At the same time, there is a growing body of work, which examines FFF, arguably one of the most successful climate movements in recent years, from various academic disciplines. These include communication and media studies (e.g. Haßler et al., 2021 ; von Zabern and Tulloch, 2021 ), environmental psychology (e.g. Sisco et al., 2021 ; Wallis and Loy, 2021 ) as well as social movement studies (e.g. Hunger and Hutter, 2021 ; Svensson and Wahlström, 2021 ). While this scholarship examines FFF with a wide range of questions about the attitudes, behaviours and motivations of FFF activists using a diverse set of methodological tools including computational social science and qualitative methods, a common thread among them is their analytical focus on materials and sources primarily based on language and text.

In contrast, this paper explores how FFF visually mediates climate action on social media. I build on work that has provided valuable insights into the use of visuals by social movements (e.g. Doerr et al., 2013 ; Doerr et al., 2015 ; McGarry et al., 2019 ; Neumayer and Rossi, 2018 ) and add my discussion of FFF activists’ personalised climate storytelling. I acknowledge FFF as a significant visual communicator of climate change, rather than merely a subject reported on by others such as mainstream media (see e.g. Hayes and O’Neill, 2021 ).

For examining FFF’s visual climate storytelling is still an under-addressed subject so far. An exception is Molder et al.’s ( 2022 ) analysis of Greta Thunberg’s Instagram account and San Cornelio et al.’s ( 2024 ) study of environmental influencers’ use of visual narratives on Instagram. Molder et al. ( 2022 ) utilise visual and textual components to scrutinise how Thunberg portrays the battle against climate change as a moral and ethical imperative. Their findings illustrate Thunberg’s strategic use of emotional appeals, particularly those of hope, to inspire collective action. Climate storytelling in Thunberg’s case is, hence, characterised by motivational language and visuals of her personal experience as a global celebrity. San Cornelio et al.’s ( 2024 ) examination of environmental influencers, who challenge traditional media narratives with their alternative visual stories, is insightful and, ultimately, corresponds to the paper’s findings. Concluding that eco-influencers steer away from fear-based content, alternative visual narratives would often feature positive imagery, personal achievements in sustainability and elements of popular culture like memes and humour aimed at mainstreaming environmental concerns.

While acknowledging this research, this paper, however, intends to show that the personalisation of climate storytelling goes beyond celebrity or influencer status since it is not difficult to imagine that, for instance, the personal experience of a global icon like Thunberg starkly differs from, say, “ordinary” FFF activists in terms of attention, impact, resources and public perception. In other words, I illustrate how personalisation is practised on a more grassroots level by showing that “ordinary” FFF activists, the paper’s subjects of study, leverage their perspectives, stories and experiences to build a personalised narrative of climate change. This personalised narrative, as I show in more detail in the empirical section, takes the form of localising the impacts of global climate change, performing climate messages and representing contentious politics visually. In this way, I add to the study of visual climate change communication, by expanding existing research on how environmental engagement, that is through the fostering of a personal connection with the climate crisis, can be mobilised and understood.

I conceptualise climate narration as the embedding of climate action into a story that better corresponds with the personal experiences of individuals. This can range from narratives about the impacts of climate change to stories of climate action. Personalisation is hence part of climate change narratives. So while personalisation speaks to the ‘who’ of these narratives, emphasising the individual perspectives and experiences, climate narration pertains to the ‘what’ and ‘how’, outlining the content and structure of these stories. It is the interplay between personalisation and climate narration that I argue shapes the relatable and engaging narratives of climate activism disseminated by FFF activists.

I draw here on scholarship that has contended that climate storytelling facilitates a sense of agency in the fight against climate change (Bloomfield and Manktelow, 2021 ;De Meyer et al., 2020 ; Harcourt et al., 2021 ; Lütkes et al., 2023 ). De Meyer et al., for example, propose adding to climate communication ‘agency as a story structure’ (2021: p. 6). By highlighting agency within a story plot, examples of action are shown to individuals or groups which help to enhance their sense of efficacy in addressing climate change issues. Scientific knowledge about climate change, usually heavily imbued with jargon, would be easier to understand and process and could initiate a deeper commitment on the part of the individual in addressing climate change (Harcourt et al., 2021 ). Lütkes et al. ( 2023 ) show the importance of storytelling in climate communication to showcase potential solutions and persuade individuals to actively participate in social and political transformation initiatives. I show that FFF activists seek to increase feelings of self-efficacy by personalising climate protests on social media rather than depicting them as an anonymous mass.

Research design

I discuss personalisation through a variety of content types shared on Instagram by FFF activists. These include collages, memes, videos and other performances that are grounded in the activists’ personal experiences and interpretations of climate change and activism. I adopted an inductive approach to data analysis using grounded theory techniques (Charmaz, 2014 ). This includes approaching the empirical material—about 400 posts in total covering the time span between 2019 and 2022 when the project ended (see below)—in an open manner, that is without preconceived categorisations in order to answer the research question of how FFF activists visually narrate climate action on Instagram. The open coding as well as the data-driven and iterative process is crucial for the research as it allows unexpected patterns or themes to emerge directly from the visual content. This ensures that the analysis remains grounded in the actual data rather than being constrained by the researcher’s initial assumptions or theoretical biases. In this way, the research design is flexible and evolves as I engage with the empirical material.

The method chosen draws on scholarship which has used (visual) thematic analysis to identify, analyse and report patterns in (visual) data (e.g. Braun and Clarke, 2006 ; Maguire and Delahunt, 2017 ; Trombeta and Cox, 2022 ). Thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to a variety of research questions and data types, making it particularly suitable for analysing visual and textual content on social media (Maguire and Delahunt, 2017 ). In selecting the empirical material, I proceeded as follows.

First, I started searching and screening the Instagram presence of selected, national branches of FFF. The images selected related to climate activism, particularly the activities and messages of FFF activists. This ensured that the data was relevant to the research question. Also, the images should showcase various aspects of visual storytelling, including individual and collective actions, protest events and personal narratives related to climate change. I am aware that FFF is not one coherent and unitary social movement. In fact, there are countless national and local chapters that operate under the FFF umbrella—making a study of ‘the’ movement virtually impossible. As a result, I opted for a research practical approach in which I examined the Instagram presence and posts of selected FFF branches only. In particular, I focused on major FFF chapters as measured by followers. Chapters with a higher number of followers can be expected to have greater visibility and influence on the platform. Their content is likely seen and interacted with by a larger audience, making them representatives of the movement’s narratives and methods of communication. Studying these chapters can provide insights into the most impactful strategies used to mobilise and engage supporters. Furthermore, major chapters are reflective of and/or may set trends within the movement’s communication strategies. Researchers can identify those patterns and themes.

Second, to maintain some geographic and cultural diversity, I examined major FFF chapters in so-called “Western”, that is France, Germany and Italy (as of November 2022: FFF France: 29k, FFF Germany: 546k, FFF Italy: 125k) and “non-Western” countries, that is Brazil, India and Mexico (FFF Brazil: 30k, FFF India: 46k, FFF Mexico: 19k) as well as the international edition of the movement (456k). Footnote 1 Such a selection helps to capture a wider range of local contexts and issues as current research on FFF usually focusses on European divisions of the climate initiative. The purpose is to illustrate that the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists is visible across different socio-political contexts, geographical locations and levels of climate change impact and activism. Such a selection can allow for a more comprehensive understanding of how FFF activists adapt their narratives to local contexts while maintaining a coherent global message.

Third, I kept an eye on large-scale events, so-called global climate strikes taking place between 2019 and 2022. This period marks an important phase in the evolution of the global climate movement. FFF saw exponential growth during 2019 mobilising millions of people around the world, while the Covid-19 pandemic beginning in early 2020 posed significant challenges including the imperative of social distancing and the widespread prohibition of gathering in public spaces. By 2022, the end of the research project, vaccinations and the easing of those and other measures allowed a revival of the movement. The global climate strikes highlight moments of peak mobilisation and visibility for the climate movement. They offer insights into the increased and pointed practices of climate storytelling by FFF activists so as to mobilise supporters.

This selection process resulted in a data corpus of about 400 posts in total. Adhering to grounded theory techniques, the visual thematic analysis involved several steps. In the first step, I engaged with the visual data in depth. This included viewing the 400 Instagram posts multiple times to familiarise myself with the content, categorising initial impressions of how climate action is visually represented. The repeated engagement with the empirical material helped with the coding process. In the second step, I categorised the images based on subjects, identifying who or what is featured in the images (e.g. activists, signs, captions); settings, noting the location or environment depicted (e.g., at home, public places); and action, describing the activities or events taking place (e.g. protests, dances). Paying attention to these visual elements (e.g. subjects, settings, actions) allowed me, in a third step, then to identify and interpret the broader visual themes that recur across the dataset and that exemplify the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists.

The decision to focus on Instagram stems from several key reasons. Firstly, Instagram is a prime example of a visual medium. Its core emphasis on visual content—photos and videos—makes it an excellent site of study for this research on visual storytelling and personalisation. The image-centric nature of the platform aligns with the paper’s focus on visual climate communication. Secondly, Instagram’s audience demographics correspond with the youth-centric nature of the FFF movement. The platform has a predominantly young user base, with a significant proportion of users aged between 18 and 34 (Dixon, 2023 ). FFF activists utilise this channel of communication and nurture emotional appeals by engaging audiences through self-made performances incorporating humour or viral Internet trends, memes, statements by individual activists and protest signs. These forms of visual communication are familiar to and resonate with younger audiences, who consider social media as ‘their’ channels (Belotti et al., 2022 ). This aligns with FFF’s target demographic and their strategy of mobilising the youth for climate change activism. Lastly, Instagram’s platform affordances, such as Stories and Reels provide FFF activists with a range of tools to craft and share their climate narratives in innovative ways, enabling them to use both ephemeral and long-lasting content, leverage user interactivity and promote engagement (Leaver et al., 2020 ).

For reasons of transparency I like to note that in the original submission to the journal, I included three self-made collages, which were supposed to illustrate elements of the personalised approach to visual climate storytelling by FFF activists. I selected photographs that do not fully reveal the faces of activists; in some instances, faces were covered by masks, and in cases where faces were visible, I anonymised them. However, as one reviewer rightfully pointed out, uploading images on social media does not render them public meaning that permission is to be obtained, if images will be shown outside of their original context. While I do not wish to engage in a debate over whether these activists have participated in public events and thus could rightfully be shown to an audience, I aim to exercise caution regarding potential harm to youth participants (Tiidenberg, 2018 ). Therefore, I removed the sample collages from the original submission. However, all references related to FFF are hyperlinked in the bibliography.

Personalising visual climate storytelling

It can be noted that personalisation, as it was defined here as a way by which FFF activists present their stories to convey a personal narrative of climate action, is a recurring pattern of the movement’s climate change communication on Instagram. I present three themes that illustrate the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists: localising the effects of global climate change, using performances to convey climate messages and visualising contentious politics.

Localising the effects of global climate change

The use of personalisation here is drawn from an understanding of how individual FFF activists leverage self-made imagery to make their messages personal. This includes collages, memes and videos in which activists tell stories, make statements and articulate their demands of political leaders. Individual narratives are woven together into a collective identity, thereby creating a sense of community among the activists. This sense of community is facilitated by connections across different national FFF chapters. For example, for the global climate strike on 24 September 2021, activists in one location, Mexico, held a video call with fellow protestors in other locations, such as Colombia (FFF International, 2021a ). In these live calls, activists show their surrounding areas, including fellow protesters, their spaces of protest preparation and give an account of their activities. Often they explain the local background of their climate protests and report their experiences of the day (see also FFF International, 2021b , 2021c ). The images and stories shared span a variety of contexts, linking local initiatives to the global campaign thus constructing a unifying narrative of climate action. Videos, for instance, often take place in a domestic setting, at the home of activists, which is a distinct space for personal expression. In addition, short clips take place outside, usually in urban spaces, during climate protests giving a glimpse of the scale of participation.

These stories show how FFF activists not only convey individual experiences but also integrate them into a shared narrative of climate activism (see also Bennett and Segerberg, 2012 ). The linking of personal stories into a form of collective identity personalises the global issue of climate change and can mobilise both local and international communities through nuanced storytelling. In line with the movement’s master narrative of climate justice (see also Kalt, 2021 ), viewers of these videos learn to what extent the consequences of climate change differ according to local conditions. A common metaphor that is often used in regard to this by climate activists is the claim that while people may find themselves in the same storm they are not all sitting in the same boat (COP 26 Coalition 2021 ). Rather than focusing entirely on the global consequences of climate change, activists emphasise local problems that have an impact on the day-to-day lives of their audiences. National FFF branches address domestic audiences by focussing on the local consequences of climate change and relating these to political inaction and apathy by policymakers. The focus on local issues that create problems in the audience’s lives directly paves the way for action-oriented mobilisation (Chen et al., 2022 ).

The attempt to contextualise the global issue of climate change into specific local realities is evident in much of the imagery posted by FFF activists. The approach to highlight local or regional environmental challenges serves in many cases to critique and evaluate the effectiveness and commitment of local and national political responses to environmental crises. For instance, activists of FFF Germany, for example, focus on the European Union’s reliance on fossil fuels and, in light of the war in Ukraine, German energy dependence on Russia to underscore the vulnerabilities and ethical dilemmas of such dependencies (FFF Germany, 2022a ). By organising protests against the German energy company RWE, which negotiated with the government the eradication of the village of Lüzerath, a crucial symbol for German climate activism, to make space for the opencast mining of Garzweiler II, they challenge local energy policies and advocate for a transition to renewable energy sources (FFF Germany, 2022b ). Activists of FFF Brazil, on the other hand, primarily address the necessity to protect rainforests and indigenous communities (FFF Brazil, 2021a , 2021b ). The visuals and narratives used by the activists bring attention to deforestation, biodiversity loss and the infringement of indigenous rights, issues that are both locally significant and globally consequential. This highlights the dual responsibility of protecting local environments and contributing to global climate efforts. FFF India also engages with its domestic audience by showing activists combatting local problems such as waste management, pollution and environmental degradation in parts of India (FFF India, 2021a , 2021b ). By doing so, FFF India foregrounds the everyday environmental realities faced by Indian communities pointing to the responsibility of local populations.

These examples show how FFF activists seek to educate and mobilise local communities by making the impacts of climate change tangible and immediate. The local perspectives also evaluate the adequacy of political responses at local and national levels and emphasise the need for action aligned to specific local realities.

Performing climate messages

Some of the young activists entwine their climate messages with self-made performances and collages, which have been popularised by video-sharing platforms like TikTok (FFF International, 2021d , FFF International, 2021e ). These performances often incorporate elements of humour (FFF Germany, 2022c , 2022d ; FFF India, 2020a , FFF Italy, 2020a ) and activists lip-syncing trending audio snippets to help videos advertising climate strikes—such as the global protest on 25 March 2022—go viral (FFF Berlin, 2022a , 2022b ). Dancing to or lip-syncing popular songs to convey climate messages to younger audiences is a widely adopted personalisation strategy ((FFF Berlin, 2022c ; FFF Brazil, 2021c , 2021d ; FFF India, 2020b ).

In an illustrative performance, an activist from FFF India takes on the roles of both an indigenous elder and a generic scientist. Donning glasses and neat attire, she raises her index finger, warning the audience about issues such as species extinction and global warming (FFF India, 2020b ). Accompanying her climate message is the protest song Burn, Baby, Burn , which gained association with the Watts Riots of 1965—a series of violent confrontations between African Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department. Following a cut, the same activist switches to portraying governments, clad in a black suit, gesturing that they are not listening to scientists and indigenous elders. Instead, these governments persist in profiting from fossil fuels, factory farming, and land-use changes.

Memes are also used by climate activists as a tool of visual storytelling (FFF India, 2022 ; FFF International, 2021f , FFF Italy, 2020b , FFF Italy, 2020c , FFF Italy, 2022a ). For example, a meme from FFF Italy encourages the audience to support their call for sustainable and free public transportation. The meme features an overtly muscular dog in a typical bodybuilder posture—standing tall and flexing its muscles (FFF Italy, 2022a ). Attached to this dog is a German flag with the slogan ‘Biglietti di treni e bus a 9€ al mese’ (train and bus tickets for €9 per month). Adjacent to it is a lapdog, small and sitting, adorned with an Italian flag and the slogan ‘Bonus trasporti 60€ una tantum’ (one-off €60 transport bonus). Footnote 2 As a particular form of self-expression, memes function through humorous interventions and show a personalised way of addressing the topic of climate change. This use of humour and relatable imagery also shows the attempt to make complex issues accessible and engaging.

The incorporation of performances and memes into FFF’s climate communication highlights a nuanced understanding of digital media’s appeal to youth audiences. Dancing, lip-synching and memes are the visual codes the activists are utilising in their climate storytelling to appeal to the younger consumers of social media. As mentioned above, previous studies suggest that personalised visual strategies can help to make messages more credible and relatable to younger audiences (Couldry and Hepp, 2017 ; Parmelee et al., 2022 ). In light of this, I suggest that the use of such strategies in FFF’s Instagram content help it resonate more strongly with its youthful audience. So while the visual strategies of personalisation better echo the everyday experience of youth, they can also help to render the individual a part of a larger community—one that works together on an issue of common concern, namely the fight against climate change (see also Sobre-Denton, 2016 ). In this way, personalisation on social media facilitates the sense of community-building in youth climate activism (Bennett and Segerberg, 2012 ; Gerbaudo, 2012 ; Milan, 2015 ). As Stefania Milan puts it, this particular visibility of protest creates “personalised yet universal narratives, connecting individual stories into a broader context that gives them meaning” ( 2015 : p. 894).

Furthermore, by establishing localised and cross-generational social media channels like ‘ParentsForFuture’ or ‘TeachersForFuture,’ FFF adeptly utilises personalisation to address diverse audience segments, from national to community-specific levels. This focus on local environmental challenges can enhance audience’s feelings of self-efficacy, contrasting with the often overwhelming scope of global climate issues; issues which often impact communities differently. FFF activists can motivate individual action or broader participation in the movement by making climate action seem more impactful in individuals’ daily lives. Personalisation, hence, can work in mobilising collective action against climate change (see also San Cornelio et al., 2024 ).

Visualising contentious politics

Personalisation and the emphasis on the self-efficacy of climate activism forms a core component of FFF’s visual climate storytelling. This involves the portrayal of both individual and collective action, manifesting in diverse forms such as single photographs, collages and short videos showcasing individuals, groups and large crowds participating in the run-up to or during global climate protests (see, for instance, FFF Berlin, 2021 , 2022d ; FFF France, 2021 , 2022a ; FFF International, 2021g , FFF Italy, 2022b ). The visual content often features protestors holding banners, posters and signs laden with demands, as well as humorous, ironic phrases and political messages—prominently displayed during events like the global climate strike on 25 March 2022 (FFF Berlin, 2022e ; FFF Germany, 2022e ).

The movement underscores self-efficacy not only through the act of protest but also through the communal and social aspects of creating protest signage. Activists are shown painting protest signs highlighting the joint experience of doing something together against climate change (FFF France, 2022b ; FFF Germany, 2021 ). The depiction of such acts of protest serves a dual purpose: it visually communicates the means through which individuals can engage in climate action and, importantly, illustrates the impact individuals can have when coming together for a common cause.

Research has shown that the Covid-19 pandemic challenged the movement’s traditional modes of climate storytelling (Haßler et al., 2021 ; Hunger and Hutter, 2021 ; Rauchfleisch et al., 2021 ; Sorce and Dumitrica, 2021 ). Essentially relying on the organisation of mass protests in public spaces, the restrictions banning public gatherings as well as the imperative of social distancing dealt a significant blow to the storytelling abilities of the climate activists. This arguably has made the visualisation of agency through digital platforms even more crucial for the movement and its members.

Echoing De Meyer et al. ( 2021 ) on the importance of incorporating agency within climate communication narratives, it is crucial for FFF activism to show examples of climate action to audiences in order to enhance the sense of efficacy. Visualising agency through images of action shows a global audience, that individual contributions are impactful in addressing the climate crisis. This form of visual storytelling aligns to the observation made by scholars that FFF has altered mainstream climate change discourse by instilling the general idea that ‘every individual carries responsibility and can provoke change in his/her everyday acts’ (Drieschova, 2021 : p. 5). Thus, the activists’ use of personalisation and the emphasis on self-efficacy not only enhance the resonance of their messaging with a younger demographic but also serve to integrate individual experiences with the broader collective effort against climate change. The visual strategies employed by FFF activists help bridge the everyday experience of youth and their participation in a global movement, something which reinforces the message that climate action is both a personal responsibility and a collective endeavour.

It is also important to mention that images of action are a crucial mobilisation tool for social movements (Casas and Williams, 2019 ; Doerr, 2017 ; Doerr et al., 2013 ; Geise et al., 2021 ). Images can evoke emotional responses, convey the urgency of issues and inspire individual participation through the depiction of collective action. Visualising contentious politics, that showcase the impact of collective efforts, serves as proof that action is taking place and that change can be achieved. This can help counter feelings of apathy or helplessness and motivate people to join the fight against climate change.

I have examined how FFF activists visually narrate climate action on Instagram. Situating this paper in visual climate change communication and studies on FFF, I argued that the movement’s visual climate storytelling is still an under-addressed topic so far. I discussed examples from major branches of FFF and contributed to existing research our discussion of FFF activists’ personalised climate storytelling on Instagram. As social media allows actors to directly engage with both local and global audiences, it has altered the ways in which climate protests are visually conveyed to the wider public. Personalising climate change is one particular means of visual climate storytelling. I emphasised three themes that illustrate the personalisation of climate storytelling by FFF activists: localising the effects of global climate change, using performances to convey climate messages and visualising contentious politics.

These personal(ised) stories are political in that they help convey a (visual) narrative of “everyone can make a difference” alongside the movement’s overall demand of fundamental, systemic change. By highlighting personal experiences, these narratives can humanise the climate crisis, making it, for instance, more immediate and urgent. Such stories can render abstract, global issues into tangible, relatable experiences. However, visual posts on Instagram do not provide an objective look into the life of an activist, even if images and videos are made to appear that way; instead, they are curated windows, sometimes carefully crafted, offering a subjective account (Einwohner and Rochford, 2019 ).

The implications of this research underscore the importance of recognising climate activists as significant actors in the visual communication of climate change. The success of the movement as a global storyteller of the climate crisis makes it, and certainly other climate movements, worthy to add further research to existing studies lying at the intersection of cultural representations and narratives of climate change, environmental communication and social movement studies. Outstanding questions include ones about FFF’s use of further narrative strategies and elements in its climate storytelling.

Examples here might be visual analogies linking other crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine or the Israel-Hamas war to issues of climate change and action (e.g. linking climate change with other global crises can serve as a potent narrative strategy. Visual analogies can draw parallels between immediate, widely understood emergencies and the more abstract, long-term threat of climate change); the simplification of climate science-related jargon (e.g. FFF activists can help to make climate science more accessible and understandable to a broader audience so that their messages resonate with individuals regardless of their scientific literacy. This personalisation strategy can help in forging a stronger connection between audiences and climate narration, encouraging engagement and action); or, the gendered dimensions of FFF’s climate narratives, namely the apparent focus on young female activists (e.g. highlighting female voices, especially young activists, is another way to personalise climate storytelling as this focus not only showcases the inclusive, diverse nature of climate activism but also amplifies the message that climate change affects everyone, with youth and women playing crucial roles in the fight against it).

Another desideratum for further research concerns FFF’s reliance on the visibility of large-scale protests, which arguably helps uphold its status of practising grassroots democracy. This in turn endows its political claims with legitimacy. Or, the transmedial nature of FFF’s climate narratives, as certain statements and (visual) stories about climate action are posted across social media platforms. Especially exploring the impact of social media on producing alternative climate visuals, highlighting protest and political action instead of generic images of melting glaciers and polar bears on ice, thus appear to be promising for future scholarship.

Data availability

The links in the data availability statement are the same as the links in the References list.

As of November 2022, the national FFF chapters in Spain and the United Kingdom do not have Instagram accounts, while FFF South Africa has only 600 followers on its one.

The bonus trasporti is a government initiative in Italy that provides financial assistance to individuals to help them cover the cost of public transportation.

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Fridays for Future [@fridaysforfuture] (2021c) Global Climate Strike #UprootTheSysytem: Global Climate Strike live from the Philippines with @yacaphilippines. 24 September. [Instagram video]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/tv/CUME3xXD-3T/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link [Accessed 25 Mar 2022]

Fridays for Future [@fridaysforfuture] (2021d) Climate injustice includes food injustice. Small-scale peasant communities and local farmers are among the most affected groups of people impacted by the effects of the climate emergency. 8 September. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CTkQ6dYDf6u/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link [Accessed 25 Mar 2022]

Fridays for Future [@fridaysforfuture] (2021e) We can’t just watch our global leaders not acting to stop the climate crisis, we need to unite!. 23 September. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CULnVxjshAV/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link [Accessed 25 Mar 2022]

Fridays for Future [@fridaysforfuture] (2021f) We are getting ready to #UprootTheSystem but we also need some laughs! Look at our meme collection to get to know our narrative in a different way!. 11 September. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CTsOArfP3tZ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link [Accessed 25 Mar 2022]

Fridays for Future [@fridaysforfuture] (2021g) Global Climate Strike. 24 September. [Instagram Story]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/stories/highlights/17902325681283505/ [Accessed 22 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2021) AlleFürsKlima Denn 1,5* sind nicht verhandelbar!. 1 November. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CVvTJy3l43K/ [Accessed 12 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2022a) Wir sind laut für UNSERE Zukunft. Wir sind laut gegen diese Politik!. 18 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CbP-54xsp71/ [Accessed 14 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2022b) “Wie wurdest du reagieren? #peoplenotprofitMarkier dein Demo Date”. 20 February. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CaM2-CjDzwq/ [Accessed 14 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2022c) Solange die Politik kein 1,5° konformen Klimaschutz leistet werden wir laut sein! Kommt am 25.03 mit und auf die Straße und zeig deine Wut. 23 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CbcnuvbOFjp/ [Accessed 14 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2022d) Letzten Freitag sind in berlin 22.000 Menschen für Klimagerechtigkeit und Frieden auf die Straßen gegangen. 28 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Cbp0aTOMEE_/ [Accessed 12 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Berlin [@fridaysforfuture.berlin] (2022e) Es regiert nur Olaf Scholz, weil der echte Olaf schmolz. 30 March. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CbtsL_euQR3/ [Accessed 12 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Brazil [@fridaysforfuturebrasil] (2021a) Esses últimos dias na COP foram dias de luta e resistência. 6 November. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CV9BqOksYQ-/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Brazil [@fridaysforfuturebrasil] (2021b) “Nessa última sexta-feira (22), nossa greve global, ativistas da @ecopeloclima se juntaram em 3 pontos do estado do Rio Grande do Sul: Viamão, Imbé e Pelotas Tendo conversas com a sociedade e muita troca de conhecimento”. 25 October. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CVdHoLULuHx/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Brazil [@fridaysforfuturebrasil] (2021c) Nossa #GreveporNoronha foi incrível, mas não acabou ainda! Se quiser aprender mais, tem vários posts incríveis no nosso Instagram e muito mais vindo por aí!. 19 June. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CQTfdeJHDYy/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Brazil [@fridaysforfuturebrasil] (2021d) Leilões fósseis não são bons para ninguém, eles destroem o planeta e principalmente nosso país!”. 14 September. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CTz8R-BJY_f/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future France [@youthforclimatefr] (2021) Les 19 et 20 mars, nous nous sommes mobilisé·e·x·s dans toute la France pour la justice écologique et sociale!. 27 April. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COLUtiOJClR/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future France [@youthforclimatefr] (2022a) J-5 avant les marches pour le climat partout en France. 20 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CbVYz8ujiYF/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future France [@youthforclimatefr] (2022b) J-14 avant la prochaine mobilisation Mondiale. 11 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/Ca-JoWrjOPT/ [Accessed 15 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2021) Was wird am Freitag auf deinem Demoschild stehen?”. 21 September. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CUFehaeIOXU/ [Accessed 12 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2022a) Markiere unter diesem Beitrag JETZT drei Leute, die am 25.03. mit dir streiken gehen sollen!. 18 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CbP2hBzgsMM/ [Accessed 14 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2022b) Auch heute wurde wieder spontan dafür demonstriert, dass #LützerathBleibt!. 29 March. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CbsvqzrrU2z/ [Accessed 14 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2022c) Ihr wollt den Klimastreik in eurer Stadt noch weiter unterstützen, aber wisst nicht wie?. 22 March. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/Cba1JEPle3o/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2022d) POV: Du gehst mit uns auf ein Date. 23 February. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CaVJwdJNEEm/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Germany [@fridaysforfuture.de] (2022e) Was wird am 25.03. auf eurem Demoschild stehen?. 22 February. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CaSbTq6r_AU/ [Accessed 12 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future India [@fridaysforfuture.india] (2020a) HUNGER GAMES: MOCKINGpJAY PART1. 11 August. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CDwe-crHEaj/ [Accessed: 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future India [@fridaysforfuture.india] (2020b) cant hear you. 14 August. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CD2rcx7HIE8/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future India [@fridaysforfuture.india] (2021a) This is not our trash, but this is our environment. 11 March. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CMSYi9xHIEs/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future India [@fridaysforfuture.india] (2021b) Every winter large number of tourists visit the waterfalls of Ranchi leaving behind a trail of plastic, thermocal and glass waste. 3 February. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CK1nzSsnfnL/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future India [@fridaysforfuture.india] (2022) I know this isn’t going to end well—rue bennet, euphoria, S1 e7. 15 February. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CZ_Blx7Lb1Y/ [Accessed 16 Apr 2022]

Fridays for Future Italy [@fridaysforfutureitalia] (2020a) CAPODANNO COL BOTTO. December 31. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CJdmavBCXZG/ [Accessed 11 Oct 2022]

Fridays for Future Italy [@fridaysforfutureitalia] (2020b) Ci serve una PAC #bellanova #withdrawthecap #fridaysforfuture. November 15. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CHnD82ACVCa/ [Accessed 11 Oct 2022]

Fridays for Future Italy [@fridaysforfutureitalia] (2020c) eh niente, noi che ancora ci speriamo… #MeMercoledì #WithdrawTheCAP #RitirateLaPAC #CrisiClimatica. November 18. [Instagram reel]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/reel/CHvRZ-hK7Zv/ [Accessed 11 Oct 2022]

Fridays for Future Italy [@fridaysforfutureitalia] (2022a) Anche tu preoccupatə di non riuscire a partecipare allo sciopero globale per il clima del 23 settembre perché i trasporti pubblici non funzionano?. September 7. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CiNNeootmnQ/ [Accessed 11 Oct 2022]

Fridays for Future Italy [@fridaysforfutureitalia] (2022b) Ultima carrellata di foto dallo #sciopero del 23 Settembre. October 2. [Instagram photo]. Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CjORB0INdv7/ [Accessed 11 Oct 2022]

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Laurenz Krumbacher for contributing to the initial draft, assisting with the literature review, data collection and managing the bibliographic work. I acknowledge financial support by the Chair group International Political Economy of the University of Groningen.

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DS was primarily responsible for the conceptualisation, methodology, data collection, analysis and interpretation of the research. DS managed the project, wrote the initial draft as well as the revisions of the manuscript and supervised all stages of the research process. LK contributed to the initial draft, assisted with the literature review and data collection and managed the bibliographic work. LK has withdrawn from the manuscript due to other commitments.

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Shim, D. Personalising climate change—how activists from Fridays for Future visualise climate action on Instagram. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1073 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03556-7

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3 Essential Questions: Climate Change and Health

• Climate Change

Kai Chen, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Health Sciences, studies the relationship between climate change, air pollution and human health. He applies multidisciplinary approaches in climate and air pollution sciences, exposure assessment and environmental epidemiology to better understand how climate change is affecting human health. Much of this work has been done in China, Europe and the United States.

Why is climate change regarded as the greatest public health challenge of the 21st century?

KC: This summer, we have witnessed deadly extreme weather events occurring across the United States, such as the record-breaking heat wave in the Pacific Northwest, the raging wildfires in the West, and the devastating hurricanes and flooding in the East. All of these extreme weather events are exacerbated by climate change. But the currently reported direct death toll during these events is only the tip of the iceberg. Extreme temperatures and weather events can adversely affect a comprehensive spectrum of diseases, leading to increased mortality and morbidity.

At Yale, our research at the Yale Center on Climate Change and Health (YCCCH) shows that heat can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke, respiratory diseases, diabetes, unintentional injuries and mental disorders. Recent global burden-of-disease studies found that around 2 million to 5 million deaths per year can be attributable to extreme temperature globally.

Climate change can also indirectly impact our health through worsening water quality, air pollution, increased transmission of infectious diseases, and decreased crop yields and nutrients. For example, air pollution accounts for nearly seven million premature deaths per year. Our YCCCH’s recent research also shows that air pollution is linked to increased hospital admissions of cardiovascular, kidney and mental illness.

Why is the Paris Agreement goal to keep global warming well below 2° C so important to our health?

Recent global burden-of-disease studies found that around 2 million to 5 million deaths per year can be attributable to extreme temperature globally. Kai Chen

KC: Any increase in global warming will primarily adversely affect human health. Our research shows that heat-related morbidity and mortality are projected to increase at 1.5 °C of warming and increase further at 2 °C or 3 °C. Ground-level ozone, a potent air pollutant, will increase when global warming exceeds 2 °C, resulting in a higher ozone-related mortality burden. As the climate changes, the world’s population is also growing older. Population aging will substantially amplify the projected mortality burden of temperature and air pollution under a warming climate.

What is the legacy of COVID-19 in addressing climate change?

KC: One big legacy of the COVID-19 response is a leap forward to a sustainable and healthier world. During the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns have given us the opportunity to see clean and blue skies across the world. Our study finds that in China, the first nationwide lockdown in early 2020 sharply reduced the country’s often-severe air pollution and brought substantial human health benefits in non-COVID-19 deaths. This dramatic change has shown us a glimpse of what a healthier world with strong clean air policies could be. But air pollution reduction and its associated health benefits during COVID-19 lockdowns are temporary. Moving forward, a more sustainable and healthier society will require increased investment in clean and renewable energy, low-carbon infrastructure, active transportation and climate-friendly lifestyles.

At the Yale Center on Climate Change and Health, our Climate, Health and Environment Nexus Lab aims to apply multidisciplinary approaches to produce policy-relevant knowledge that can be used to advance climate change mitigation and adaptation in a manner that promotes health and protects vulnerable populations.

3 Essential Questions is a recurring feature that explores vital topics in public health. Read earlier versions of 3 Essential Questions on cancer and antibiotic resistance .

MEDIA CONTACT: Michael Greenwood at [email protected]

Featured in this article

• Kai Chen, PhD Associate Professor of Epidemiology (Environmental Health Sciences); Co-Faculty Director, Yale Center on Climate Change and Health; Affiliated Faculty, Yale Institute for Global Health

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Climate Change

The 5 greatest challenges to fighting climate change

Kara Baskin

Dec 27, 2019

Climate change: Most of the world agrees it’s a danger, but how do we conquer it? What’s holding us back? Christopher Knittel, professor of applied economics at the MIT Sloan School of Management, laid out five of the biggest challenges in a recent interview.

CO2 is a global pollutant that can’t be locally contained

“The first key feature of climate change that puts it at odds with past environmental issues is that it’s a global pollutant, rather than a local pollutant. [Whether] I release a ton of CO2 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, or in London, it does the same damage to the globe,” Knittel said. “Contrast that with local pollutants, where if I release a ton of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide in Cambridge, the majority of the damage stays near Cambridge.”

Thus, CO2 is far harder to manage and regulate.

For now, climate change is still hypothetical

The damage caused by most climate change pollutants will happen in the future. Which means most of us won’t truly be affected by climate change — it’s a hypothetical scenario conveyed in charts and graphs. While we’d like politicians and voters to be moved by altruism, this isn’t always the case. In general, policymakers have little incentive to act.

“People [who stand to be] most harmed by climate change aren’t even born yet. Going back to the policymaker’s perspective, she has much less of an incentive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions because those reductions are going to benefit voters in the future and not her current voters,” Knittel said.

There’s no direct link to a smoking gun

Despite the global threat from climate-altering pollutants, it’s hard for scientists to link them to a specific environmental disaster, Knittel said. Without a definitive culprit, it’s easier for skeptics to ignore or explain away climate change effects.

Developing countries contribute to a large share of pollution

Simply put, this isn’t their top priority.

“We’re asking very poor countries that are worried about where their next meal is coming from, or whether they can send their kids to school, to incur costs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to benefit the world. And that’s a tough ask for a policymaker inside of a developing country,” he said.

Modern living is part of the problem

It’s a tough pill to swallow, but modern conveniences like electricity, transportation, and air conditioning contribute to climate change, and remedies potentially involve significant sacrifice and lifestyle change.

“Although we’ve seen great strides in reductions in solar costs and batteries for electric vehicles, these are still expensive alternatives. There is no free lunch when it comes to overcoming climate change,” Knittel warned.

Writing in the Los Angeles Times  recently, Knittel said, “If an evil genius had set out to design the perfect environmental crisis … those five factors would have made climate change a brilliant choice. But we didn’t need an evil genius. We stumbled into it on our own.”

Read next — Climate experts: Clean tech is here, now we need people power

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9 questions about climate change you were too embarrassed to ask

Basic answers to basic questions about global warming and the future climate.

by Brad Plumer , Umair Irfan , and Brian Resnick

This explainer was updated by Umair Irfan in December 2018 and draws heavily from a card stack written by Brad Plumer in 2015. Brian Resnick contributed the section on the Paris climate accord in 2017.

There’s a vast and growing gap between the urgency to fight climate change and the policies needed to combat it.

In 2018, the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change found that it is possible to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius this century, but the world may have as little as 12 years left to act. The US government’s National Climate Assessment , with input from NASA, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Pentagon, also reported that the consequences of climate change are already here, ranging from nuisance flooding to the spread of mosquito-borne viruses into what were once colder climates. Left unchecked, warming will cost the US economy hundreds of billions of dollars.

However, these facts have failed to register with the Trump administration, which is actively pushing policies that will increase the emissions of heat-trapping gases.

Ever since he took office, President Donald Trump has rejected or undermined President Barack Obama’s signature climate achievements: the Paris climate agreement; the Clean Power Plan , the main domestic policy for limiting greenhouse gas emissions; and fuel economy standards , which target transportation, the largest US source of greenhouse gases.

At the same time, the Trump administration has aggressively boosted fossil fuels: opening unprecedented swaths of public lands to mining and drilling , attempting to bail out foundering coal power plants , and promoting hydrocarbon exploitation at climate change conferences .

Trump has also appointed climate change skeptics to key positions. Quietly, officials at these and other science agencies have been removing the words “climate change” from government websites and press releases.

Yet the evidence for humanity’s role in changing the climate continues to mount, and its consequences are increasingly difficult to ignore. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations now top 408 parts per million, a threshold the planet hasn’t seen in millions of years . Greenhouse gas emissions reached a record high in 2018. Disasters worsened by climate change have taken hundreds of lives, destroyed thousands of homes, and cost billions of dollars.

The big questions now are how these ongoing changes in the climate will reverberate throughout the rest of the world, and what we should do about them. The answers bridge decades of research across geology, economics, and social science, which have been confounded by uncertainty and obscured by jargon. That’s why it can be a bit daunting to join the discussion for the first time, or to revisit the conversation after a hiatus.

To help, we’ve provided answers to some fundamental questions about climate change you may have been afraid to ask.

1) What is global warming?

In short: The world is getting hotter, and humans are responsible.

Yes, the planet’s temperature has changed before, but it’s the rise in average temperature of the Earth’s climate system since the late 19th century, the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, that’s important here. Temperatures over land and ocean have gone up 0.8° to 1° Celsius (1.4° to 1.8° Fahrenheit), on average, in that span:

Many people use the term “climate change” to describe this rise in temperatures and the associated effects on the Earth’s climate. (The shift from the term “global warming” to “climate change” was also part of a deliberate messaging effort by a Republican pollster to undermine support for environmental regulations.)

Like detectives solving a murder, climate scientists have found humanity’s fingerprints all over the planet’s warming, with the overwhelming majority of the evidence pointing to the extra greenhouse gases humans have put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat at the Earth’s surface, preventing that heat from escaping back out into space too quickly. When we burn coal, natural gas, or oil for energy, or when we cut down forests that usually soak up greenhouse gases, we add even more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, so the planet warms up.

Global warming also refers to what scientists think will happen in the future if humans keep adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Though there is a steady stream of new studies on climate change, one of the most robust aggregations of the science remains the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s fifth assessment report from 2013. The IPCC is convened by the United Nations, and the report draws on more than 800 expert authors. It projects that temperatures could rise at least 2°C (3.6°F) by the end of the century under many plausible scenarios — and possibly 4°C or more. A more recent study by scientists in the United Kingdom found a narrower range of expected temperatures if atmospheric carbon dioxide doubled, rising between 2.2°C and 3.4°C.

Many experts consider 2°C of warming to be unacceptably high , increasing the risk of deadly heat waves, droughts, flooding, and extinctions. Rising temperatures will drive up global sea levels as the world’s glaciers and ice sheets melt. Further global warming could affect everything from our ability to grow food to the spread of disease.

That’s why the IPCC put out another report in 2018 comparing 2°C of warming to a scenario with 1.5°C of warming . The researchers found that this half-degree difference is actually pretty important, since every bit of warming matters. Between the two outlooks, less warming means fewer people will have to move from coastal areas, natural weather events will be less severe, and economies will take a smaller hit.

However, limiting warming would likely require a complete overhaul of our energy system. Fossil fuels currently provide just over 80 percent of the world’s energy. To zero out emissions this century, we’d have to replace most of that with low-carbon sources like wind, solar, nuclear, geothermal, or carbon capture.

Beyond that, we may have to electrify everything that uses energy and start pulling greenhouse gases straight from the air. And to get on track for 1.5°C of warming, the world would have to halve greenhouse gas emissions from current levels by 2030.

That’s a staggering task, and there are huge technological and political hurdles standing in the way. As such, the world’s nations have been slow to act on global warming — many of the existing targets for curbing greenhouse gas emissions are too weak , yet many countries are falling short of even these modest goals.

2) How do we know global warming is real?

The simplest way is through temperature measurements. Agencies in the United States, Europe, and Japan have independently analyzed historical temperature data and reached the same conclusion: The Earth’s average surface temperature has risen roughly 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since the early 20th century.

But that’s not the only clue. Scientists have also noted that glaciers and ice sheets around the world are melting. Satellite observations since the 1970s have shown warming in the lower atmosphere. There’s more heat in the ocean, causing water to expand and sea levels to rise. Plants are flowering earlier in many parts of the world. There’s more humidity in the atmosphere. Here’s a summary from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

These are all signs that the Earth really is getting warmer — and that it’s not just a glitch in the thermometers. That explains why climate scientists say things like , “Warming in the climate system is unequivocal.” They’re really confident about this one.

3) How do we know humans are causing global warming?

Climate scientists say they are more than 95 percent certain that human influence has been the dominant cause of global warming since 1950. They’re about as sure of this as they are that cigarette smoke causes cancer.

Why are they so confident? In part because they have a good grasp of how greenhouse gases can warm the planet, in part because the theory fits the available evidence, and in part because alternate theories have been ruled out. Let’s break it down in six steps:

1) Scientists have long known that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — such as carbon dioxide, methane, or water vapor — absorb certain frequencies of infrared radiation and scatter them back toward the Earth. These gases essentially prevent heat from escaping too quickly back into space, trapping that radiation at the surface and keeping the planet warm.

2) Climate scientists also know that concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have grown significantly since the Industrial Revolution. Carbon dioxide has risen 45 percent . Methane has risen more than 200 percent . Through some relatively straightforward chemistry and physics , scientists can trace these increases to human activities like burning oil, gas, and coal.

3) So it stands to reason that more greenhouse gases would lead to more heat. And indeed, satellite measurements have shown that less infrared radiation is escaping out into space over time and instead returning to the Earth’s surface. That’s strong evidence that the greenhouse effect is increasing.

4) There are other human fingerprints that suggest increased greenhouse gases are warming the planet. For instance, back in the 1960s, simple climate models predicted that global warming caused by more carbon dioxide would lead to cooling in the upper atmosphere (because the heat is getting trapped at the surface). Later satellite measurements confirmed exactly that . Here are a few other similar predictions that have also been confirmed.

5) Meanwhile, climate scientists have ruled out other explanations for the rise in average temperatures over the past century. To take one example: Solar activity can shift from year to year, affecting the Earth’s climate. But satellite data shows that total solar irradiance has declined slightly in the past 35 years, even as the Earth has warmed.

6) More recent calculations have shown that it’s impossible to explain the temperature rise we’ve seen in the past century without taking the increase in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into account. Natural causes, like the sun or volcanoes, have an influence, but they’re not sufficient by themselves.

Ultimately, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that most of the warming since 1951 has been due to human activities. The Earth’s climate can certainly fluctuate from year to year due to natural forces (including oscillations in the Pacific Ocean, such as El Niño ). But greenhouse gases are driving the larger upward trend in temperatures.

And as the Climate Science Special Report , released by 13 US federal agencies in November 2017, put it, “For the warming over the last century, there is no convincing alternative explanation supported by the extent of the observational evidence.”

More: This chart breaks down all the different factors affecting the Earth’s average temperature. And there’s much more detail in the IPCC’s report , particularly this section and this one .

4) How has global warming affected the world so far?

Here’s a list of ongoing changes that climate scientists have concluded are likely linked to global warming, as detailed by the IPCC here and here .

Higher temperatures: Every continent has warmed substantially since the 1950s. There are more hot days and fewer cold days, on average, and the hot days are hotter.

Heavier storms and floods: The world’s atmosphere can hold more moisture as it warms. As a result, the overall number of heavier storms has increased since the mid-20th century, particularly in North America and Europe (though there’s plenty of regional variation). Scientists reported in December that at least 18 percent of Hurricane Harvey’s record-setting rainfall over Houston in August was due to climate change.

Heat waves: Heat waves have become longer and more frequent around the world over the past 50 years, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Australia.

Shrinking sea ice: The extent of sea ice in the Arctic, always at its maximum in winter, has shrunk since 1979, by 3.3 percent per decade. Summer sea ice has dwindled even more rapidly, by 13.2 percent per decade. Antarctica has seen recent years with record growth in sea ice, but it’s a very different environment than the Arctic, and the losses in the north far exceed any gains at the South Pole, so total global sea ice is on the decline:

Shrinking glaciers and ice sheets: Glaciers around the world have, on average, been losing ice since the 1970s. In some areas, that is reducing the amount of available freshwater. The ice sheet on Greenland, which would raise global sea levels by 25 feet if it all melted, is declining, with some sections experiencing a sudden surge in the melt rate. The Antarctic ice sheet is also getting smaller, but at a much slower rate .

Sea level rise: Global sea levels rose 9.8 inches (25 centimeters) in the 19th and 20th centuries, after 2,000 years of relatively little change , and the pace is speeding up . Sea level rise is caused by both the thermal expansion of the oceans — as water warms up, it expands — and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets (but not sea ice).

Food supply: A hotter climate can be both good for crops (it lengthens the growing season, and more carbon dioxide can increase photosynthesis) and bad for crops (excess heat can damage plants). The IPCC found that global warming was currently benefiting crops in some high-latitude areas but that negative effects are becoming increasingly common worldwide. In areas like California, crop yields are estimated to decline 40 percent by 2050.

Shifting species: Many land and marine species have had to shift their geographic ranges in response to warmer temperatures. So far, several extinctions have been linked to global warming, such as certain frog species in Central America.

Warmer winters: In general, winters are warming faster than summers . Average low temperatures are rising all over the world. In some cases, these temperatures are climbing above the freezing point of water. We’re already seeing massive declines in snow accumulation in the United States, which can paradoxically increase flood, drought, and wildfire risk — as water that would ordinarily dispatch slowly over the course of a season instead flows through a region all at once.

Debated impacts

Here are a few other ways the Earth’s climate has been changing — but scientists are still debating whether and how they’re linked to global warming:

Droughts have become more frequent and more intense in some parts of the world — such as the American Southwest, Mediterranean Europe, and West Africa — though it’s hard to identify a clear global trend. In other parts of the world, such as the Midwestern United States and Northwestern Australia, droughts appear to have become less frequent. A recent study shows that, globally, the time between droughts is shrinking and more areas are affected by drought and taking longer to recover from them.

Hurricanes have clearly become more intense in the North Atlantic Ocean since 1970, the IPCC says. But it’s less clear whether global warming is driving this. 2017 was an exceptionally bad year for Atlantic hurricanes in terms of strength and damage. And while scientists are still uncertain whether they were a fluke or part of a trend, they are warning we should treat it as a baseline year. There doesn’t yet seem to be any clear trajectory for tropical cyclones worldwide.

5) What impacts will global warming have in the future?

It depends on how much the planet actually heats up. The changes associated with 4° Celsius (or 7.2° Fahrenheit) of warming are expected to be more dramatic than the changes associated with 2°C of warming.

Here’s a basic rundown of big impacts we can expect if global warming continues, via the IPCC ( here and here ).

Hotter temperatures: If emissions keep rising unchecked, then global average surface temperatures will be at least 2°C higher (3.6°F) than preindustrial levels by 2100 — and possibly 3°C or 4°C or more.

Higher sea level rise: The expert consensus is that global sea levels will rise somewhere between 0.2 and 2 meters by the end of the century if global warming continues unchecked (that’s between 0.6 and 6.6 feet). That’s a wide range, reflecting some of the uncertainties scientists have in how ice will melt. In specific regions like the Eastern United States, sea level rise could be even higher, and around the world, the rate of rise is accelerating .

Heat waves: A hotter planet will mean more frequent and severe heat waves .

Droughts and floods: Across the globe, wet seasons are expected to become wetter, and dry seasons drier. As the IPCC puts it , the world will see “more intense downpours, leading to more floods, yet longer dry periods between rain events, leading to more drought.”

Hurricanes: It’s not yet clear what impact global warming will have on tropical cyclones. The IPCC said it was likely that tropical cyclones would get stronger as the oceans heat up, with faster winds and heavier rainfall. But the overall number of hurricanes in many regions was likely to “either decrease or remain essentially unchanged.”

Heavier storm surges: Higher sea levels will increase the risk of storm surges and flooding when storms do hit.

Agriculture: In many parts of the world, the mix of increased heat and drought is expected to make food production more difficult. The IPCC concluded that global warming of 1°C or more could start hurting crop yields for wheat, corn, and rice by the 2030s, especially in the tropics. (This wouldn’t be uniform, however; some crops may benefit from mild warming, such as winter wheat in the United States.)

Extinctions: As the world warms, many plant and animal species will need to shift habitats at a rapid rate to maintain their current conditions. Some species will be able to keep up; others likely won’t. The Great Barrier Reef, for instance, may not be able to recover from major recent bleaching events linked to climate change. The National Research Council has estimated that a mass extinction event “could conceivably occur before the year 2100.”

Long-term changes: Most of the projected changes above will occur in the 21st century. But temperatures will keep rising after that if greenhouse gas levels aren’t stabilized. That increases the risk of more drastic longer-term shifts. One example: If West Antarctica’s ice sheet started crumbling, that could push sea levels up significantly. The National Research Council in 2013 deemed many of these rapid climate surprises unlikely this century but a real possibility further into the future.

6) What happens if the world heats up more drastically — say, 4°C?

The risks of climate change would rise considerably if temperatures rose 4° Celsius (7.2° Fahrenheit) above preindustrial levels — something that’s possible if greenhouse gas emissions keep rising at their current rate.

The IPCC says 4°C of global warming could lead to “substantial species extinctions,” “large risks to global and regional food security,” and the risk of irreversibly destabilizing Greenland’s massive ice sheet.

One huge concern is food production: A growing number of studies suggest it would become significantly more difficult for the world to grow food with 3°C or 4°C of global warming. Countries like Bangladesh, Egypt, Vietnam, and parts of Africa could see large tracts of farmland turn unusable due to rising seas. Scientists are also concerned about crops getting less nutritious due to rising CO2.

Humans could struggle to adapt to these conditions. Many people might think the impacts of 4°C of warming will simply be twice as bad as those of 2°C. But as a 2013 World Bank report argued, that’s not necessarily true. Impacts may interact with each other in unpredictable ways. Current agriculture models, for instance, don’t have a good sense of what will happen to crops if increased heat waves, droughts, new pests and diseases, and other changes all start to combine.

“Given that uncertainty remains about the full nature and scale of impacts,” the World Bank report said, “there is also no certainty that adaptation to a 4°C world is possible.” Its conclusion was blunt: “The projected 4°C warming simply must not be allowed to occur.”

7) What do climate models say about the warming that could actually happen in the coming decades?

That depends on your faith in humanity.

Climate models depend on not only complicated physics but the intricacies of human behavior over the entire planet.

Generally, the more greenhouse gases humanity pumps into the atmosphere, the warmer it will get. But scientists aren’t certain how sensitive the global climate system is to increases in greenhouse gases. And just how much we might emit over the coming decades remains an open question, depending on advances in technology and international efforts to cut emissions.

The IPCC groups these scenarios into four categories of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations known as Representative Concentration Pathways . They serve as standard benchmarks for evaluating climate models, but they also have some assumptions baked in .

RCP 2.6, also called RCP 3PD, is the scenario with very low greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It bets on declining oil use, a population of 9 billion by 2100, increasing energy efficiency, and emissions holding steady until 2020, at which point they’ll decline and even go negative by 2100. This is, to put it mildly, very optimistic.

The next tier up is RCP 4.5, which still banks on ambitious reductions in emissions but anticipates an inflection point in the emissions rate around 2040. RCP 6 expects emissions to increase 75 percent above today’s levels before peaking and declining around 2060 as the world continues to rely heavily on fossil fuels.

The highest tier, RCP 8.5, is the pessimistic business-as-usual scenario, anticipating no policy changes nor any technological advances. It expects a global population of 12 billion and triple the rate of carbon dioxide emissions compared to today by 2100.

Here’s how greenhouse gas emissions under each scenario stack up next to each other:

And here’s what that means for global average temperatures, assuming that a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere leads to 3°C of warming:

As you can see, RCP 3PD is the only trajectory that keeps the planet below 2°C of warming. Recall what it would take to keep emissions in line with this pathway and you’ll understand the enormity of the challenge of meeting this goal.

8) How do we stop global warming?

The world’s nations would need to cut their greenhouse gas emissions by a lot. And even that wouldn’t stop all global warming.

For example, let’s say we wanted to limit global warming to below 2°C. To do that, the IPCC has calculated that annual greenhouse gas emissions would need to drop at least 40 to 70 percent by midcentury.

Emissions would then have to keep falling until humans were hardly emitting any extra greenhouse gases by the end of the century. We’d also have to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere .

Cutting emissions that sharply is a daunting task. Right now, the world gets 87 percent of its primary energy from fossil fuels: oil, gas, and coal. By contrast, just 13 percent of the world’s primary energy is “low carbon”: a little bit of wind and solar power, some nuclear power plants, a bunch of hydroelectric dams. That’s one reason global emissions keep rising each year.

To stay below 2°C, that would all need to change radically. By 2050, the IPCC notes, the world would need to triple or even quadruple the share of clean energy it uses — and keep scaling it up thereafter. Second, we’d have to get dramatically more efficient at using energy in our homes, buildings, and cars. And stop cutting down forests. And reduce emissions from agriculture and from industrial processes like cement manufacturing.

The IPCC also notes that this task becomes even more difficult the longer we put it off, because carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will keep piling up in the atmosphere in the meantime, and the cuts necessary to stay below the 2°C limit become more severe.

9) What are we actually doing to fight climate change?

A global problem requires global action, but with climate change, there is a yawning gap between ambition and action.

The main international effort is the 2015 Paris climate accord, of which the United States is the only country in the world that wants out . The deal was hammered out over weeks of tense negotiations and weighs in at 31 pages . What it does is actually pretty simple.

The backbone is the global target of keeping global average temperatures from rising 2°C (compared to temperatures before the Industrial Revolution) by the end of the century. Beyond 2 degrees, we risk dramatically higher seas, changes in weather patterns, food and water crises, and an overall more hostile world.

Critics have argued that the 2-degree mark is arbitrary, or even too low , to make a difference. But it’s a starting point, a goal that, before Paris, the world was on track to wildly miss.

Paris is voluntary

To accomplish this 2-degree goal, the accord states that countries should strive to reach peak emissions “as soon as possible.” (Currently, we’re on track to hit peak emissions around 2030 or later , which will likely be too late.)

But the agreement doesn’t detail exactly how these countries should do that. Instead, it provides a framework for getting momentum going on greenhouse gas reduction, with some oversight and accountability. For the US, the pledge involves 26 to 28 percent reductions by 2025. (Under Trump’s current policies, that goal is impossible .)

There’s also no defined punishment for breaking it. The idea is to create a culture of accountability (and maybe some peer pressure) to get countries to step up their climate game.

In 2020, delegates are supposed to reconvene and provide updates about their emission pledges and report on how they’re becoming more aggressive on accomplishing the 2-degree goal.

However, many countries are already falling behind on their climate change commitments, and some, like Germany, are giving up on their near-term targets.

Paris asks richer countries to help out poorer countries

There’s a fundamental inequality when it comes to global emissions. Rich countries have plundered and burned huge amounts of fossil fuels and gotten rich from them. Poor countries seeking to grow their economies are now being admonished for using the same fuels. Many low-lying poor countries also will be among the first to bear the worst impacts of climate change.

The main vehicle for rectifying this is the Green Climate Fund , via which richer countries, like the US, are supposed to send $100 billion a year in aid and financing by 2020 to the poorer countries. The United States’ share was $3 billion , but with President Trump’s decision to withdraw from the Paris accord, this goal is unlikely to be met.

The agreement matters because we absolutely need momentum on this issue

The Paris agreement is largely symbolic, and it will live on even though Trump is aiming to pull the US out. But, as Jim Tankersley wrote for Vox , “the accord will be weakened, and, much more importantly, so will the fragile international coalition” around climate change.

We’re already seeing the Paris agreement lose steam. At a follow-up climate meeting this year in Katowice, Poland , negotiators forged an agreement on measuring and verifying their progress in cutting greenhouse gases, but left many critical questions of how to achieve these reductions unanswered.

But the Paris accord isn’t the only international climate policy game in town

There are regional international climate efforts like the European Union’s Emissions Trading System . However, the most effective global policy at keeping warming in check to date doesn’t have to do with climate change, at least on the surface.

The 1987 Montreal Protocol , which was convened by countries to halt the destruction of the ozone layer, had a major side effect of averting warming. In fact, it’s been the single most effective effort humanity has undertaken to fight climate change. Since many of the substances that eat away at the ozone layer are potent heat-trappers, limiting emissions of gases like chlorofluorocarbons has an outsize effect.

And the Trump administration doesn’t appear as hostile to Montreal as it does to Paris. The White House may send the 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol to the Senate for ratification, giving the new regulations the force of law. If implemented, the amendment would avert 0.5°C of warming by 2100.

Regardless of what path we choose, the key thing to remember is that we are going to pay for climate change one way or another. We have the opportunity now to address warming on our own terms, with investments in clean energy, moving people away from disaster-prone areas, and regulating greenhouse gas emissions. Otherwise, we’ll pay through diminished crop harvests, inundated coastlines, destroyed homes, lost lives, and an increasingly unlivable planet. Ignoring or stalling on climate change chooses the latter option by default. Our choices do matter, but we’re running out of time to make them.

Further reading:

Avoiding catastrophic climate change isn’t impossible yet. Just incredibly hard.

Reckoning with climate change will demand ugly tradeoffs from environmentalists — and everyone else

Show this cartoon to anyone who doubts we need huge action on climate change

It’s time to start talking about “negative” carbon dioxide emissions

A history of the 2°C global warming target

Scientists made a detailed “roadmap” for meeting the Paris climate goals. It’s eye-opening.

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Assessing climate change projections through high-resolution modelling: a comparative study of three european cities.

1. Introduction

2. data and methods, 2.1. study areas, 2.2. the modelling setup and evaluation, 2.3. climate change indices, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. model evaluation for recent past, 3.2. daily mean, maximum and minimum temperature, 3.3. climate change indices, 4. nature-based solutions potential, 5. summary and conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Ascenso, A.; Augusto, B.; Coelho, S.; Menezes, I.; Monteiro, A.; Rafael, S.; Ferreira, J.; Gama, C.; Roebeling, P.; Miranda, A.I. Assessing Climate Change Projections through High-Resolution Modelling: A Comparative Study of Three European Cities. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7276. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177276

Ascenso A, Augusto B, Coelho S, Menezes I, Monteiro A, Rafael S, Ferreira J, Gama C, Roebeling P, Miranda AI. Assessing Climate Change Projections through High-Resolution Modelling: A Comparative Study of Three European Cities. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7276. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177276

Ascenso, Ana, Bruno Augusto, Sílvia Coelho, Isilda Menezes, Alexandra Monteiro, Sandra Rafael, Joana Ferreira, Carla Gama, Peter Roebeling, and Ana Isabel Miranda. 2024. "Assessing Climate Change Projections through High-Resolution Modelling: A Comparative Study of Three European Cities" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7276. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177276

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What has worked to fight climate change? Policies where someone pays for polluting, study finds

FILE - Vehicles move along Interstate 76 ahead of the Thanksgiving Day holiday in Philadelphia, Nov. 22, 2023. (AP Photo/Matt Rourke, File)

FILE - An offshore wind farm is visible from the beach in Hartlepool, England, Nov. 12, 2019. (AP Photo/Frank Augstein, File)

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WASHINGTON (AP) — To figure out what really works when nations try to fight climate change, researchers looked at 1,500 ways countries have tried to curb heat-trapping gases. Their answer: Not many have done the job. And success often means someone has to pay a price, whether at the pump or elsewhere.

In only 63 cases since 1998, did researchers find policies that resulted in significant cuts of carbon pollution, a new study in Thursday’s journal Science found.

Moves toward phasing out fossil fuel use and gas-powered engines, for example, haven’t worked by themselves, but they are more successful when combined with some kind of energy tax or additional cost system, study authors concluded in an exhaustive analysis of global emissions, climate policies and laws.

“The key ingredient if you want to reduce emissions is that you have pricing in the policy mix,” said study co-author Nicolas Koch, a climate economist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany. “If subsidies and regulations come alone or in a mix with each other, you won’t see major emission reductions. But when price instruments come in the mix like a carbon energy tax then they will deliver those substantial emissions reductions.”

The study also found that what works in rich nations doesn’t always work as well in developing ones.

Still, it shows the power of the purse when fighting climate change, something economists always suspected, said several outside policy experts, climate scientists and economists who praised the study.

“We won’t crack the climate problem in wealthier nations until the polluter pays,” said Rob Jackson, a Stanford University climate scientist and author of the book Clear Blue Sky. “Other policies help, but nibble around the edges.”

“Carbon pricing puts the onus on the owners and products causing the climate crisis,” Jackson said in an email.

A great example of what works is in the electricity sector in the United Kingdom, Koch said. That country instituted a mix of 11 different policies starting in 2012, including a phaseout of coal and a pricing scheme involving emission trading, which he said nearly halved emissions — “a huge effect.”

Of the 63 success stories, the biggest reduction was seen in South Africa’s building sector, where a combination of regulation, subsidies and labeling of appliances cut emissions nearly 54%.

The only success story in the United States was in transportation. Emissions dropped 8% from 2005 to 2011 thanks to a mix of fuel standards — which amount to regulation — and subsidies.

Yet even the policy tools that seem to work still barely put a dent in ever-rising carbon dioxide emissions. Overall, the 63 successful instances of climate policies trimmed 600 million to 1.8 billion metric tons of the heat-trapping gas, the study found. Last year the world spewed 36.8 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide while burning fossil fuels and making cement.

If every major country somehow learned the lesson of this analysis and enacted the policies that work best, it would only shrink the United Nations “emissions gap” of 23 billion metric tons of all greenhouse gases by about 26%, the study found. The gap is the difference between how much carbon the world is on track to put in the air in 2030 and the amount that would keep warming at or below internationally agreed upon levels.

“It basically shows we have to do a better job,” said Koch, who is also head of the policy evaluation lab at the Mercator Research Institute in Berlin.

Niklas Hohne at Germany’s New Climate Institute, who wasn’t part of the study said: “The world really needs to make a step change, move into emergency mode and make the impossible possible.”

Koch and his team looked at emissions and efforts to reduce them in 41 countries between 1998 and 2022 —so it doesn’t include the United States’ nearly $400 billion in climate-fighting spending package passed two years ago as a cornerstone of President Joe Biden’s environmental policy — and logged 1,500 different policy actions. They bunched the policies in four broad categories — pricing, regulations, subsidies and information — and analyzed four distinct sectors of the economy: electricity, transportation, buildings and industry.

In what Koch called “the reverse causal approach,” the team looked for emission drops of 5% or more in different sectors of countries’ economies and then figured out what caused them with help of observations and machine learning. Researchers compared emissions to similar nations as control groups and accounted for weather and other factors, Koch said.

The team created a statistically transparent approach that others can use to update or reproduce it, including an interactive website where users can choose nations and economic sectors to see what’s worked. And it could eventually be applied to the 2022 Biden climate package, he said. That package was heavy on subsidies.

John Sterman, a management professor at MIT Sloan Sustainability Institute who wasn’t part of the research, said politicians find it easier to pass policies that subsidize and promote low-carbon technologies. He said that’s not enough.

“It’s also necessary to discourage fossil fuels by pricing them closer to their full costs, including the costs of the climate damage they cause,” he said.

Follow Seth Borenstein on X at @borenbears

Read more of AP’s climate coverage at http://www.apnews.com/climate-and-environment

The Associated Press’ climate and environmental coverage receives financial support from multiple private foundations. AP is solely responsible for all content. Find AP’s standards for working with philanthropies, a list of supporters and funded coverage areas at AP.org .

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100+ Climate Change Research Topics & Samples

Table of Contents

Changing weather patterns, global warming,  rising sea levels, and perturbations in the intricate processes that influence regional climate, the impact of emissions, and renewable energy– climate change research topics are myriad. Topics in this subject generally look into the underlying intricacies of climate change, the factors, their relationships & impact, and the planet’s response to climatic variations.

Climate change research has become overwhelmingly important, and investigations into different climate change research topics & questions are now a core aspect of numerous academic disciplines. If you are about to embark on such research but struggling to find & focus on a valuable topic, this article offers some handy tips on how to find & select potent research questions & topics. It also lists 100+ prominent climate change research paper topics in precise detail.

Let’s get started.

What Makes a Good Climate Change Research Topic?

Here are the features of exceptional climate change essay topics &  research topics.

➔   A good topic on global climate change should be relevant and trending.

➔   It should relate to your assignment brief.

➔   Interesting climate change research topics investigate innovative & out-of-the-box ideas and present valuable & striking insights.

➔   Topics must be debatable, focused, precise, and concise.

How to Choose a Good Climate Change Research Topic?

Climate change is an undeniable reality. There’s overwhelming scientific evidence of global warming occurring at an ever-accelerating rate since the Industrial Revolution. Global warming refers to the unbalanced rise in the Earth’s ambient temperature due to greenhouse emissions. Numerous socio-economic and socio-cultural factors contribute to the phenomenon.

Naturally, climate change research topics are diverse and touch upon ideas, concepts, & subjects across almost every discipline in human ontology & epistemology. To come up with potent research topics about climate change, you start with a thorough analysis of your assignment/essay/research brief.

•     Read your assignment brief thoroughly.
•     Investigate the primary theme or concept, research & understand how it relates to researching climate change, its causes,  impacts, and consequences.
•     Most climate change research topics are diverse. Narrow down on an idea, concept, factor, phenomenon, etc., that is relevant & urgent and helps you develop a clear climate change research question.
•     Look for researchable and debatable climate change research topics. Arguments & counterarguments are essential in any scientific investigation & analysis.
•     Narrow your topic down to something manageable.
•     Think of the five ‘W’s – WHY, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, and WHO.
•     Start broad and then narrow down when developing essay or research topics.

Choosing the right climate change research paper topic can be quite a struggle. If you are in a hurry, get help with a research paper from a professional environmental essay writing help service.

Check Out Our Vast Collection of Climate Change Research Topics

Climate change is a sensitive issue in today’s world. But finding a suitable topic for the same can be a challenge. Here are a few climate change research topics worth looking at.

Check This Climate Change Research Topics Example

Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question

Developing good climate change research questions can be tricky.

 As we already mentioned, topics on climate change research are almost always multifaceted. To develop a focused climate change research question from such broad topics, one must first understand the distinctions between a research topic & research question.

• A research topic is a subject that you intend to investigate. It is a specific aspect of a broader area of study.
• In this case, global climate change is the area of our study that’s replete with topics such as the threat climate change poses to humans & other species, the relationship between climate change and human activities, climatic variations across the globe, greenhouse gases, fossil fuels, & climatic change. 
• Research questions narrow down further onto their respective climate change topics. It specifies exactly what you want to learn by researching a particular climate change research question.

How auditing energy consumption & proliferation of alternative energy sources can mitigate climate change? What impact do electric vehicles have on carbon emissions? How large-scale climatic variations are responses to the rising levels of carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect?

Finding it tough to create clear & specific climate change research questions from topics? Then, it is best to seek expert aid from a reputed environmental science homework help or ecology assignment help service.

How to Create Climate Change Research Questions?

Assignments and research endeavors on climate change can pit you against different topics. How greenhouse emissions affect & destroy ecosystems, how can climate change affect agriculture, how extreme weather events & changing weather patterns is a direct consequence of global resource competition, and the like. To find and pinpoint the idea or concept that allows you to carry out in-depth & extensive research, you must create apt research questions.

A good research question is important for conducting accurate & fruitful research. It can also aid you in crafting eye-catching climate change research titles. Key features of a clear, well-defined, and analytical  research question include →

•     Presenting the problem statement in detail
•     Clear and refined description of the issue/concept/topic/phenomenon under study
•     A clear focus on the research problem
•     The ability to guide data collation, research, and analysis
•     Establishing the context and purpose of the research in a clear & structured  manner
•     Enough scope and flexibility to conduct substantial research & analyses

To create a distinctively potent research question, here’s one roadmap you can follow →

•     Choose an appropriate topic
•     Gather necessary background information.
•     Look into the sub-topics, concepts, principles, and prominent research.
•     Consider who you are writing for.
•     Conjure open-ended questions that ask the ‘how’s and ‘why’s about your topic.
•     Next, determine the purpose of your research, its relevance, and the relevance of the research topic in the grand scheme of things.
•     Reflect and retrospect on your queries & questions. Then, develop an apt research question using the ideas, theories & concepts you mined from your queries. If need be, employ a conceptual or theoretical framework.
•     Evaluate the question you come up with. What aspect of the general topic do you intend to explore? Is the question clear & specific enough? Is it researchable, in-depth, and multifaceted enough?
•     Once the question is on paper, ponder upon it for a while and hypothesize probable answers. Develop arguments for your answers as well as the approaches &  assumptions you make. Also, think of potential counterarguments and the means to refute them.

It takes time, intelligent thinking, and clear knowledge to come up with well-defined & focused questions.  Try developing excellent research questions and research titles about climate change with our list of carefully selected research paper & essay topics below.

The Best Climate Change Research Paper Topics

Pore through our list of some of the best climate change research topics of 2023-2024. Go through every topic carefully, pick one that grabs your attention, and try to craft a good climate change research question for your research papers.

We start with the top 10 climate change research titles chosen by our subject matter experts.

 Ten Trending Climate Change Topics of 2023-24

• Current Policies in place to Monitor, Predict, Tackle, and Reverse Climate Change

 If you are picking this topic, be ready to do some extensive research & careful analysis of climate change policies across different nations. Gather data from credible & authoritative sources. Showcase the differences, implementations, implications, and notable changes. Also, please take note of the policies developed and enforced by international agencies & how well different economies have implemented them.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions & Their Effect in Rising Sea Levels

It is best to take a technical approach to this topic. Show and explain how carbon emissions play a role in heating the atmosphere and how a cascading effect leads to rising sea levels. Dig into the chemistry behind the greenhouse effect, showcase the most prominent impact, and back up your analysis with scientific reports.

Global Climate Change and Its Impact on the Economy of Developing Countries

 Climate change and global warming are exacting a heavy toll on the global economy & have the potential to upend the existing economic machinery. To understand the ongoing and estimate the potential economic impact on developing economies, you will have to look into national reports as well as international agencies. Use economic concepts and models to present striking insights.

The Rising Temperatures of Oceans & the Atmosphere

 An excellent approach for researching rising global temperatures is to draw comparisons with global warming events throughout Earth’s history, the reasons & the impact. Show how ecosystems, biodiversity, and different species have been affected. Investigate the agents that impact modern species and human society at large.

The Threat of Melting Polar Ice Caps and Changing Climate on Marine Life

Global warming and climate change are melting the polar ice caps at an unprecedented rate. Besides the risk of rising sea levels, one of the gravest consequences of drastic global temperature changes is the loss of polar habitats. Discuss and dig into the natural processes and present reports from climate & scientific agencies.

The Agents of Anthropogenic Climate Change

The Earth has undergone multiple climate changes and upheavals of the environment in its billion-year-old history. Anthropogenic or human-induced climate change is different as it has disrupted the natural processes of climate change, upending the natural balance on a drastic scale. Investigating the causes & variables behind climate change caused by man will require focusing on all the socio-cultural & socio-economic causes. Collate data and highlight how human-induced aspects are drastically disrupting the intricacies of the Earth’s temperature systems.

The Relationship between Climate Change and Public Health

 Mutations, the rise of infectious diseases, loss of habitats, pollution – all of these aspects will figure into research into the relationships between climate change & public health. Climate change and global warming affect food production, availability, quality, & diversity prominently. Study cases, highlight effects, and analyze everything in-depth.

Effects of Global Warming on Animal Life Around the World

Wildlife and their habitats are under the biggest threat as weather & climate patterns shift in unprecedented directions. Look into how climate affects ecosystems & habitats around the globe. Investigate critically endangered as well as extinct species. Dedicate a significant portion of your research to the Holocene or Anthropocene extinction, the ongoing extinction event caused by human activities.

• How Do Large Corporations Contribute to Environmental Changes?

 Industrialization and urbanization are the biggest examples of human-induced climate change. Researching will require you to investigate the impact of businesses & corporations across different sectors. Look into their carbon footprint and what steps major corporations have taken to reduce their footprint & control resource consumption. Analyze, compare, and present recommendations & suggestions.

• The Climate Policy of National Governments Around the World

Study the design and implementation of environmental & climate policies of governments around the world. Look into how much they have been implemented, the impact of said implications, and the challenges & struggles. Investigate all the factors contributing to the development of environment protection and climate change laws & policies in both developed & developing nations.

Those were the top 10 climate change research topics trending across academic institutions worldwide. Next are 100 more interesting climate change topics for research paper writing , curated by our native subject matter expert.

100 Trending Climate Change Topics for Research

Topics on Climate Change Risks

•   How does global climate change affect human health?
•   Air pollution, carbon emissions, and their effects of climate change
•   The impact of human activity and how it affects air quality
•   The relationship between environmental changes and the rise of infectious diseases
•   The implications of climate change: Rise in global temperatures & natural disasters
•   How changing climate affects animals all over: From Arctic polar bears to the animals of the African continent
•   Climate change impact on agriculture, soil degradation, and water security
•   How are human activities causing a rise in climate refugees across the world?
•   The negative impacts of electric vehicles on carbon dioxide emissions
• A critical writing report assessment of greenhouse emissions and their implications for climate change

Topics on Environmental Economics

•   How can geoengineering play a role in climate change mitigation?
•   The destructive implication of fossil fuels and their wanton consumption
•   Will alternative energy resources play a bigger role in global economics in the near future?
•   Why should developed nations implement environmental sustainability in their policy-making?
•   The need for sustainability in modern economic discourse.
•   What steps should governments take to ensure sustainable consumption of natural resources?
•   The Economic Incentives of Adopting A Sustainable Strategy
•   Why must business people reconnect and develop a greater awareness of nature & natural processes?
•   Is green energy truly the future? How can it mitigate global warming?
• Will an economy based entirely on renewable energy be sustainable and profitable in the long run?

  Interesting Climate Change Essay Topics

•   Greenhouse effect, ocean acidification, and the impact on human life
•   The global economic impact of the rise in global temperature
•   The climate change influence on greenhouse gas emissions: A vicious cycle
•   Why is nuclear fusion the only renewable energy to meet rising energy demands?
•   The need for environmental scientists in government policy-making procedures.
•   What role can alternative energy sources play in climate change mitigation?
•   The Ongoing Holocene Extinction: How humans and human activities are wiping out wildlife species at an unprecedented rate?
•   The importance of teaching children about environmental degradation, climate change, & the essentiality of sustainability
•   Tackling The Trio: Air, Water, & Land Pollution
• Examples of temperature rise and its impact

Topics on Biodiversity & Environmental Conservation

•   The natural forces sustaining our ecosystem and how climate change affects them.
•   Why is protecting and preserving our forests the only way toward a sustainable future?
•   The economic impacts of the loss of marine biodiversity
•   Ocean acidification and its impact on nature
•   How rising ocean temperature is causing climate change?
•   21st-century humans and the future of humanity in an increasingly adverse environment
•   Water pollution in the Ganges: How ignorance and irresponsibility turned India’s holy river into a cesspool?
•   The most devastating environmental disasters caused by man.
•   Examples of environmental damage caused by humans throughout history
• The Permian-Triassic Extinction Event – How oceanic temperature changes devastated life on the planet?

Interesting Climate Change Research Topics

•   The potential consequences of long-term global warming
•   How will climate change influence human health, environmental protection policies, and social movements?
•   What has caused climate change to become such a major concern today?
•   Investigating the connection between climate change and global warming
•   Will an exacerbating climate crisis affect greenhouse emissions?
•   Climate Changes Throughout Earth’s History
•   Addressing climate change across all levels of society: The need for a clear climate policy
•   How climatic change & pollution have changed since the Industrial Revolution?
•   Industrialization and urbanization: The two biggest causes behind Earth’s environmental problems
• An investigation of global change in climate patterns

Good Climate Change Essay Topics

•   Disappearing forests, endangered wildlife, and an ever-degrading environment– Looking into the worst implications of climate change
•   The physiological and physical risks of pollution
•   What is sustainable agriculture? How can it tackle pollution?
•   The implications of climate change on international relations
•   How does climate change impact the lives & livelihoods of the deprived?
•   The effects of global warming on the polar ice caps and permafrost around the globe.
•   Exploring the environmental impact of climate change in developing countries
•   Will atmospheric and oceanic temperature changes turn Earth into the next Venus?
•   The myriad impacts of climate change across different economic sectors.
• What are the most prominent solutions to climate change currently?

Research Paper Topics on Sustainability

•   The urgent need to enforce strict environmental protection laws
•   The climate issues of modern technology and how to make them environmentally sustainable
•   The best examples of sustainable practices from around the world
•   Can AI provide us with sustainable solutions to climate change?
•   Will achieving net zero emissions truly reduce global warming and curb climate change?
•   Will climate change affect our eating and lifestyle habits in the future?
•   How do changes in Earth’s climate alter the social, cultural, and economic aspects of humanity?
•   Does climate change influence the outlook and perspectives of the masses?
•   Highlight how detrimental climate changes have accelerated due to human activities.
• The profound impact of climate change on economies, industries, and international relations.

More Climate Change Research Paper Topics

•   Habitat degradation is among the worst impacts of climate change.
•   The impact of climate change on ecosystems across Asia
•   The environmental impact of modern technologies
•   Investigating the most recent examples of extreme weather patterns
•   Drought, excessive rains, frost – the profound climate change impact on agriculture
•   Researching governmental policies that address climate change & climate issues.
•   The effects of climate change on wildlife across the world
•   How climate change and global warming can push humankind to the brink of extinction?
•   How does climate change affect ocean currents and other distinct weather patterns?
• What may happen if we do not mitigate greenhouse gases and air pollution on time?

Advanced Climate Change Title Ideas

•   Evaluation of adaptation strategies for tackling climate change
•   Exploring the impact of global warming and change in climatic patterns on emergency system capacity and potential responses.
•   Effects of climate change on coastal habitats and communities
•   Cascading effects and impacts of extreme temperature, drought & global warming
•   Resilient housing solutions for tackling temperature rise
•   Impact of global warming and climate change & identifying the greatest threats to biodiversity
•   The effects of climate change and global warming on agriculture: How do extreme heat and drought affect food production?
•   Deteriorating weather across Asia: Why rising economies are more susceptible to the effects of climate change?
•   Can carbon capture, storage, and sequestration counter rising carbon greenhouse gas emissions?
• Investigating deforestation and forest fires in the 21st century

Climate Change Essay Topics on Natural Resource Sciences

•   Impact of climate change on ecosystem & biodiversity
•   Climate change assessment
•   Essentiality of climate change considerations in national policy-making
•   The best practices of climate change impact and vulnerability assessment
•   Long-term effects of drought on local and regional habitats
•   Geoengineering and landscape analysis to counter climate change
•   How do climate change and ecosystem degradation affect insect populations?
•   Climate change and violent weather in the tropics
•   Why human behavioral change is vital for curbing climate change?
• The economic cost of climate change and global warming

Those were our top 100+ climate change research paper topics. Hope they come in handy when you embark on your climate change research endeavor. For more interesting climate change essay topics & research topics, biology research topics , and public health dissertation topics , check out our blogs & guides.

 Check out our thesis, dissertation, assignment, essay samples, etc., and get expert research writing aid from top experts across the USA at MyAssignmentHelp.com.

 All the best!

What are the necessary parts of a climate change research paper?

A typical research paper on climate change comprises the following →

•     Title Page
•     Abstract
•     Introduction
•     Literature Review
•     Conceptual or Theoretical framework (optional)
•     Methodologies & Methods (optional)
•     Results
•     Discussion
•     References3
•     Tables and figures
•     Appendices

Check with your instructor or supervisor and determine the structure you must follow for your climate change essay or research paper. Also, you can go through the climate change essays and research paper examples on our website to learn about structures followed by universities all around.

 How to write a climate change research paper title?

The title of a research paper on climate change & global warming must be clear, concise, informative, and focused on the topic’s specifics and the research question. It should be descriptive enough for your audience to grasp & understand what your research paper is all about. If you are struggling to develop apt titles for your research papers, connect with our services for top-notch examples & expert aid.

What is a thesis statement in a research paper?

The thesis statement in any research paper needs to be clear, assertive, and confident. It is a declarative sentence that establishes a specific claim, argument, or point with conviction. If you are stuck on developing a strong thesis statement for your research papers, use the MyAssignmentHelp.com thesis statement generator or connect with our climate change essay & research paper experts.

What research is needed for climate change?

A climate change research paper discusses the contributing aspects, the consequences, the remedies, and the like. Research on climate change will require you to look across disciplines as you look into the impact of climate change and its causes and present valuable insights & findings. Check out our research paper examples on Earth’s environmental issues & climate changes & connect with our experts for urgent assistance.

Hi, I am Mark, a Literature writer by profession. Fueled by a lifelong passion for Literature, story, and creative expression, I went on to get a PhD in creative writing. Over all these years, my passion has helped me manage a publication of my write ups in prominent websites and e-magazines. I have also been working part-time as a writing expert for myassignmenthelp.com for 5+ years now. It’s fun to guide students on academic write ups and bag those top grades like a pro. Apart from my professional life, I am a big-time foodie and travel enthusiast in my personal life. So, when I am not working, I am probably travelling places to try regional delicacies and sharing my experiences with people through my blog. 

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