how to do endnotes in an essay

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How to Do Endnotes

Last Updated: March 23, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 233,048 times.

Proper citation of sources is necessary to give credit to the authors whose work informed yours, to point readers to the sources you used, and to show the breadth of your research. Though endnotes are less commonly used in student or academic papers than in-line citations or footnotes, they are quite common in books, where they make for a cleaner page. The basics of endnotes are always the same – numbered notes within the text refer to numbered entries in a notes section at the end of the document – but there are minor differences depending on whether you use Chicago or MLA (Modern Language Association) style.

Inserting Endnotes

• To avoid plagiarism, you must correctly attribute ideas and quotations, which is using someone else's ideas or material without acknowledgement (intentionally or unintentionally). If you are a student, plagiarism may result in disciplinary action. If you are an academic or professional, plagiarism will result in, at best, the rejection of your manuscript, and at worst disciplinary action. People have even their degrees revoked when plagiarism was discovered. [1] X Research source
• To allow the reader to check your work. Proper citations allow readers to look up the quotes and ideas you used in context, to see if they agree with your interpretation. [2] X Research source
• To allow interested readers to dig deeper. Endnotes allow readers interested in your topic to easily locate the sources that informed it so that they can read them as well.
• To show that you have considered a variety of sources. Endnotes allow you to show the reader that you have considered all of the major arguments regarding your given topic, or if you have not, allows them to easily see which authors you have failed to consider.

• Page number
• Author name, as well as the name of any editors or translators
• Book name, place of publishing, name of publisher, and year of publishing if a book
• Article name, periodical name, volume and series number, and date of publication

• Pushing citations to the end of a paper or work helps to create clean, uncluttered pages. This is why endnotes are often preferred in books.
• Having all the citations in one place allows the reader to digest them as a whole.
• On the other hand, not having citations on the page means the reader will have to flip to the back of your manuscript each time they want to look something up, which can be frustrating.
• Endnotes can give the impression that you are trying to hide your citations.

• Note numbers should follow punctuation. Never put a note number before a period, comma, or quotation mark.
• Note numbers should be consecutive throughout an entire paper.
• In a book, note numbers may restart with each chapter, in which case the endnotes should be divided by chapter.
• Put the superscript number at the end of the clause or sentence in which you reference someone else's materials. [5] X Research source For example: "According to Hoskins and Garrett, IQ tests are often problematic, 1 but I argue that it is still possible to implement them usefully in school settings."

• Indent the first line of each endnote half an inch (or 5 spaces) from the left margin. Additional lines within a single endnote should be flush with the left hand margin.
• Use the appropriate citation form per your style guide.

Using Chicago (Turabian) Style

• Chicago style uses endnotes (or footnotes) to cite sources, rather than providing inline citation. This is a key difference from MLA style, which uses inline citation.
• In Chicago style, it is recommended to always write the author name and title, not just the author name, in subsequent citations after the first full one.
• In Chicago style, a bibliography typically follows the endnotes. The bibliography lists all sources in alphabetical order by author’s last name. You should add entries to it every time you create a note. The format is slightly different from endnotes. See http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html for more information.

• Book (author) – Author’s First and Last Name, Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Book (editor) – Author’s First and Last Name, ed., Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Journal Article – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Journal Volume (Year): page number(s).
• Newspaper – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper , date, page number(s).
• For all source types, if there are two to three authors, list their names with commas between them. For more than three authors, write the first author's name, a comma, and “et al.” in place of any remaining authors.
• For a complete list of source types and their appropriate formats, see http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

• Author’s last name, Title, page number(s). (If the title is not fiction or poetry, you can use a shortened form of the title if it is longer than four words.)

• 1 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Love in the Time of Cholera , trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 27-28.
• 2 Ibid., 45.

• In some cases, your teacher may prefer you to single-space endnotes and leave a blank line between each entry. If you have questions, consult with your teacher. [12] X Research source

Using MLA Style

• MLA style does not recommend using endnotes to cite works. You should use inline citation in MLA style unless specifically told otherwise.
• In most cases, you will still need to provide a Works Cited page in addition to your endnotes.

• For example, "For further discussion of this phenomenon, see also King, 53; Norris, 175-185; and Kozinsky, 299-318."
• For example, "Several other studies also reach similar conclusions. For examples, see also Brown and Spiers 24-50, Chapel 30-45, and Philips 50-57."

• For example, "Although it is less commonly known than her major works, singer-songwriter Wendy's 1980 album Cookies also deals with the idea of ecofriendly agriculture."
• For example, "Johnson reiterated this point in a conference talk in 2013, although she worded it less forcefully there."

• Center the word Notes on the page. Do not use any formatting or quote marks. If you have only one endnote, use the word Note.
• Double-space endnotes in MLA style.

Community Q&A

• Other style guides may also use endnotes, although APA Style, commonly used in social sciences, does not. [16] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source If you are writing for a journal or publisher that has an in-house style guide, consult with them about endnote requirements. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/useinformationcorrectly/avoiding-plagiarism/1/
• ↑ http://web.grinnell.edu/Dean/Tutorial/EUS/IC.pdf
• ↑ https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/documentation-guide/chicago-style/footnotes-and-endnotes
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=293795&p=1956824
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/ama/intext
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-BFF71B0C-3EC5-4C37-ABC1-7C8E7D6F2D78
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-61F3FB1A-4717-414C-9A8F-015A5F3FF4CB
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/dam/jcr:e7d5f449-dd5e-42c7-89dc-a264d75f4c23/Turabian-Tip-Sheet-11.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• ↑ http://www.library.georgetown.edu/tutorials/research-guides/turabian-footnote-guide
• ↑ http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Documentation/faq0240.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_endnotes_and_footnotes.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.brandeis.edu/citations/MLA
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_and_endnotes.html

About This Article

To use endnotes in a paper, start by inserting a superscript number that corresponds with the source each time you reference it in your paper. Then, at the end of your paper, create a new page with the heading, “Notes.” List the sources, including the author’s first and last name, the title and date of the publication, and the page number for each one. Separate each element with a comma, then add a period after the page number. For two different ways to format your endnotes, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• MLA footnotes and endnotes

MLA Footnotes & Endnotes | Format & Examples

Published on August 23, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on March 5, 2024 by Jack Caulfield.

MLA style requires you to cite sources using MLA in-text citations , not notes. However, you can still use footnotes or endnotes in MLA style for other purposes:

Citing a lot of sources at once

• Providing any extra explanation needed about your citation or translation practice
• Elaborating on ideas
• Providing additional examples that don’t fit into the main text

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page, while endnotes appear at the end of the paper, just before the Works Cited list. MLA allows the use of either type, but stick to one or the other.

Any sources you cite in your footnotes or endnotes must also be included in your Works Cited list , just like sources in the main text. Scribbr’s free MLA Citation Generator can help you create accurate MLA citations.

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Table of contents

Formatting footnotes and endnotes in mla, explaining citation or translation practice, using notes to elaborate on ideas, providing more examples in notes, frequently asked questions about mla notes.

Both footnotes and endnotes are indicated by superscript numbers. The number usually appears at the end of a sentence, after the period.

If you need to use a note in the middle of a sentence to avoid ambiguity, place the number directly after a punctuation mark (with the exception of the dash , where the number comes before).

Four main factors have been determined as possible characteristics of any successful fictional work: 6 popularity, enduring fame, commercial success and scholarly appeal. Each of the case studies must possess at least one of these. 7

The note itself begins with the corresponding number, again in superscript, followed by a space, and then the content of the note. Notes should be in the same font as the rest of your document, but a smaller font size; the first line of each note is slightly indented.

Your word processing program should allow you to automatically insert footnotes .

Formatting the endnotes page

If you are using endnotes, list them on a separate page directly before the Works Cited list. The title (“Notes” or “Endnotes”) appears centered at the top of the page. Like the rest of an MLA format paper , the endnotes should be double-spaced.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

When you have a lot of sources to cite at once, you can save space in your text by placing them in a note instead. These can be sources for a statement you made in the text, or sources providing supplementary information relevant to the discussion.

Note that you don’t need to use parentheses around the page numbers when the note just consists of a list of sources.

When there’s any important information that might not be immediately obvious from your citations, you can explain it in a note at the first point where it comes up.

For example, you might use your own translations for some texts but not others, or you might cite different editions of a text in different ways. These details can be clarified in notes where relevant.

When you mention something in passing but think more information may be useful to the reader, you can add the extra information, as well as related sources if relevant, in a note.

Bear in mind that long notes with superfluous information can be distracting for readers. Use notes of this kind sparingly, and keep them brief. If a piece of information is essential to your point, you should usually include it in the main text.

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Sometimes you have more examples than you can smoothly fit into your text. In those cases, it can be worth placing further examples in a note, if you think they add something to your point. You might also provide a counterexample to acknowledge the limitations of your argument.

No, you should use parenthetical MLA in-text citations to cite sources. Footnotes or endnotes can be used to add extra information that doesn’t fit into your main text, but they’re not needed for citations.

If you need to cite a lot of sources at the same point in the text, though, placing these citations in a note can be a good way to avoid cluttering your text.

In MLA style , footnotes or endnotes can be used to provide additional information that would interrupt the flow of your text.

This can be further examples or developments of ideas you only briefly discuss in the text. You can also use notes to provide additional sources or explain your citation practice.

You don’t have to use any notes at all; only use them to provide relevant information that complements your arguments or helps the reader to understand them.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page.  Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style , footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

Some source types, such as books and journal articles , may contain footnotes (or endnotes) with additional information. The following rules apply when citing information from a note in an MLA in-text citation :

• To cite information from a single numbered note, write “n” after the page number, and then write the note number, e.g. (Smith 105n2)
• To cite information from multiple numbered notes, write “nn” and include a range, e.g. (Smith 77nn1–2)
• To cite information from an unnumbered note, write “un” after the page number, with a space in between, e.g. (Jones 250 un)

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2024, March 05). MLA Footnotes & Endnotes | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/mla/footnotes-and-endnotes/

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How-To Geek

How to use footnotes and endnotes in microsoft word.

Whether you use Microsoft Word for personal or professional writing, sometimes you may want to add supplemental notes to sections of your work.

Quick Links

What are footnotes and endnotes, how to insert footnotes and endnotes, how to configure footnotes and endnotes in word 2016, how to cross-reference footnotes and endnotes in word 2016.

Whether you use Microsoft Word for personal or professional writing, sometimes you may want to add supplemental notes to sections of your work. Maybe you want to make a side comment on one of your arguments, or you need to cite another author's work without distracting from the main text. Luckily, Word has useful tools for adding footnotes and endnotes to your writing.

We're using Microsoft Word 2016, but Word has supported footnotes and endnotes since at least Word 2007. Depending on the version of Word you're using, the menus we walk through in this guide may look a little different. But don't worry---the features and functions are the same.

Footnotes and endnotes are both ways of adding extra bits of information to your writing outside of the main text. Think of them like verbal asides, only in writing. You can use footnotes and endnotes to add side comments to your work or to cite other publications like books, articles, or websites. The only difference between footnotes and endnotes is where they appear in your document.

As the name suggests, footnotes are attached to the bottom of the page containing the sentence they correspond to. Endnotes, on the other hand, are added to the end of a section or document. Which one you should use in your writing depends on your personal preference or---if you're writing for school or work---your organization's publication standards.

Fire up Microsoft Word, and then open the document to which you'd like to add footnotes (or create a new document if you're just getting started). Switch to the "References" tab on Word's Ribbon.

Here, you'll find a bunch of useful features for annotating your text, including tools for inserting a table of contents, adding citations, and generating a bibliography . The second group on this tab contains the footnote and endnote features we want.

To add a footnote, place your insertion point in your text where you want the footnote to appear, and then click the "Insert Footnote" button.

Word adds a small superscript number where you placed the insertion point.

And then immediately shifts focus to the footnote pane and places the insertion point at your new footnote, so you can start typing it right away.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page beneath a short horizontal line. Each time you add a footnote on this page, another number will be added to the list.

Once you've added your footnotes, you can hover your cursor over each sentence's reference marker to see a preview of the footnote within the text.

You can also quickly tab between footnotes in both the main text and the footnote list at the bottom of the page by clicking the "Next Footnote" button in the navigation bar.

Or, click the dropdown menu arrow on the "Next Footnote" button to select a different navigation option. You can choose to go to the previous footnote or navigate to the next or previous endnote.

The steps for inserting endnotes are essentially the same. Place your insertion point where you'd to annotate, and then click the "Insert Endnote" button on the "References" tab of Word's Ribbon.

Just like with footnotes, Word attaches a superscript number containing an endnote. But this time, the list of notes it generates appears at the end of the current section or the end of the document (you can customize where they appear, and we'll talk more about that in a bit).

Word has basic default settings for footnotes and endnotes, but you can adjust these settings at any time from the menu on the References tab.

Click the arrow in the lower right corner of the "Footnotes" menu.

This brings up a Footnote and Endnote window where you can customize the location, appearance, and format of all your footnotes and endnotes.

Change the Location of Footnotes and Endnotes

By default, Word puts footnotes at the bottom of the page and endnotes at the end of the document, but you can change where these notes appear.

Under "Location" in the Footnote and Endnote menu, find the "Footnotes" option (it should be selected by default when you first open the menu). Open the dropdown menu to the right of that option and you can change your footnote location to either the bottom of the page or below the text. If you choose the latter option, Word places your footnotes immediately after the main body of text instead of at the bottom of the page.

To change the default location of endnotes, select the "Endnotes" option, and then open the dropdown menu to its right. There, you can change endnote placement to the end of the current section or the end of the document.

Convert Footnotes to Endnotes (and Vice Versa)

Another option is to convert all of your footnotes to endnotes or vice versa. Instead of changing each one individually, this option lets you change them all at once. If you're working on a document with a lot of notes, this option can come in handy.

Under the "Location" section of the Footnote and Endnote menu, click the "Convert" button.

The Convert Notes dialog box pops up, giving you three options: 1) Convert All Footnotes to Endnotes, 2) Convert All Endnotes to Footnotes, and 3) Swap Footnotes and Endnotes. Select the option you want, and then click the "OK" button.

Change the Layout of Footnotes and Endnotes

By default, Word creates footnote and endnote lists with the same layout as the page on which they appear. However, you can adjust this from the Footnote and Endnote window by clicking the "Columns" dropdown menu and selecting the number of columns you'd like to use.

You can set your footnotes and endnotes to display in up to four different columns on the page.

Customize the Format of Footnotes and Endnotes

Word also lets you choose from several options for formatting how your footnotes and endnotes are numbered. It's generally a good idea to choose a different numbering system for each note type, especially if you're using a combination of footnotes and endnotes in the same document. This helps you and your reader quickly distinguish between the two at a glance.

In the Format section, click the dropdown arrow to the right of the "Number Format" option. Select your desired number format.

You can also label your notes with a custom symbol instead of a standard numbering system. Next to the Custom Mark option, click the "Symbol" button.

The Symbol menu will open. Select the symbol you'd like to use to label your notes, and then click the "OK" button.

Your selected icon should appear in the "Custom Mark" box, and Word will now use this symbol to label your notes.

By default, Word numbers footnotes and endnotes in individual series starting at "1" (or a, i, I, etc.) and continuing throughout the document. However, you can customize both the starting point and continuity of your notes.

If you want your footnotes or endnotes to start somewhere other than the first number in the series (for example, 2  instead of 1), click the arrows in the "Start At" dropdown box to increase or decrease the beginning value. One example of where this might be useful is if you're writing a book that contains endnotes and you're saving each chapter as a separate Word document. You could configure each chapter's document to start numbering endnotes where the last chapter left off.

To change the continuity of your numbering series, click the dropdown menu arrow next to the "Numbering" option.

You'll see three options for numbering your footnotes and endnotes: Continuous, Restart Each Section, and Restart Each Page. If you want your footnotes and endnotes to be numbered continuously from the beginning of your document to the end, select the "Continuous" option. If you'd prefer to have your notes numbered by chapter or section, select the "Restart Each Section" option. Or select "Restart Each Page" to number your notes by page.

Apply Your Changes to the Document

After configuring the above options, you'll need to select how you want your changes applied to your document. At the bottom of the menu, click the dropdown menu arrow next to the "Apply Changes To" option.

If you want your changes to apply to every page and section of your document, select the "Whole Document" option. Or select "This Section" to apply changes only to the section of the document you're currently in. (Note that this option will not appear if you have no section breaks in your document.)

Once you're satisfied with your settings, click the "Apply" button in the bottom right of the menu.

You can also insert a new footnote using your selected settings by clicking the "Insert" button in the lower left corner of the menu.

If you want to use the same footnote or endnote more than once throughout your text, there's an easy way to do it without having to insert the same thing over and over again.

Place your insertion point where you want a reference inserted into the text. On the References tab, click the "Cross-Reference" button.

In the Cross-Reference window, choose either "Footnote" or "Endnote" from the "Reference Type" dropdown menu.

Next, click the "Insert Reference To" dropdown menu.

The "Footnote Number" option inserts the number of the footnote in regular text, while the "Footnote Number (Formatted)" option inserts the number of the footnote in superscript. The "Page Number" option inserts the number of the referenced page instead of the footnote number. The "Above/Below" option inserts either the word "Above" or "Below" depending on where the original footnote appears in relation to the cross-reference. Select your desired option.

Word lets you create hyperlinks between cross-references so you can easily find the same footnote everywhere it appears in your document. The "Insert as Hyperlink" option is checked by default, so you can click any cross-reference and automatically be taken to the part of the document containing the original footnote. We recommend leaving this option checked, but you can uncheck it if you prefer.

Under the "For Which Footnote" option, select the footnote you'd like to cross-reference, and then click the "Insert" button at the bottom of the menu.

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• Writing Tips

How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

4-minute read

• 5th June 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both let you add extra information in an essay or college paper . But what should you include in these notes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in academic writing.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or “foot” of the page. You can therefore put extra information in a footnote, such as source details for a citation, without interrupting the flow of the main text.

To indicate a footnote, you can add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of each page. Endnotes are thus less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but they can help ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered.

If you are not sure which to use, check your style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customize the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised an interesting question that is not directly relevant to your current work, you could mention it in a footnote or endnote. This lets you acknowledge the question – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored or failed to notice it – but without interrupting the flow of prose in the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only reference a source in a footnote or endnote if your school has asked you to do it this way.

Do Notes Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for papers. Different schools have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use these supplementary notes to cheat the word count.

The key here is that essential information should never go in a footnote or endnote. If you do move vital evidence or analysis to a note, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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• Writing Tips

How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes in Essays

4-minute read

• 23rd February 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both offer a way to add extra information to an essay . But what should you include in footnotes and endnotes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in essays.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or ‘foot’ of the page. This lets you add information to an essay without interrupting the flow of the main text. Usually, this will be a citation or non-essential commentary.

To indicate a footnote, you will need to add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of individual pages. This means endnotes are less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but it helps ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered. If you are not sure which to use, check your university style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customise the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the little arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised a question that is not directly relevant to your essay, you may want to mention it in a footnote or endnote instead. This lets you acknowledge it in your work – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored it or failed to notice something – but without interrupting the flow of the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only give references in footnotes or endnotes if your university has asked you to do this.

Do They Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for an essay. Different universities have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use footnotes or endnotes to try and cheat the word count.

The key here is that only non-essential information should go in footnotes or endnotes. As such, if you move vital evidence or analysis to a footnote, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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Footnotes and Endnotes

How to create footnotes or endnotes in chicago style.

• How do I create a footnote or endnote?
• How is a footnote different from an endnote?
• What do I include in the footnote or endnote?

How do I Create a Footnote or Endnote?

Using footnotes or endnotes involves placing a superscript number at the end of a sentence with information (paraphrase, quotation or data) that you wish to cite. The superscript numbers should generally be placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They should be placed after any punctuation marks except for the dash.

Footnotes/endnotes begin with 1 and are numbered consecutively throughout the entire essay. You can use MS Word or other software to create footnotes and endnotes.

How is a Footnote different from an Endnote?

 A superscript number refers to a footnote or endnote which contains all of the publishing information and the page number for the information referenced.

• Footnotes appear on the bottom of the page that contains the sentence to which it refers.
• Endnotes are listed at the end of the paper on separate pages. On the top of the first page, the title “Notes” is centered one inch from the top of the page. Endnote pages are placed before the bibliography.

Many professors prefer footnotes to endnotes. Check with your professors to see which style they prefer.

What do I Include in the Footnote or Endnote?

The format for a footnote or endnote varies depending on whether it refers to a book, article, or online source. There are some key characteristics common to all footnotes and endnotes:

• The footnote/endnote begins with the same superscript number as the one that appears in the paper and is followed by a period.
• Footnotes/endnotes always include a specific page number or numbers where the cited information can be found.
• The first footnote/endnote to a source provides the full publishing information.

For example:

1. Carolyn Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie:  Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886-1914  (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 100.

Subsequent footnote/endnotes for the same source are shortened to provide only the author’s last name, short title, and page number. For example:

2. Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie , 51.

3. Kay, Art and the German Bourgeoisie, 87.

Note that The Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.) no longer recommends the use of "ibid." for footnote/endnotes that cite the same source as the note immediately preceding it. The shortened citation shown above (author surname, shortened title, page number) is preferred.

Citing different types of sources

The information you include in a footnote varies based on the type of source you cite; navigate to the following pages to learn more:

• Periodicals
• Sections of Books
• Digital Media
• Other Sources
• Primary Sources
• Citing a source (that you have not read) that is Cited in Another Source

Key Elements to Notice

• In footnotes, information is separated by commas, while in the bibliography, it is separated by periods.
• In footnotes, the author's first name is listed first, while in the bibliography, the author's last name is listed first.
• The titles of books and journals are put in italics.
• The titles of articles are put in quotation marks.
• All key words in titles are capitalized.

What Are Endnotes, Why Are They Needed, and How Are They Used?

Experts Give Good Examples for More Effective Writing

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

An "endnote" is a reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research paper, chapter, or book. Like footnotes  (which are used in this article), endnotes serve two main purposes in a research paper: (1) They acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and (2) They provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main  text .

Endnotes vs. Footnotes

"Your department may specify whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, especially for a thesis or dissertation.

If not, you should generally choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes force readers to flip to the back to check every citation. On the other hand, choose endnotes when your footnotes are so long or numerous that they take up too much space on the page, making your report unattractive and difficult to read. Also, endnotes better accommodate tables, quoted poetry, and other matter that requires special typography."

(Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2007.)

"Readers of academic and scholarly books usually prefer footnotes to endnotes because the former allows them to skim the notes without losing their place in the text. Popular wisdom, however, says that nonscholarly readers are either reluctant or unwilling to purchase a nonfiction trade book whose feet are hemmed with ribbons of tiny type; thus most trade books place (the shop term is 'bury') the notes containing sources and references at the back of the book ."

(Einsohn, Amy. The Copyeditor's Handbook,  University of California Press, 2006.)

Endnote Conventions

"An author or title mentioned in the text need not be repeated in the footnote  citation , though it is often helpful to do so. In an endnote, however, the author (or at least the author's last name) and title should be repeated, since at least some readers may have forgotten whether the note number was 93 or 94 by the time they find it at the back of a work.

Such frustration can be prevented by the devices illustrated in the examples below."

34. This and the preceding four quotations are all from  Hamlet , act 1, sc. 4. 87. Barbara Wallraff,  Word Court  (New York: Harcourt, 2000), 34. Further citations to this work are given in the text.​

(​ The Chicago Manual of Style,  University of Chicago Press, 2003.)

Endnote Numbering

"Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a chapter or article, with each new chapter or section starting over with endnote 1. The notes section at the back is then broken down by chapter or section, with the corresponding endnote numbers listed underneath.

Place endnote numbers within the text in superscript type (small typeset above the line). In the notes section, use the same number to identify the endnote with the number in the text."

(Robbins, Lara M.  Grammar, and Style at Your Fingertips,  Alpha, 2007.)

Sample Endnotes From Pennebaker's 'The Secret Life of Pronouns '

"Chapter 2: Ignoring the Content, Celebrating the Style 19. The drawing is from the Thematic Apperception Test by Henry A. Murray, Card 12F, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. 20. Throughout this book, I include quotations from people who have been in my studies or classes, from text on the Internet, or even from conversations or e-mails from friends or family members. In all cases, all identifying information has been removed or altered. 22. In this book, the terms style, function , and stealth words are used interchangeably. They have many other names as well —  junk words, particles , and closed-class words . Linguists tend to disagree about the precise definitions of each of these overlapping terms."

(Pennebaker, James W.  The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us,  Bloomsbury Press, 2011.)

• Turabian Style Guide With Examples
• Formatting Papers in Chicago Style
• What Is a Citation?
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• Definition of Appendix in a Book or Written Work
• 140 Key Copyediting Terms and What They Mean
• Margin (Composition Format) Definition
• Examples of Epigraphs in English
• Tips for Typing an Academic Paper on a Computer
• How to Organize Research Notes
• Bibliography: Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Title Case and Headline Style
• What's the Preferred Way to Write the Abbreviation for United States?
• What are Ellipsis Points?
• How to Use Parentheses in Writing

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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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Using Endnotes in Academic Writing: A Comprehensive Guide

The first citation format that learners meet in college or university is MLA. It is the most straightforward way to work with sources that contain critical information on the chosen subject. There are five reasons why citation and reference are vital:

• To differentiate between other writers
• To create plagiarism-free paper
• To show the student's research skills
• To introduce the potential readers to the comprehensive information on the topic you choose
• To get a high grade

If you do not cite sources correctly, you risk getting a low credit or even failing the test. Besides, many students face some challenges related to plagiarism. For example, the MLA format of academic writing does not require using footnotes or endnotes.

However, what are the endnotes? They are references or comments provided at the end of the paperwork. Each college or university department provides unique requirements for using footnotes or endnotes. Let's learn more about the last type of references in academic and scientific papers.

The Notion of Endnotes Formatting

The way you use endnotes depends on the required formatting. However, there are three general rules for writing endnotes:

• While composing an initial draft (introduction, body paragraphs, and concluding part), write down quotes on the note card to defend your point;
• Add endnotes to determine cited sources. If you prefer to provide such information via endnotes, you should combine them in a separate section that precedes the References or Bibliography page. And do not forget about the proper organization of this paperwork part;
• Check the professor's guidelines carefully to choose the required citation format.

Each college or university student may make the endnotes shorter if the details were provided in previous endnotes. Let's review four popular endnote formats.

Ways to Use MLA Endnotes

The Modern Language Association has developed this format. It has considered the most widespread format of resource citation. The reason is simple: the writer should put minimum effort when preparing academic paperwork. The current 8th edition covers requirements for liberal arts, humanities, English Composition, and literature references. In the MLS guide, you will find formatting rules for the following components of assignments:

• In-text references
• Articles Cited
• Overall paper formatting

The endnotes may prevent the audience from reading the entire essay, so there is no necessity to use these elements in the MLA paper. However, some professors require to add both footnotes and endnotes. In this case, we are talking about links to additional materials that may excite the reader for more immersion in the subject.

To indicate endnotes in the MLA style assignment, you must use Arabic superscript numbers - they follow after the period mark of the sentence, relating to the reference. But if you use the em dash, you should put the number before this mark.

Finally, you should mention all references on a separate Notes page. It will go before the Works Cited page, which will be the last and concluding page of the academic paperwork.

Ways to Use APA Endnotes

Our next question is, "how to format endnotes in an APA paper?" Like in the Modern Language Association standard case, a writer should highlight an endnote by a superscript Arabic number after the punctuation mark in a chosen sentence. But, such an element has to precede the dash (if it is used in the endnote).

You can easily add a superscript number using the relevant function in Microsoft Word: Insert - References. Before adding the endnote, you should place the cursor where you need an endnote.

Besides, the writer has to create a list of the endnotes and place it in the regular format after the Reference section (similar to the Work Cited page in the MLA assignment). This paragraph should be preceded by a title page, with the word Notes in the middle of the page.

Ways to Use Turabian and Chicago Endnotes

Both citation formats have some similarities, so we will review them in more detail in one section.

Four key elements differ from both MLA and APA styles:

• The writer's name
• Title of the cited source
• Chapter title (if required)
• Publication information

An endnote reference structure is also different from the bibliography citation. You should endure that you separate all the citation elements with commas. Among others, you have to write the author's first name and last name, placing the middle name first. If there are four or more writers, specify the name of the first one, then put a comma and the words "et al." Thus, your audience will understand that there are more writers to research the subject.

Book editors and other publishers should be noted by the abbreviations ed. and trs.

Finally, you should place the book publication details in brackets and add a space between the title name and the publication details for an article. Volume and issue number have to be separated by a comma. All the titles should be italicized. Regarding the chapters and scholarly articles, you have to place them in quotes.

Examples of Using Endnotes

So, how to write the MLA endnotes? Let's look at the examples that provide the best answer to this question:

See Blackmur, especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.

On the problems related to repressed memory recovery, see Wollens 120-35; for a contrasting view, see Pyle 43; Johnson, Hull, Snyder 21-35; Krieg 78-91.

Explanatory footnotes may refer readers to other sources for additional information. Supplementary and illustrative sources are introduced by "see" or "see, for example."

Example: For a technical discussion, see William A. Brock and Steven N. Durlauf, "Growth empirics and reality," World Bank Economic Research, vol. 15, No. 2 (2001).

Some other citation formats like Turabian or Chicago use another template. Here are two examples:

1 Gordon Lighticane, Wonders of the Radio (Chicago: Malort Press, 1997), 16.

2 Luftswaag, The Advent of Air, p. 32.

In general, the differences lie in the specific elements that need to be included in the endnote. Therefore, our examples are exhaustive.

Extra Help and Hints

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Handbook for Historians

• Choosing a Paper Topic
• Thesis Statement
• What Sources Can I use?
• Gathering sources
• Find Primary Sources
• Paraphrasing and Quoting Sources
• How to create an Annotated Bibliography
• Formatting Endnotes/Footnotes

Documenting your Sources

Endnote/footnote references: books, endnote/footnote references: journal articles, endnote/footnote references: websites, endnote/footnote references: other sources.

• Formatting Bibliographies
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Sample Papers
• Research Paper Checklist

If the source you wish to cite differs from all of the models given here, please consult Chicago Style Citation Quick Guide . If none of those seem to fit, ask your professor or the History Librarian.

DOCUMENTATION: FOOTNOTES/ENDNOTES

The History Department requires that papers contain endnotes or footnotes for proper documentation. Chicago style, as found in the Chicago Manual of Style is mandatory; the choice between footnotes and endnotes may vary from one professor to another. MLA, APA, and AMA documentation is unacceptable for use in History papers.

The examples on this page provide models for use in your own paper. Please note that the first reference to a book or periodical is very detailed; the second and all subsequent references to the same book or periodical are very brief. If none of those seem to fit, ask your own professor, the history librarian, or consult the Chicago Manual of Style: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

PRO TIP : When formatting endnotes/footnotes in Chicago style think of the note as a sentence! The elements of the sentence are separated by commas, not periods, like in the bibliography. Also, in a sentence, you'd never refer to an author last name first, right?

Example: Citing a book

John Sullivan , Why I Wrote this Book (London: Oxford University Press, 2010), 185.

Bibliography:

Sullivan, John . Why I Wrote this Book. London: Oxford University Press. 2010.

A. A Book by a Single Author.

Author, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

1 Douglas R. Egerton, Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 123.

2 Barbara J. Blaszak, The Matriarchs of England's Cooperative Movement: A Study in Gender Politics and Female Leadership, 1883-1921 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000), 63.

After you provide a full citation for a given source, such as seen in notes 1 & 2, you only need to provide the author’s last name, a portion of the book’s title, and page number for all subsequent citations from that same work.

3 Blaszak, Matriarchs , 64.

4 Egerton, Death or Liberty , 14.

NOTE: For all types of books, if more than one city of publication is listed, you need only cite the first city that is listed.

B. Books by Two, Three or Four Authors.

Authors, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

5 Edward H. Judge and John W. Langdon, A Hard and Bitter Peace: A Global History of the Cold War (New York: Prentice Hall, 1996), 168.

6 Judge and Langdon, Hard and Bitter Peace , 314.

7 Joseph P. Sánchez, Bruce A. Erickson, and Jerry L. Gurulé, Between Two Countries: A History of Coronado National Memorial, 1939-1990 (Los Ranchos de Albuquerque: Rio Grande Books, 2007), 54.

8 Sánchez, Erickson, and Gurulé, Between Two Countries , 119.

NOTE: If a Book has more than Four authors, list the first author, followed by et al.

9 Smith, John et al., Red Dawn (New York: Prentice Hall, 1996), 155.

C. Books by Corporate Authors.

Author, Title , edition (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

10 American Historical Association Institutional Services Program, The Introductory History Course: Six Models , 2nd ed. (Washington: American Historical Association, 1984), 67.

11 American Historical Association, Introductory History Course , 33.

D. Edited Books/Parts of Collections of Writings by Different Authors .

Author(s), first name first, “Title of article,” in Title , ed(s). Name of editor(s) (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

12 Robert Scully, "Saint Winefride's Well: The Significance and Survival of a Welsh Catholic Shrine from the Early Middle Ages to the Present Day," in Saints and Their Cults in the Atlantic World , ed. Margaret Cormack (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), 132.

13 Scully, “Saint Winefride’s Well,” 134.

D2. Edited Books (no other author) .

Author, first name first, ed., Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

14 Jack Beatty, ed., Colossus: How the Corporation Changed America (New York: Broadway Books, 2001), 127.

15 Beatty, Colossus , 129.

E. Multivolume Books with a Single Title by a Single Author.

Author, first name first, Title , volumes (City of Publication: Publisher, year), volume number:page number.

16 William Henry Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution , 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 1:26.

17 Chamberlin, Russian Revolution , 2:318.

NOTE: The number preceding the colon is the number of the volume.

F. Multivolume Books by a Single Author with a Separate Title for Each Volume.

Author, first name first, Title , Volume number of Series title , Number of volumes. (City of Publication: Publisher, Year), volume number:page number.

18 Pierre Viansson-Ponté, Le temps des orphelins , Vol. 2 of Histoire de la République Gaullienne , 2 vols. (Paris: Fayard, 1976), 2:199.

19 Viansson-Ponté, Le temps , 2:227.

G. Multivolume Books with a Different Author and Title for Each Volume.

Author, first name first, Title , Volume number of editor’s name, ed. Series Title , Number of volumes (City of Publication: Publisher, Year), volume number:page number.

20 Lewis B. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation , Vol. 3 of William L. Langer, ed. The Rise of Modern Europe , 20 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 3:189.

21 Spitz, The Protestant Reformation , 3:176.

H. Two or More Parts of a Collection of Writings by Different Authors. (Use this format if you are citing from several different sections of a multi-author book.)

Author, first name first, “Article’s title,” in Title , ed. Editor’s name (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

22 Martin Hinterberger, “Emotions in Byzantium,” in A Companion to Byzantium , ed. Liz James (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 127.

23 Hinterberger, “Emotions,” 129.

For subsequent citations from the same book, but from a different author, use a shortened version of the collected work.

24 Andrew Louth, “Christology and Heresy,” in James, Companion to Byzantium , 189.

25 Louth, “Christology,” 190.

I. Books With More than One Edition.

See Section C above. Second and subsequent references omit the number of the edition.

Author, first name first, Title , trans. Translator’s name (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

26 Fritz Fischer, War of Illusions , trans. Marian Jackson (New York: Norton, 1975), 271.

27 Fischer, War , 344.

K. A Letter (or diary entry, memo, etc.) in a published collection. (If it is a letter, you do not need to specify that, but another type of document should be specified.)

Name of sender and recipient, date, in Title , ed. Editor’s name (City of Publication: publisher, year), page number.

28 Henry Adams to Charles Milnes Gaskell, 22 September 1867, in Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891 , ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 133-34.

29 Ford, Letters , 136.

30 Berchtold to Tisza, telegram, 8 July 1914, in July 1914: The Outbreak of the First World War , ed. Imanuel Geiss (New York: Norton, 1974), 102.

31 Geiss, July 1914 , 103.

32 Ronald Reagan, The “Evil Empire” Speech, 1983, in Speeches in World History , ed. Suzanne McIntire (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 496.

33 Reagan, Speeches , 497.

L. A Primary Source Quoted by a Second Source.

Note: It is preferable that the original source is consulted and cited on its own, but if the original source cannot be obtained, use this format.

Author of original source, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number, quoted in Author of secondary source, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

34 Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960), 199, quoted in James Holland, The Battle of Britain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2010), 476.

35 Ismay, The Memoirs , 210, quoted in Holland, The Battle , 480.

M. Books published electronically.

Note: Cite the book as you would normally, but include the online format that you used, i.e., Kindle, Nook, pdf. If you accessed the book online (such as in Google Books or through an e-book in the library), include the date accessed and the URL. If your E-book does not provide page numbers, you should include the section title or chapter number instead.

36 Hasan Kayali, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 167, accessed 21 May 2009, http://escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft7n39p1dn;query=;brand=ucpress .

37 Kayali, Arabs , 186.

38 Winston Churchill, The Gathering Storm (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947), 35, Kindle edition.

N. Articles in Print Journals.

Author, first name first, “Article title,” Journal Title Volume number: Issue number (Year): page number.

39 Yamin Xu, “Policing Civility on the Streets: Encounter with Litterbugs, ‘Nightsoil Lords,’ and Street Corner Urinators in Republican Beijing,” Twentieth-Century China 30:2 (2005): 45.

NOTE : 30:2 signifies volume 30 and issue number 2.

40 Xu, “Policing Civility,” 48.

NOTE : If a work has four authors or more , cite the first author's name followed by et al in the notes.

In the bibliography, cite all the authors names. DO THIS FOR BOOKS AND ARTICLES

41 John Smith, et al., "Red Empire Nation," Journal of American History 30:2 (2005): 55.

A Word about CITING ELECTRONIC SOURCES

Citations of electronic resources are different from citations for published sources. The following elements must be included:

• Electronic full-text Journal articles and E-Books from the library’s databases, though they are accessed online, are regarded as published sources. Citations for these must contain full documentation of the publication as well as electronic access information.
• Subscription databases, such as JSTOR or Proquest , must be accessed through a subscribing library or other institution.
• Because material on the internet can change without notice, the last date on which the material was accessed is part of the citation.
• The web address, or URL, is a required part of the citation. Most databases will include a stable URL, a permalink, or a DOI (digital object identifier) that you should use.

Proper citation formats, with examples, are shown below:

O. Articles from Online Journal.

Note: Many online publications use a DOI (digital object identifier) to create a persistent link to the article’s information. If no DOI is available, use the URL and the date accessed.)

Author, first name first, “Title of article,” Title of Journal or Website Volume:Issue Number (Year): page number (if specified), Date accessed, URL.

42 Douglas R. Egerton, “The Material Culture of Slave Resistance,” History Now: American History Online 2 (December 2004), accessed 20 June 2011, www.historynow.org/12_2004/historian2.html.

43 Egerton, “The Material Culture.”

44 Timothy S. Heubner, “Roger B. Taney and the Slavery Issue: Looking Beyond –and before- Dred Scott,” The Journal of American History 97:1 (2010): 17, doi: 10.2307/jahist/97.1.17.

45 Heubner, “Roger B. Taney,” 18.

P. Full-text newspaper articles

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper, Date of newspaper article, page number (if available), Date accessed, URL.

46 Juan Forero, “Turbulent Bolivia Is Producing More Cocaine, the U.N. Reports,” New York Times on the Web, 15 June 2005, accessed 16 June 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/06/15/international/americas/15coca.html.

For subsequent citations of this source cite the author’s last name and part of title.

Note: For regular print editions, omit date accessed and URL.

Q. Articles/Newspapers retrieved from a Database.

Note: Include all journal information and provide database name and a permanent link to the article from the database.

Format with url (seen in articles retrieved from ProQuest databases):

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Journal Title Volume:Issue Number (year): page number, Database name, url.

47 Robert Zens, “In the Name of the Sultan: Haci Mustapha, Pasha of Belgrade and Ottoman Provincial Rule in the Late 18th Century,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 44:1 (2012): 132, ProQuest Central, http://0-search.proquest.com.library.lemoyne.edu/docview/1531929597/4F00F029CDF14BBBPQ/16?accountid=27881

48 Zens, “In the Name of the Sultan,” 134.

Format with permalink (seen in articles retrieved from Ebsco databases):

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Journal Title Volume:Issue number (year): page number, Database name, Permanent link.

49 Barbara Blaszak, “Martha Jane Bury (1851-1913): A Case of Class Identity,” Labour History Review 67:2 (2002): 131, Historical Abstracts, http://0-search.ebscohost.com.library.lemoyne.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hia&AN=9502395&site=ehost-live

50 Blaszak, “Martha Jane Bury,” 132.

Format with stable url link: (seen in articles retrieved from the JSTOR database)

51 Stephen Tisza and Hamilton Fish Armstrong, “A Letter of Count Tisza’s,” Foreign Affairs 6:3 (1928): 503, JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/20028631.

52 Tisza and Armstrong, “Letter,” 504.

Format for Newspaper with Permanent URL link:

Author, first name first (leave blank if no author), “Article Title,” Publication Title, Date, Database name, Permanent link.

53 “General Discussion of the Contest,” New York Times (1857-1922), 22 May 1861, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, http://0-proquest.umi.com.library.lemoyne.edu/pqdweb?did=78657656&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=1518&RQT=309&VName=HNP.

Web-based sources should be used sparingly and very carefully. Students must have all sources, Internet or otherwise, approved by the instructor before they are used.

R. Primary source documents found online. (Use this format when using approved websites containing primary source material.) Include as many of the following elements as are available. Include page numbers when appropriate before the URL.

Author of original document, first name first, “Title of document,” Date of document, Title of Web Site where document is found, Author, Editor, or Producer of site, accessed date, URL.

54 Sydney Smith, “Fallacies of Anti-Reformers,” 1824, Internet Modern History Sourcebook , Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 22 June 2011, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/smithantireform.html.

55 Smith, “Fallacies of Anti-Reformers.”

56 Thorstein Veblen, “The Theory of the Leisure Class,” 1899, Internet Modern History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 22 June 2011, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1899veblen.html.

57 Veblen, “Theory of the Leisure Class.”

Example (no author given):

58 “Codex Justinianus: Protection of Freewomen Married to Servile Husbands,” 530 A.D., Internet Medieval Source Book , Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 25 February 2002, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codexVIl-24-i.html.

59 “Codex Justinianus.”

Note: Many print primary sources are reproduced in digital format on various websites, such at the ones above. Most sites should give original publication information, but if not, you can try to locate original source information by searching online (try google books or worldcat.org). When possible, cite your sources according to the appropriate print format, and include the date accessed and the URL. For example, Veblen’s book The Theory of the Leisure Class can now be found in Google Books and would be cited similar to section M as follows:

60 Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Instituions, London: Macmillan & Co., 1912, accessed 22 June 2011, http://books.google.com/books?id=2kAoAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor%3A%22Thorstein%20Veblen%22&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false.

S. Other Approved Websites. (Include as much information as available.)

Author of webpage, “Title of Webpage,” Title of entire website , Publication Date, accessed Date, URL.

61 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, “May Day: On the Current Conditions of the Palestinian Working Class,” Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , 21 May 2009, accessed 13 April 2010, http://www.pflp.ps/english/?q=may-day-current-conditions-struggle-palestinian-wo.

62 Popular Front, "May Day".

T. Book Reviews.

Book Review found in a journal:

Author of review, “Title of Review,” (if available) review of Title of Book, by Author of book, Title of Journal Volume: Issue (year), page, url.

63 Audrey Elisa Kerr, “Everybody’s Oprah,” review of Embracing Sisterhood: Class Identity and Contemporary Black Women, by Katrina Bell McDonald, The Women’s Review of Books 26:2 (2009), 31, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20476833

64  Kerr, “Everybody’s Oprah.”

Book Review found on a website:

Author, “Title of Review” (if available) review of Title of Book, by Reviewer Name, Website where review appeared, date, URL.

65  David Ponton, III, review of Spatializing Blackness: Architectures of Confinement and Black Masculinity in Chicago, by Rashad Shabazz, H-Net Online, June 2016, https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=46538.

66  Ponton, III, review of Spatializing Blackness.

U. Audio/Visual Materials (films, photographs, images, etc.)

Note: In most cases, visual sources are not acceptable; however some primary sources, such as the Watergate trials or Nazi propaganda, are appropriate and must be cited correctly. All sources must be approved by your instructor. The Library of Congress has an excellent set of example citations that you should consult.

General Format:

Author (or Creator) of image or video, “Title,” format, date, source , accessed date, URL.

Example: (primary video accessed from library)

67  The WPA Film Library, “Nazi Anti-Semitic Propaganda,” video, 1939, Films on Demand , accessed 14 September 2014, http://library.lemoyne.edu/record=b1418786

Example: (speech/video found online)

68  Harry S. Truman, “Speech after Hiroshima Bombing,” video, August 6, 1945, Critical Past, accessed 13 August 2016, https://youtu.be/e3Ib4wTq0jY

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Footnotes, endnotes, and citations

What citations should I use in my essay?

Regular essays and timed exams

Most instructors at the undergraduate level (including instructors on law conversion courses) do not require students to do more than indicate the names of cases or statutes in the text of their essays and examinations, particularly in timed examinations. While it's preferable to give the full case name (such as Jones v Smith), in a timed examination you can get by with one name or the other. Usually people pick the first party's name, unless it's a very common name or a criminal case. Sometimes, though, you will notice that your textbook or lecturer uses the second party's name regularly. If you know that the case is commonly short-cited to the second party's name, go ahead and use that.

If you can't remember the name of a particular case or statute, simply describe it. For example, 'the snail in the bottle case' sufficiently evokes Donoghue v. Stevenson . 'The first Occupiers' Liability Act' gets you past worries about the particular year it was enacted. Of course, if you are working on a weekly essay or a long-term research project you must take the trouble of finding and putting in the proper title or citation.

Once you have used the full name once, feel free to use a short citation, such as ' Donoghue' or 'the 1984 Act.' There's no need to keep repeating the full name.

If you are writing your essay by hand, there is no need to use different coloured ink for a case or statutory citation. It often helps if you underline case names, but you won't lose points if you don't. If you are typing your essay, you can underline or italicise case names, but there's no need for elaborate type faces. Make your writing stand out rather than your design skills. Sometimes it seems that students spend more time formatting the essay than they do writing it. Don't be one of those students.

Typically, citations in a regular essay or timed examination are placed in the text next to the proposition they support. See the sample student essays in chapter 10 of the book for models.

These suggestions are only guidelines to use if you do not receive more specific instructions from your tutor or lecturer. If your university or instructors have particular rules that they wish you to follow, do so.

Long-term research essays and theses

If you are doing a long-term research project, you should use the full and proper citation, either in a footnote, an endnote or in the text. Again, once you have given the citation in full, you may use the appropriate short citation.

Very often, instructors will give formatting advice for long-term research essays. Certainly students doing masters theses will be given detailed information on the citation convention they are to use. If you have not been given any guidance, ask for it. Also, don't wait until the last minute to investigate your citation requirements. There's nothing worse than having to go back through all your research to add in specific page numbers or dates because you forgot to do it the first time. With a long-term project, you can and should plan ahead.

When should I quote and when should I paraphrase?

As mentioned in the book, quotes are good in the law. The words of Lord Justice Whozits are much more persuasive than a mere lawyer's. Use quotations freely, as long as you:

• use the exact words and punctuation found in the original source;
• use square brackets [ ] to indicate changes in capitalization, punctuation and language; and
• provide the source of the quotation.

Remember also that extensive quotations from statutes – particularly if you are permitted to use the statute book in an otherwise closed examination – are not particularly impressive. What is more important in those situations is your interpretation and use of the statute.

Never include the precise language of a source – or language that is virtually identical – without a proper attribution. Not only does that constitute plagiarism, it is counter to the use of source material in law. The law depends on published precedent for its authority. A legal principle is only as good as its source. Therefore, you want to demonstrate where your various propositions come from, since they will be more valuable if they come from an outside source.

However, there are times when you should paraphrase rather than provide a direct quotation. If the pertinent section is very long or discusses issues that are not relevant to the point you are making, then go ahead and paraphrase. Similarly, if the point you are making is only tangential to your larger argument, a paraphrase may be appropriate. Sometimes it's wise to save your ammunition for the big issues.

If you are paraphrasing someone, it is still helpful to identify the source so that your reader knows that you are not making the proposition up out of whole cloth. Again, lawyers and judges evaluate the strength of your argument based on the strength of your sources. Show your reader how well-read you are and earn every point you possibly can.

When should I use footnotes, when should I use endnotes and when should I put the citation in the text?

For the most part, undergraduates can put their citations in the text of their essays. The citation can be set off mid-sentence through parenthesis ( Hansel v Gretel ) or can follow the sentence. Hansel v Gretel . The one exception for undergraduates is on long-term research projects, where the instructors might ask for footnotes or endnotes.

There is no formal convention on when you should use footnotes rather than endnotes. For the most part, it's a matter of style and personal choice, although the choice may not be yours to make. If you are writing a postgraduate thesis or dissertation, your faculty or your supervisor may have very strict ideas on how the work is to be presented. Follow those rules to the letter. Similarly, if you are hoping to have your work published in a periodical or legal journal, ask to see the editorial guidelines. An editor is much more likely to accept your work if it conforms to the house style.

If the issue is left entirely up to you, then you simply need to decide which form of notes you find more helpful. Footnotes can be seen to break the flow of the text, but they also help the reader follow the argument, particularly if the text is comparing and contrasting different sources. Footnotes are also more useful than endnotes if the footnotes contain substantive information rather than simply providing source material. For the most part, British and European writers do not include anything in their foot- or endnotes other than the citations themselves, possibly with a “see also” reference to additional material. American authors, on the other hand, fill their footnotes with additional substantive information. Often the best information in an American law review article can be found in the footnotes.

American legal texts are also known for dropping a footnote at the end of almost every sentence, whereas texts from other countries do so much less, usually only following a direct quote. The reason why American journals use as many footnotes as they do is because most American law journals are edited by law students. British and European journals are peer-reviewed, meaning that an article is only accepted if it passes muster with other academics and/or practitioners. Therefore, the text of the article is verified before it is accepted for publication. American students are not experts in their fields, so they must – and do – check the substance of each and every footnote by hand to make sure that it supports the proposition stated. Therefore, American law journals contain excellent source material for researchers, since the footnotes point the reader to a wide variety of verified information and additional resources. Because American footnotes contain so much information, it makes sense to place them on the same page as the text they support rather than at the end of the article or book.

If you are writing for a non-American audience, you should strongly consider putting citations only into your notes. Once you have made that decision, it matters less whether you put the note on the page or at the end of the piece. If you have a multi-chaptered work (such as a book or doctoral dissertation), then you might consider putting the notes at the end of each chapter rather than at the end of the work as a whole. However, it is highly unlikely that the decision to use footnotes or endnotes will be left to your discretion if you are writing a book or dissertation. Again, conform your text to the guidelines of your institution.

Do remember your punctuation, however. Footnotes and endnotes should both end with a full stop.

What is 'proper' citation form?

If you are an undergraduate writing a weekly essay or timed examination, a case name or the short title of a statute should be sufficient, unless you are told otherwise. If you are writing a more elaborate work, you should follow proper citation guidelines.

There are entire books written on how to cite legal authorities. If you are writing a detailed research paper such as a thesis or dissertation, you should consult one of those books so that you cite your sources properly. Your law librarian can help you find those resources. Also, you should know that each jurisdiction has its own conventions on how to cite legal authorities, so the style of case citation, for example, may not appear consistent if you are citing materials from different countries, even if the individual citations are correct.

In the U.K., authors generally do not give parallel (i.e., multiple) citations except when citing both a neutral reporter and an official reporter, though they must follow strict rules regarding punctuation (or the lack thereof), the type of brackets, typeface, etc. Examples of common British case citations are as follows.

Walker v Sitter [2004] EWHC 1000 (Ch) [5]-[7] (neutral citation, pinpointing paragraphs 5 to 7)

Yin v Yang [2004] QB 123 (QB) at 125 (Schmidt, J) (pinpointing page, noting author)

Tweedledee v Tweedledum [2003] 2 All ER 456 (HL)

Re Luftborough Airport [2002] 1 WLR 89 (Com Ct)

Barking Mad Ltd v Crazy Horse Int'l Inc (2005) Times, 15 April (QB)

The neutral citation system was introduced in the U.K. in January 2001. All cases since then have a neutral citation as well as numbered paragraphs instead of page numbers. The abbreviations indicate which court heard the case. For example, the jurisdictions include:

UK United Kingdom (used only with House of Lords decisions)

EW England and Wales

Scot Scotland

NI Northern Ireland

The court abbreviations which follow the jurisdictional abbreviation in a neutral citation are:

HL House of Lords

CA Civ Court of Appeal (Civil Division)

CA Crim Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)

HC (Ch) High Court (Chancery Division)

HC (QB) High Court (Queen's Bench)

HC (Admin) High Court (Administrative Court Division)

HC (Fam) High Court (Family Division)

HC (Pat) Patents Court

HC (Comm) Commercial Court

HC (Admlty) Admiralty Court

HC (TCC) Technology & Construction Court

European jurisprudence follows its own conventions. You might see citations along the following lines:

Case 26/97 Commission v. Ireland [1999] ECR 321

Case 177/75 Belgium v. Spain [1976] ECR 722, para. 3

Case C-123/92P Y v Commission [1994] ECR I-4321

American legal citations follow a different format, using the style known as the 'Bluebook', which is a citation guide put out by the Harvard Law Review. You'll usually see citations similar to the following:

Darth Vader v Skywalker , 103 F.3d 1049 (2d Cir. 2005)

In re Ballyhoo , 998 F.Supp. 22 (D. D.C. 1999)

Grasshopper v The Ant , 37 App. 2d 24 (Ill. App. Div. 2003)

Cowboy v Cow , 42 S.W.3d 444 (Tex. 2004)

Many common words (railway, limited, public limited company) can be abbreviated in a case name. Those abbreviations can be found in citation guides such as OSCOLA, which is described below. Similarly, many reporting series are known by their abbreviations. Some of the more common British reporters follow, with their short titles. Be aware that some of these series may also have numbers appearing before the volume name (for example, 2 QB).

Official Law Reports AC, QB, Ch, Fam, P

Weekly Law Reports WLR

European Court Reports ECR

All England Law Reports All ER, All ER Com

Common Market Law Reports CMLR

Criminal Appeal Reports Cr App R

Family Law Reports FLR

Lloyd's Law Reports Lloyd's Rep

Official Journal of the EC OJ

Scots Law Times CLT

The Times The Times

Citation of statutes in the U.K. is a straightforward affair. Typically a student needs only cite the name of the legislation and the year, along with the appropriate section, chapter or paragraph number. For example:

Companies Act 1985, sch. 1, para. 3

Arbitration Act 1996, s. 69

European legislation is equally simple, though the titles are often longer and appear in lower case.

Council Regulation (EC) 2693/94 addressing the need to conform widget size in automobiles [1994] OJ L123

Directive 77/331 applying competition rules to the dairy industry [1977] OJ L78/41

When citing American federal legislation and rules, do not include the name of the enactment.

28 U.S.C. § 1391

Fed. R. Civ. P. 4

Students should be aware that two well-known U.S. treatise series – the Restatement (of Tort, of Contract, of Foreign Relations, etc.) and A.L.R. (American Law Reports) do not constitute binding authority in the U.S. Instead, these works simply generalise about the laws of the various U.S. states and should not be considered as authoritative in any particular jurisdiction. While some courts may adopt the Restatement position on a particular issue, the Restatement does not constitute the law in that jurisdiction until a court has so stated. In all instances, the authority comes from the court, not the Restatement.

Which reporting series should I use?

Since the introduction of the neutral citation system in 2001, it is always proper to cite to that series, using paragraph numbers instead of page numbers. If a case is reported in the official Law Reports (AC, QB, etc.), then you should use that report in addition to the neutral citation (at least for decisions after 2001). If the case is not reported in the official Law Reports, you should use to the Weekly Law Reports and All England Law Reports, in that order. After that, you may turn to any other published source, including specialist series such as Lloyd's or the Times.

What is OSCOLA and how does it relate to the Harvard citation style?

'OSCOLA' refers to the Oxford Standard Citation of Legal Authorities, which is available free of charge on the University of Oxford Faculty of Law website ( www.law.ox.ac.uk ). The faculty releases two publications: 'Big OSCOLA', which is over 300 pages in length, and 'Little OSCOLA', which is about 30 pages long. Both documents give you detailed instructions on how to cite cases, statutes, books, journals and other legal materials. Most people should start with Little OSCOLA unless they are doing a postgraduate degree at Oxford or are directed to use Big OSCOLA. The OSCOLA system reflects a common understanding of how British legal authorities should be cited and is a good place to learn how British and European cases should be referenced. Notably, the OSCOLA system proposes a citation methodology that conflicts with American usage, and those whose work includes a large number of American cases may prefer to consult the latest edition of the Bluebook, which is available in many university law libraries, for U.S. sources.

You may also hear about the Harvard style of citation, particularly if you conduct socio-legal or other multi-disciplinary research. The Harvard style is not the same as the Bluebook, even though that guide is also put out by Harvard. The Harvard style of citation focuses primarily on non-legal sources such as books and journal articles, and, as such, is not as useful for those taking a strict law course as OSCOLA is. Under the Harvard style of citation, cases are cited in the text, rather than in the footnotes.

Citation signals

Older sources make wide use of Latin phrases such as infra, supra, ante, id, op cit, loc cit and contra . American sources continue to use many of these phrases in addition to a number of signals ( see, see also, but see, cf., accord ) at the beginning of a cite and descriptors ( cert. denied , aff'd by, rev'd by, superseded by , etc.) following a cite. Current British usage avoids all Latin phrases except for ibid , which means 'in the place of' and refers to the preceding citation only. You may only use ibid if the subsequent citation is to the same page; otherwise, use ibid 345 (if, for example, the new citation is to page number 345) or ibid art. 3 (if, for example, the new citation is to article 3). You may also use cf (compare) as a signal, but avoid the American use of see, see also, but see , etc.

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Footnotes & Appendices 

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APA style offers writers footnotes and appendices as spaces where additional, relevant information might be shared within a document; this resource offers a quick overview of format and content concerns for these segments of a document. Should additional clarification be necessary, it is always recommended that writers reach out to the individual overseeing their work (i.e., instructor, editor, etc.). For your convenience, a student sample paper is included below; please note the document is filled with  Lorem Ipsum  placeholder text and references to footnotes and appendices are highighlighted. Additional marginal notes also further explain specific portions of the example. 

Footnotes 

Footnotes are supplementary details printed at the bottom of the page pertaining to a paper’s content or copyright information. This supporting text can be utilized in any type of APA paper to support the body paragraphs.

Content-Based Footnotes

Utilizing footnotes to provide supplementary detail can enrich the body text and reinforce the main argument of the paper. Footnotes may also direct readers to an alternate source for more detail on a topic. Though content footnotes can be useful in providing additional context, it is detrimental to include tangential or convoluted information. Footnotes should detail a focused subject; lengthier sections of text are better suited for the body paragraphs.

Acknowledging Copyright

When citing long quotations, images, tables, data, or commercially published questionnaires in-text, it is important to credit the copyright information in a footnote. Functioning much like an in-text citation, a footnote copyright attribution provides credit to the original source and must also be included in a reference list. A copyright citation is needed for both direct reprinting as well as adaptations of content, and these may require express permission from the copyright owner.

Formatting Footnotes

Each footnote and its corresponding in-text callout should be formatted in numerical order of appearance utilizing superscript. As demonstrated in the example below, the superscripted numerals should follow all punctuation with the exception of dashes and parentheses.

For example: 

Footnote callouts should not be placed in headings and do not require a space between the callout and superscripted number. When reintroducing a footnote that has previously been called out, refrain from replicating the callout or footnote itself; rather, format such reference as “see Footnote 4”, for example. Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the corresponding callout is referenced. Alternatively, a footnotes page could be created to follow the reference page. When formatting footnotes in the latter manner, center and bold the label “Footnotes” then record each footnote as a double-spaced and indented paragraph. Place the corresponding superscripted number in front of each footnote and separate the numeral from the following text with a single space.

Formatting Copyright Information

To provide credit for images, tables, or figures pulled from an outside source, include the accreditation statement at the end of the note for the visual. Copyright acknowledgements for long quotations or questionnaires should simply be placed in a footnote at the bottom of the page.

When formatting a copyright accreditation, utilize the following format:

• Establish if the content was reprinted or adapted by using language such as “from” for directly copied material or “adapted from” for material that has been modified
• Include the content’s title, author, year of publication, and source
• Cite the copyright holder and year of copyright or indicate that the source is public domain or licensed under Creative Commons
• If express permission was required to reprint the material, include a statement indicating that permission was acquired

Appendices 

When introducing supplementary content that may not fit within the body of a paper, an appendix can be included to help readers better understand the material without distracting from the text itself. Primarily used to introduce research materials, specific details of a study, or participant demographics, appendices are generally concise and only incorporate relevant content. Much like with footnotes, appendices may require an acknowledgement of copyright and, if data is cited, an adherence to the privacy policies that protect participant identities.

Formatting Appendices

An appendix should be created on its own individual page labelled “Appendix” and followed by a title on the next line that describes the subject of the appendix. These headings should be centered and bolded at the top of the page and written in title case. If there are multiple appendices, each should be labelled with a capital letter and referenced in-text by its specific title (for example, “see Appendix B”). All appendices should follow references, footnotes, and any tables or figures included at the end of the document.

Text Appendices 

Appendices should be formatted in traditional paragraph style and may incorporate text, figures, tables, equations, or footnotes. In an appendix, all figures, tables, and other visuals should be labelled with the letter of the corresponding appendix followed by a number indicating the order in which each appears. For example, a table labelled “Table B1” would be the first table in Appendix B. If there is only one appendix in the document, the visuals should still be labelled with the letter A and a number to differentiate them from those contained in the paper itself (for example, “Figure A3” is the third figure in the singular appendix, which is not labelled with a letter in the heading). 

Table or Figure Appendices 

When an appendix solely contains a table or figure, the title of the figure or table should be substituted with the title of the appendix. For example, if Appendix B only includes a figure, the figure should be labelled “Appendix B” rather than “Figure B1”, as it would be named if there were multiple figures included.

If an appendix does not contain text but includes numerous figures or table, the appendix should be formatted like a text appendix. The appendix would receive a name and label, and each figure or table would be given a corresponding letter and number. For example, if Appendix C contains two tables and one figure, these visuals would be labelled “Table C1”, “Table C2”, and “Figure C1” respectively.

Sample Paper    

Media File: APA 7 - Student Sample Paper (Footnotes & Appendices)

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Endnotes – Guide to How to Use Them Correctly

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Citing sources properly is required to give acknowledgement to the writers whose work influenced your own, to direct readers to the sources you used, and to demonstrate the scope of your research. Although endnotes are used less frequently in student or academic papers than in-text citations or footnotes, they are extremely prevalent in books, where they contribute to a cleaner page. This article provides a thorough guide to using endnotes correctly with examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Endnotes – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Endnotes
• 3 Endnotes vs. footnotes
• 4 How to use endnotes
• 5 How to insert endnotes in Word

Endnotes – In a Nutshell

• They may be used instead of a list of cited sources, depending on the writing style.
• Even with the advent of word-processing software, these notes are considerably simpler to include in a document.
• Unlike footnotes, they don’t take up much space on the page.

Definition: Endnotes

Endnotes are the notes that come at the end of the text in an academic paper. They are denoted in the text by numbers or, occasionally, other symbols.

They are employed:

• for citations in particular styles
• to add supplementary material that does not flow with the primary text

Endnotes vs. footnotes

Endnotes and footnotes are commonly mistaken. Footnotes are similarly used to offer citations or additional information; however, they appear at the bottom of each page rather than at the conclusion .

Footnotes or endnotes should typically be used consistently. Your instructor may advise you on the appropriate note format.

How to use endnotes

Endnote numbers are placed after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. Unless an em dash concludes the sentence, the number comes before the punctuation , after which it is displayed. There is no space following the number.

The general agreement now—though there are dissenting voices 1 —is that this experiment was too methodologically faulty to provide valid results. 2

Notes are consecutively numbered in the order that they occur in the text. Each endnote is assigned a unique number; do not reuse a number, even when citing the same source multiple times.

Endnotes in Chicago style

Using footnotes or endnotes for citations is standard practice in Chicago style bibliographies and notes. Either type of note may also provide additional information, such as more examples, commentary on the sources you quote, or a more in-depth analysis of concepts mentioned in the text.

Place Chicago endnotes after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. A citation note provides complete information on a source the first time it is cited, and simplified information for subsequent citations.

You should still provide a complete list of your sources in a bibliography following the notes unless you are writing a brief paper and have been instructed otherwise.

The notes page follows the bibliography and begins with the word “Notes” printed in bold and centered. The basic format of the notes is as follows:

• A blank line should separate the notes, and the notes should be single-spaced.
• Start each note with an indentation.
• Place a period and a space after the note numbers, which should be written in regular text rather than a superscript.

Endnotes in APA style

Additional information can be included in endnotes or footnotes when writing in APA style . They are not used for citations; instead, use APA in-text citations .

When applicable, copyright attributions are included using APA endnotes. In addition, they can be used to build on the text’s themes or provide further instances. However, do so sparingly, as the APA advises against including redundant information.

The notes are placed on a separate page following the reference list, with the heading “Footnotes” (APA does not use the phrase “endnotes”) bold and centered at the top.

The notes are formatted as indented, double-spaced paragraphs. Each note should begin with its number in superscript, followed by a space.

Endnotes in MLA style

Endnotes can be used instead of MLA in-text citations if you must include many references in a single paragraph.

MLA notes may also convey more information, including clarifications, further illustrations, or elaboration of concepts briefly discussed in the text.

They should appear on a separate page before the Works Cited list and be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes.” Each endnote’s first line should be indented, and the number should be superscripted, followed by a space. They must use double spacing.

How to insert endnotes in Word

Many word processors, such as Microsoft Word, make it simple to insert notes automatically. Follow the steps below:

• Click the point within the text where the note number should appear.
• Click “Insert Endnote” after opening the “References” tab at the top.
• Input text in the note that appears at the end of your manuscript.

However, if you use one of the above styles, you must alter the formatting to meet their criteria and include a heading for the notes page.

What should I write in an endnote?

Footnotes and endnotes perform the same function. These are brief clarifications, additions, or copyright information. You can improve the reader’s experience by adding an endnote example outside the text.

How do I make the endnote numbers?

Don’t enter the numbers manually! The “Insert Citation” or “Insert Reference” function in your word processing software (such as MS Word) will add the note numbers and make room for the note automatically. This function’s name differs slightly between programs.

How is an endnote supposed to look?

A five-space indentation marks the first line of each endnote, and subsequent lines are flush to the left margin. Each endnote number should be preceded by a period and space, with the right note following the space.

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