case study on environmental impact assessment

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Environmental reviews and case studies: decision making in the environmental impact assessment process.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 February 2015

This article analyzes the decision-making processes used by government agencies when trying to decide whether to approve or reject projects that impact the environment. This article examines some of the real-life inputs into the decision, as well as the influences on the decision maker. For example, some academics suggest that decision makers are more influenced by the environmental impact assessment process itself than by the conclusions of the assessment. Three case studies are presented. I provide an overview of each project and the various influences on the respective decision maker. I demonstrate that decision makers tend to elevate social, cultural, and political concerns over the natural environment. I also demonstrate that each decision maker was influenced by a particular social, cultural, or political aspect unique to each situation. I recommend further research in the expanding use of analytical tools and models in environmental decision making. These tools may encourage the decision maker to give more consideration to the results of the environmental impact assessment versus other external influences.

Environmental Practice 16: 290–301 (2014)

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• Volume 16, Issue 4
• Robert Evans (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1466046614000295

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EPA Health Impact Assessment Case Studies

In the news.

[Aug 2022] Read about the latest HIA case study completed for Southwest Rockford, IL . 

• Health Impact Assessments

EPA has undertaken several Health Impact Assessment (HIA) case studies to learn how its science can be used in the HIA process and how HIA can be incorporated into its decision-support tools, actions, and mission.

On this page:

• Springfield, MA
• Atlanta, GA
• Suffolk County, NY
• Rockford, IL    

HIA Gerena School Renovation Project (Springfield, MA)

• Gerena School HIA Final Report

Gerena Community School, located in Springfield, MA, is undergoing renovations to improve the environmental conditions for its users. The facility functions as an elementary school and community center, serving students and residents of the North End Community. EPA collaborated with stakeholders, including departments within the City of Springfield and community-based groups, to perform an HIA.

The purpose of this HIA is to provide valuable health-focused information to help the City of Springfield narrow down and prioritize those renovation actions that best address the existing environmental conditions and reduce the potential negative health impacts to students, faculty, staff, and community members who use the facility. The HIA also provided an avenue for the community and other stakeholders to be engaged in the decision-making process. Community stakeholders have raised concerns related to Gerena School, which include indoor air quality issues related to motor vehicle emissions, flooding, moisture, mold, and other indoor environment conditions; negative perceptions of the school facilities among the community; differing priorities between school and city administrators; absenteeism; and classroom noise.

The HIA utilized on-site observations, reviewed evidence, and professional expertise to judge each of the proposed renovation options for potential impacts to respiratory health, classroom acoustics, and community perception. Based on the predicted impacts to health, the HIA provided recommendations for renovation actions that aim to maximize potential benefits to health and mitigate and/or avoid potential adverse impacts to health.

HIA Proctor Creek Boone Boulevard Green Street Project (Atlanta, GA)

• Proctor Creek Boone Boulevard Fact Sheet
• Proctor Creek Boone Boulevard HIA Executive Summary
• Proctor Creek Boone Boulevard HIA Final Report

Proctor Creek is one of the most impaired creeks in metro-Atlanta and has been placed on the impaired waters list because it does not meet state water quality standards for fecal coliform. The topography, prevalence of impervious surfaces in the watershed, and a strained combined sewer system have contributed to pervasive flooding in the Proctor Creek community and created environmental, public health, economic, and redevelopment issues. A green infrastructure project, aimed at supporting water quality and revitalization improvement efforts, was proposed in a headwater community of Proctor Creek.

The purpose of this HIA was to help inform the City of Atlanta’s decision on whether to implement the proposed project as designed and to provide an avenue for stakeholders, including state environmental and public health agencies, city and county departments, advocacy groups, and the community, to be engaged in the decision-making process. The HIA evaluated the proposed Boone Boulevard Green Street Project for its potential to impact twelve determinants of health identified by stakeholders ‒ water quality; flood management; climate and temperature; air quality; traffic safety; exposure to greenness; urban noise; access to goods, services, greenspace, and healthcare; crime; social capital; household economics, and community economics.

The results of the HIA suggested that the proposed green infrastructure project would have a positive impact on health overall and provided recommendations for implementation and expansion of green infrastructure projects throughout the watershed. The City of Atlanta is implementing the Boone Boulevard Green Street Project and has decided to expand the length of the green street to maximize its predicted health benefits.

HIA Proposed Code Changes Regarding Individual Sewerage Systems (Suffolk County, NY)

• Fact Sheet for Suffolk County HIA
• Suffolk County HIA Summary Report
• Suffolk County HIA Final Report

As part of the Hurricane Sandy recovery efforts, EPA conducted an HIA to evaluate potential beneficial and adverse health impacts that may result from proposed sanitary code changes regarding individual sewerage systems (ISS) for residential properties in Suffolk County, New York. ISS are an alternative to centralized municipal sewage disposal systems and are the primary mode of sewage disposal for residential properties in the county. The Suffolk County Government proposed the sanitary code changes to address a growing issue of nutrient loading to Suffolk County soil, surface waters, and ground waters. Overloading of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, has been linked to the impairment of surface and ground waters, beach closures, shellfish population die offs, harmful algal blooms, and damage to marine coastlines. Suffolk County agreed to host an HIA, guided by the EPA, to help inform the decision about the code changes. Based on input from stakeholders, community members, and scientific experts, pathways were identified through which the proposed code changes might impact health. Five pathways were prioritized for inclusion in the HIA analysis: individual sewerage system performance and failure; water quality; community and household economics; vector control; and resiliency to natural disaster. This HIA provided evidence-based recommendations to maximize potential benefits and mitigate potential adverse impacts to health that could result from the decision.

• Learn more about the HIA Suffolk County Report .

HIA Former Chesapeake Supply Brownfield Revitalization Assessment (Dover, Delaware)

• Fact Sheet for Dover, Delaware Rapid HIA
• Dover, Delaware Rapid HIA Report

From summer 2017 until early 2018, EPA conducted a rapid Health Impact Assessment (HIA) with the City of Dover and Kent County, Delaware to help the City and County make decisions concerning the redevelopment of a downtown Dover property. This property is a brownfield site – a formerly contaminated property – that has been cleaned up. The City and County are interested in using the property to produce food, including fresh produce and fish. This would help stimulate economic development and increase access to food in downtown Dover.

EPA assisted local and state officials with investigating a plan to use the site to produce food, including the use of aquaponics. Aquaponics is a farming system that grows plants and fish together in a way that benefits them both. To help with the effort, an abbreviated form of HIA (i.e., rapid HIA) was developed with EPA staff along with partners from City of Dover, Kent County, the State of Delaware, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Delaware State University.

HIA Kingsbury Bay-Grassy Point Habitat Restoration Project (Duluth, MN)

• Helping Preserve and Promote the Cultural Significance of Kingsbury Bay and Grassy Point (Science Matters Publication)
• Kingsbury Bay-Grassy Point Habitat Restoration Project: A health impact assessment (Overview)
• Kingsbury Bay-Grassy Point HIA Fact Sheet (pdf) (335.9 KB)
• Kingsbury Bay-Grassy Point HIA Report (pdf) (22.2 MB)
• Kingsbury Bay-Grassy Point HIA Summary Report (pdf) (8.4 MB)

EPA conducted an HIA in the St. Louis River Areas of Concern (AOC) to examine the potential public health impacts of habitat restoration work and subsequent park improvement projects at two project sites along the St. Louis River – Kingsbury Bay and Grassy Point. The purpose of the HIA was to inform the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MNDNR) and City of Duluth’s decisions regarding the design and implementation of these habitat restoration and park improvement projects. Based on input from stakeholders, community members, and scientific experts, pathways were identified through which the proposed projects could potentially impact health. Seven pathways were prioritized for inclusion in the HIA analysis: water quality and habitat; equipment operation, traffic, and transport; air quality; noise and light pollution; crime and safety; recreation, aesthetics, and engagement with nature; and social/cultural aspects.

In examining these pathways, the HIA specifically evaluated the potential health impacts associated with changes in ecosystem services (i.e., benefits people obtain from these ecosystems) and other determinants of health, as a result of the planned sediment remediation, wetland and riparian habitat restoration, and construction of potential waterfront amenities, including trails, boardwalks, bird watching stations, fishing piers, kayak launches, and swimming beaches. The HIA will help inform the decisions regarding habitat restoration and park improvements at these two sites and provide recommendations to maximize potential benefits and mitigate potential adverse impacts to health that may result from the decisions.

Southwest Rockford Revitalization Rapid Health Impact Assessment (Rockford, IL)

• Southwest Rockford Revitalization Rapid Health Impact Assessment (Rockford, Illinois)  

Brownfields and Land Revitalization

Brownfields are properties, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant (EPA, 2020a).

The City of Rockford, Illinois was seeking to revitalize the area around South Main Street in southwest Rockford (hereafter referred to as the South Main Corridor Area), along with other areas of the city, as part of its 2020-2024 Neighborhood Revitalization Area Strategy. The City received technical assistance from the EPA Office of Brownfields and Land Revitalization (OBLR) to design a Neighborhood Revitalization Strategy for the South Main Corridor Area.

In combination with the technical assistance contract, city officials agreed to a Health Impact Assessment (HIA), which would assess the health‐relevant social, environmental, and economic conditions in the South Main Corridor Area and identify how neighborhood revitalization could potentially impact health. A rapid HIA, an abbreviated form of HIA, was undertaken by the EPA Office of Research and Development (ORD) in partnership with EPA Office of Brownfields and Land Revitalization (OBLR), with input from EPA Region 5, the City of Rockford, and the Land Revitalization Technical Assistance Contractor.

A mixed methods approach was used in the HIA, including qualitative and quantitative data analysis, geographic information system (GIS) mapping, scientific literature review, and analysis of stakeholder input from multiple efforts that have taken place in the area, to evaluate the potential health impacts of proposed neighborhood revitalization in the South Main Corridor Area.

The HIA did not assess a specific revitalization strategy, program, policy, or decision, as one was not available at the time of the HIA, but rather examined evidence and examples of revitalization concepts being proposed for the South Main Corridor Area and their associations with public health impacts, positive and negative, with a particular emphasis on mental health and social determinants of health. The HIA examined six determinants of health: Housing, Neighborhood and Built Environment, Parks and Greenspace, Crime and Safety, Employment and Economy, and Social and Cultural Well-being.

The assessment identified the existing conditions in the study area related to these determinants of health, took into account community concerns and desires expressed in the City’s public meetings and interviews conducted as part of the Land Revitalization Technical Assistance Contract, and identified how neighborhood revitalization could potentially impact these health determinants and ultimately, human health. The HIA recommended strategies to maximize the potential health benefits and mitigate the potential adverse health impacts of neighborhood revitalization in the South Main Corridor.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Environmental impact assessment with rapid impact assessment matrix method: during disaster conditions.

• 1 Department of Industrial Engineering, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran
• 2 Department of Operations Research, Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Nigeria
• 3 Department of Applied Mathematics, Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran
• 4 Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
• 5 Department of Industrial Engineering, South-Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

In the last several decades, Iran’s ecosystem has suffered due to the careless usage of natural resources. Cities have grown in an uneven and non-normative way, and poor project management has been a major issue, particularly in large cities. An even greater number of environmental factors and engineering regulations are not relevant to projects. Because of this, in order to ascertain a project’s environmental impact, an environmental impact assessment (EIA), is required. Using the rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM) is one method of applying it to EIA. Reducing subjectivity brings objectivity and transparency. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a thorough EIA was carried out for the Tehran project utilizing the RIAM and other possibilities. This research is the first to combine the methodology that was discussed during the incident. Through the use of the RIAM technique, the environmental impact of COVID-19 was to be quantified in this inquiry. The research examined lockdown procedures and the COVID-19 pandemic to create an EIA indicator. In a real-world case study conducted in Tehran, Iran, the impact of the initiative was evaluated using the RIAM methodology during the COVID-19 epidemic. The results demonstrated that COVID-19 had both beneficial and harmful effects. Decision-makers were effectively informed about the COVID-19 pandemic’s environmental consequences on people and the environment, as well as how to minimize negative effects, according to the EIA technique that used RIAM. This is the first research to integrate the EIA during a crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, with the RIAM approach.

1 Introduction

COVID-19 impacted waste collection and organization in various ways, affecting waste segregation and recycling. The raised utilization of single-use plastics is responsible for averting the extension of COVID-19 in various sectors since the beginning of the pandemic. Waste management problems can be exacerbated by environmentally friendly alternatives to single-use plastics ( 1 ). Even though multiple initiatives are being taken to deal with the increase of MSW and SMW and to prevent infectious disease outbreaks, Movable grate burning technology, combined with a suitable disinfection process, could be a viable solution to COVID-19’s waste problem. Waste management systems can be made more sustainable if disinfection methods and technological choices are chosen appropriately ( 2 ). Multiple initiatives are in progress to control the spread of infectious diseases, while also managing an increase in MSW and SMW. Waste management systems, especially those that deal with contaminated waste, can become more sustainable if disinfection methods and technology choices are made appropriately ( 1 – 9 ).

Using environmental impact assessments (EIAs), a project can be evaluated for its effects on different sectors and activities, and finally, solutions are offered based on the results of this assessment ( 10 ). Since 1975, major construction projects have been required to prepare an EIA report by government approvals and legislative assemblies to ensure environmental protection and sustainable development. The preparation of this report was a requirement of national laws after the completion of municipal waste landfill plans ( 11 ). Increasing amounts of municipal solid waste (MSW) are a concern for people all over the world ( 12 ). In developing countries, urbanization and improving living standards have increased the amount and complexity of MSW ( 13 ). In the absence of an EIA, a MSW disposal site can lead to severe negative environmental impacts. Environmental risks from unsanitary landfills, especially within hospitals and industries that dispose of waste, resulted in the replacement of traditional methods with environmentally sound and sustainable ones ( 14 ).

During EIA projects, the primary objective is to achieve a better knowledge of the existing landfill situation and, based on that, to present appropriate enforcement strategies for improving the environment and reducing pollution caused by landfills ( 15 ). One way to assess landfills is through a rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM) ( 16 ). As a result of its ability to integrate all parts and parameters, this method is ideal for determining a project’s environmental impacts rapidly and transparently ( 17 ). The use of RIAM is also recommended, because of its advantages. This eliminates subjectivity and facilitates transparency and objectivity. The process of operation is documented concurrently with the EIA for the project, reducing the amount of time required for the process ( 18 ). As a practical matter, RIAM provides an easy way to utilize distinguish procedures; due to each cell, a specialist will have information on the magnitude and importance of impact, and lastly, the user will be can conclude. RIAM uses a range of environmental scores (ES) to calculate the overall results that can be compared to each other. The ES is assigned to each component and is classified into ranges ( 19 – 24 ).

Figure 1 shows the trend chart of the creation of MSW flow. To predict the environmental consequences of any development project, an EIA is one of the proven legal and predictive tools. Impact studies employ a variety of EIA methods, but not all of them are equally effective. EIA methods and their interrelationships are most encouraging as a result of the dissemination of information. In addition to being time-consuming and costly, conventional EIAs are often subjectively biased ( 26 ). An EIA based on conventional procedures is not sufficient for comprehensively managing environmentally sensitive development projects. Consequently, GIS provides unbiased and interpretable EIAs that overcome the limitations of conventional EIAs. To evaluate road development’s environmental impacts, GIS is considered the best technique. The waste flow rate in municipal waste management facilities is normally predictable and steady, with seasonal fluctuations. Medical waste volumes increased dramatically during COVID−19, while MSW volumes increased and decreased in different regions ( 27 , 28 ). According to state statistics ( 29 ), MSW and organic waste generated in New York were both up 3.3 and 13.3% during the COVID−19 pandemic, respectively ( 9 , 30 – 39 ).

Figure 1 . Trend chart of the creation of MSW flow rate during and after the COVID-19 period in (A) developed (more industrial) and (B) developing (less industrial) societies (city or nation) ( 25 ).

Several municipal essential services were disrupted by COVID-19, including the management of municipal solid waste (MSW). By segregating waste streams and treating them separately, waste and waste management can reduce environmental, health, and social impacts ( 40 ). Depending on disposal activities, MSW and SMW have a global warming potential ranging from 0.64 to 520 (kg) carbon equivalence/tonne and 52.1–3,730 (kg) carbon equivalence/tonne, ordinary. According to Nabavi-pelesaraei et al. ( 41 ), MSW disposal costs ranged from 90 to $242/tonne, and SMW disposal costs ranged from 12 to $1,530/tonne. Impact of zinc oxide doping on the optical, surface, and structural characteristics of thin films of titanium dioxide ( 42 ). Utilizing generative adversarial networks for color correction of images ( 43 ). Image processing methods for early detection of breast cancer ( 44 ). Water usage trends and projections in southwest Ethiopia ( 45 ). Smeein et al. ( 46 ) suggested the approach of spline scaling functions for addressing optimum control problems has been optimized. Concentrated on the viability of using a convolutional neural network for breast cancer diagnosis by Faris and Badamasi ( 47 ). Possibility of using a convolutional neural network in mammography to identify breast cancer ( 48 ).

COVID-19/IT the digital aspect of COVID-19: An Italian image with taxonomy and grouping ( 49 ). The effect of COVID-19 on the virtual learning environment was assessed by Torres Martín et al. ( 50 ). The COVID-19 period waste management organization is depicted in Figure 2 .

Figure 2 . The COVID-19 waste management hierarchy ( 25 ).

Uncertainty was first included in EIAs by Cardenas et al. ( 51 ). Caro-Gonzalez et al.’s review ( 52 ) on the development of EIA effectiveness. Using a case study from Colombia, Caro-Gonzalez et al. ( 53 ) examined the influence of environmental impact statement techniques. Insufficient information might lead to uncertainty difficulties, as discussed by Kamal and Burkell ( 54 , 55 ). Loomis and Dziedzic ( 56 ) assessed the efficacy of EIA systems. A sophisticated network method for evaluating the effects on the environment. Martínez et al.’s impact assessment ( 10 ). For EIA, Pastakia and Jensen ( 57 ) proposed the quick impact assessment matrix approach. Resulting from EIA Forecast Uncertainty regarding post-auditing, follow-up, and mitigation ( 58 ). Predictions made by EIAs are uncertain, necessitating improved communication and more openness ( 59 ). Research on the efficacy of EIAs and the philosophical underpinnings of an integrated ( 60 ).

Catalonia and Barcelona, however, have produced less municipal waste, respectively, by 16.7 and 25.0%. Some Chinese provinces have also produced less MSW ( 61 , 62 ). SMW was managed by 46 mobile waste management plants deployed by the city. Healthcare waste generation is expected to increase in Romania, with medical waste contributing 10.9 percent, and quarantine waste contributing 17.2 percent, respectively, to total waste generation. Several regions have experienced increases in agricultural waste generation because of disruptions in supply chains (SC) and processing facility closures that caused perishable foods to spoil ( 63 ). Multiple causes and effects led to the decrease in MSW during COVID-19. Takeout food and food delivered to residences have been packaged with single-use plastics following the implementation of quarantine ( 64 ). In addition to technical, economic, and environmental factors, social acceptance contributes to the process as well as the choice of disinfection technology ( 65 ). As a result of the outbreak, the current waste management (WM) systems have been swamped with waste ( 66 ). The United States reported that COVID-19 generated 530 million tonnes of waste in a given year ( 67 ). According to estimates, there will be 63,000 tonnes of plastic waste produced in Canada from personal protective equipment (PPE)related to COVID-19 ( 68 ). Tehran experienced significant air quality challenges during the excessive outbreak. Air quality could be improved by lockdowns and urban activity limitations ( 67 ). COVID-19 affected urban air quality in a variety of ways across countries, but various economic and social situations affected responses alternatively, resulting in significant environmental justice implications ( 6 ). COVID-19 resulted in residents of Tehran continuing to work despite the infrequent nationwide stay-at-home orders ( 69 ). Many developing countries have been affected by COVID-19 based on their lifestyles, the kind and quantity of waste they produce, and how they manage it. COVID-19 has been reported to have caused 14,205,416 instances confirmed worldwide and 599,716 deaths ( 69 ) in Iran, where 269,440 affirmed items have resulted in 13,791 deaths. In Iran, solid waste is often disposed of in inefficiently managed landfills where waste pickers could scavenge for recyclable materials without wearing appropriate PPE. Over 18 million metric tons of MSW are produced each year in Iran, the 18th most populous country globally ( 70 ).

During a medical emergency, Abbasi et al. ( 71 ) created the home healthcare SC. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Abbasi et al. ( 72 ) created the green closed-loop supply chain network (GCLSCN). Ahmadi et al.’s study ( 73 ) focused on power plant portfolio optimization in Iran utilizing renewable energy. To achieve sustainable development goals through financial inclusion, Danladi et al. ( 74 ) investigated cooperative methods for fintech uptake in developing nations. A stochastic bi-objective simulation optimization model for the plasma SC in the event of a COVID-19 epidemic was proposed by Shirazi et al. ( 75 ). The literature on green supply chain network design (GSCND) with an emphasis on carbon policy was evaluated by Abbasi and Choukolaei ( 76 ). A state-of-the-art evaluation of operation research models and applications for home healthcare was conducted by Goodarzian et al. ( 77 ).

Using the COVID-19 outbreak as a case study, Ghasemi et al. ( 78 ) examined the DEA-based simulation-optimization strategy for designing a resilient plasma supply chain network(SCN). Using a real-world example, Abbasi et al. ( 79 ) created a sustainable network for recovering end-of-life items during the COVID-19 pandemic. Hospital rankings in the COVID-19 epidemic utilizing a novel, integrated methodology based on patient satisfaction ( 80 ). The GCLSCNs’ reaction to different carbon policies during COVID-19 was provided by Abbasi and Erdebilli ( 81 ). Pricing techniques for hotel searches conducted online: a fuzzy inference system process ( 82 ). Creating The COVID-19 pandemic’s sustainable CO 2 emissions SC ( 83 ).

Using a mix of machine learning and meta-heuristic algorithms to design a sustainable bioethanol SCN ( 84 ). Evaluation of the sustainable SC’s performance in light of the COVID-19 Pandemic, a case study from actual life ( 85 ). Using a case study of palm oil buying businesses, Ahmadi and Peivandizadeh ( 86 ) developed a sustainable portfolio optimization approach based on Promethean ranking. During the COVID-19 pandemic, designing a vaccine SCN with the environment in mind ( 87 ). Creating a closed-loop, multi-echelon, tri-objective, sustainable supply chain (SSC) amid COVID-19 and lockdowns ( 88 ).

The production-distribution planning issue for multi-product SCs was proposed by Khalili-Damghani and Ghasemi ( 89 ) considering fuzzy mathematical optimization methodologies. Constructing the essential item delivery network under COVID-19 and seismically unstable situations ( 90 ). In the crisis time, Gonzalez et al. ( 91 ) created a dependable aggregate production planning issue. Utilizing meta-heuristic algorithms, Goodarzian et al. ( 92 ) examined a citrus fruit supply chain network taking CO 2 emissions into account. Using the COVID-19 pandemic when designing the location–routing problem for a cold SC ( 93 ). In the COVID-19 Era, Abbasi et al. ( 94 ) examined the model for financial SCNs. COVID-19 medical waste SCN, a fuzzy sustainable model ( 95 ). An overview of the obstacles and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for global waste management for a sustainable future ( 96 ).

2 Literature review

2.1 waste management during the covid-19.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many cities in the United States and Europe banned or restricted municipal solid waste recycling centers owing to concerns regarding the spread of the infection ( 97 , 98 ). It is also prohibited to separate household waste in countries, for instance, Italy, where suspected or affected individuals are isolated or cared for at home, thus reducing the amount of recyclable waste entering the waste stream. The reduced recycling of waste during the pandemic has led to environmental concerns ( 99 ). By contrast, waste pickers (informal sector) in developing countries separate waste at the disposal stage and dump it at landfills. It is very difficult and complicated to change the situation in this section. Therefore, developing countries are expected to have a greater risk of disease transmission from poor waste management ( 100 ), making garbage collection and waste management programs very important in refugee camps and slums ( 101 ).

In contrast, disease outbreaks and lockdown rules may force citizens to move from their primitive homes to secondary, which may put a strain on village WM systems, so equipment and staff capacity must be increased in these areas to improve waste management systems. Occasionally, urban waste management is impacted by pandemics ( 102 , 103 ). Isfahanian citizens are discarding more than 1.49 million plastic gloves and 1.49 million facemasks, which disrupts waste composting, and landfilling increases 3.6 times compared to the period before COVID-19 ( 69 ).

According to past experiences or experiences achieved in other countries, infectious disease outbreaks caused a change in waste management. Several prior operations were stopped or resumed with notable distinctions in provisions resulting in a change in waste management ( 104 ). A behavioral change like this is essential in diminishing the likelihood of disease transmission and preventing the transfer of pollution from contaminated waste. The virus may spread to the air through compactor waste collection vehicles, for instance ( 105 ). As a result, waste management will require trucks, human resources, and more expenses. Municipal solid waste recycling will likely decrease significantly in a pandemic situation because waste recycling is the most affected part of WM. Compared to the previous epidemic, COVID-19 has seen a decrease in the waste-to-material industry ( 105 ).

Tehran has increased its landfill capacity by 35% as well ( 9 ). Since the health protocols have been implemented, the waste management system has improved ( 33 ). To limit poor waste management that leads to damage, there has to be a greater emphasis on the guidelines set out in the waste management pandemic conditions ( 106 ). Medical waste management has been significantly affected by the pandemic. To store, collect, and transport this potentially contaminated waste, separate pathways have been adopted for storing, collecting, and transporting these medical wastes ( 107 ). The pandemic has been controlled and transmission risks reduced using waste incineration, according to a report from a Chinese hospital ( 108 ).

2.2 Environmental management during the COVID-19

COVID-19 also improved Tehran’s air quality indicators. Also, quieter conditions were created in Tehran due to a reduction in commercial activity and a reduction in the use of public and private transportation. As of now, Tehran is experiencing a reopening of most businesses, including restaurants. Social distancing measures are encouraged by the government, but the government enforcing them in most public places is not strict. Residents wear facemasks and follow guidelines for social distancing ( 109 ).

COVID-19 has been reduced from spreading from human to human according to guidelines issued by the WHO and other national disease control centers. Iranian National Headquarters for Managing Coronavirus (INHMC) advises the use of PPE-like facemasks for everyone. In the act of preventing or controlling the spread of COVID-19 in Iran, the Ministry of Health and Medical Education formed the INHMC. In defending against COVID-19, every governmental and private entity and sector has a responsibility to consider necessary administrative measures and collaborate with the INHMC ( 23 , 110 – 112 ). In preventing the transmission of COVID-19, the INHMC recommends single-use gloves, tissues, aprons, and facemasks for medical professionals treating patients with COVID-19. Several other service employees have been praised for using facemasks and gloves, which include barbers, cooks, taxi drivers, street sweepers, and waste collectors ( 62 , 113 – 117 ).

A new law is being proposed by the INHMC to require all residents to wear facemasks in public areas. On average, 10.78 million facemasks were disposed of every day in March 2020. People would be discouraged from using PPEs if the price of PPEs in Iran increased significantly after COVID-19 spread. In Tehran, every day 1.9 million masks and 3.8 million gloves are deleted. In particular, street sweepers and waste scavengers are at risk of becoming infected with the viral disease from the utilization of PPE. Due to changes in people’s habits and the rise in plastic waste, Tehran’s waste production has increased in volume and weight since the outbreak of COVID-19. During COVID-19 time, people tend to spend more time at home, which results in more waste being produced ( 112 , 114 , 118 ).

There has been a rise in the production and use of food waste and detergents among Tehran residents. During the pandemic, Tehran City’s waste stream has seen a dramatic increase in packaging waste from detergents and disinfectants. The literature describes human COVID-19 like SARS and MERS COVID-19 have been reported to survive up to 9 days on non-living surfaces ( 119 , 120 ). As a result, most people prefer single-use plastics as a safer alternative. As a result of the lockdown measures in Tehran, restaurant and grocery store delivery staff have increased their use of packaging materials. However, if discarded PPEs are not handled properly, they can aggravate health and environmental issues. A poor waste management system usually makes these environmental hazards more severe in developing countries. A typical waste collection truck in Tehran, for example, is equipped with a compactor to enable larger collections ( 112 , 121 ). When COVID-19 broke out in Iran, compactors for garbage trucks were not restricted or recommended. As long as 3 months can pass before landfall leachates become contaminated ( 122 ). It may result in the spread of COVID-19 in Tehran if this strategy for collecting waste is carried out ( 112 ).

The environment may be negatively impacted by COVID-19. COVID-19 could have some positive environmental impacts due to its reduced energy consumption, according to initial reports. It has been observed that the CO 2 , NO 2 , and PM2.5 emissions in China have been drastically reduced as a result of the halting of the power plant and industrial activities also decreased utilization of vehicles, although such a short-term decline in emissions would not be a sustainable way for the protection of the environment since the outbreak of COVID-19 has occurred ( 123 ).

The social distancing guidelines and PPE were used by 62 and 23% of Tehran residents, respectively, during March and April. The recommended measures are currently followed by only 11% of the residents. Due to this, the only positive impact of COVID-19 on the environment has disappeared quickly, namely the reduced emissions of air pollutants ( 124 , 125 ).

After the outbreak of COVID-19 in Tehran, cities are prohibited from separating and recycling urban waste for districts 6, 21, and 22 of Tehran, a pilot source separation program was launched right before the COVID-19 pandemic, where people were instructed to store their waste in three sealed containers labeled with their names. Every other day, organic waste was collected, and every other or twice a week separated recyclable wastes were collected. To encourage residents to participate in the source separation program, WMOTM paid residents according to the weight of the collected recycled waste. COVID-19 also ended this pilot program. COVID-19 has not significantly changed Tehran’s waste collection procedure except for this pilot program ( 108 , 126 , 127 ).

It has now been declared that Tehran faces several environmental challenges related to COVID-19, like the raised utilization of particular vehicles versus public transportation, increased water utilization, and increased detergent loads in domestic wastewater. COVID-19 poses many environmental challenges in Tehran, but solid WM is particularly problematic ( 108 ). Tehran generates approximately one-fifth of all MSW in Iran, according to statistics ( 70 ).

2.3 Tehran’s MSW disposal during the COVID-19

Before the outbreak of COVID-19, they were separated, composted, incinerated, or landfilled. Tehran used to bury/landfill about 4,900 tonnes of its collected waste every day ( 62 ). Additionally, around 200 tonnes of the collected waste are burnt at Aradkouh every day. Nevertheless, the Aradkouh disposal center cannot burn hazardous wastes like hospital waste because the associated disposal costs will be significantly higher, and no authorized organization is willing to take on these expenses. There is an estimated 20–30-fold increase in incineration costs for medical wastes in China in comparison to urban wastes, mainly due to the need to modify therapy and CO 2 control systems planned for the standard of quality for general waste. According to WHO guidelines, healthcare waste should be treated at temperatures between 900 and 1,200°C when incinerated in Germany ( 128 ). Additionally, the Aradkouh composting facility was able to handle 3,500 tonnes per day at its nominal capacity. Since the COVID-19 outbreak, wastes in Tehran have been buried 34.7% more often ( 112 , 129 , 130 ).

3 Research gaps and motivation of research

We describe innovation in the following categories and fill some literature gaps:

• This investigation aimed to measure the environmental impact of COVID-19.

• Analyzed lockdowns and COVID-19 pandemics to develop an indicator.

• During the COVID-19 pandemic, the rapid impact assessment matrix approach was utilized to measure the effect of the project.

• To evaluate the study, we used a real-life case study.

• Both negative and positive effects were shown to have been caused by COVID-19.

4 Environmental impact assessment methodology

EIAs serve primarily as a tool for informing decision-makers about the environmental impacts of a project on people and the environment, as well as to minimize adverse effects resulting from a project or a phenomenon such as COVID-19, involving engineering and other limitations.

4.1 Rapid impact assessment matrix

To gain a SRN, we need to have methods and tools to measure the environmental impact (EI). The RIAM is a useful tool for the performance of an EIA. The impacts of COVID-19 are assessed on environmental components, and for each component, a score, which is a measure of the component’s expected impact, is determined. There are two groups of important evaluation criteria:

(A) Several criteria can have an impact on the final score, and that is relevant to the situation. (B) Scores should not be affected by factors that are relevant to the situation but are not capable of changing individually. There is a simple formula for determining the value assigned to each of these criteria groups. In these formulas, you can specify the weights of each component based on a defined set of criteria. To calculate the score, simply multiply the scores assigned to each of the criteria in group (A). To calculate the score of group (B), we add the scores of the value criteria. As a result, all values in group (B) are considered equally, regardless of their scores. To determine the final evaluation score (ES) for the condition, the sum of the scores of group (B) is multiplied by the result of group (A) scores.

Below is a description of the process:

A scale ranging from negative to positive values to zero can be used to assess the positive and negative impacts of group (A) criteria. Thus, zero is an “insignificant” or “unchanged” value. In group (A), zeros are used to separate unimportant or unchanged conditions with a single measure. In group (B) criteria, zero is avoided. A zero result for all criteria in group (B) will also result in a zero score for the ES. Despite the criteria for group (A) indicating an important condition, this condition can still occur. The “unchanged/insignificant” score is “1” in group (B) criteria to prevent this.

4.2 Assessment criteria

Instead of changes associated with SC projects, criteria should be determined for both groups based on basic situations that are possibly affected. Theoretically, some criteria could be defined, but two principles must always be met: As the criterion is universal, it can be used in a variety of EIAs. Whether a condition should be treated as being in a group (A) or group (B) will depend on the significance of the criterion. Table 1 shows the criteria for assessment. In this study, five criteria were used in the RIAM. These criteria, together with their suitable judgment scores are specific.

Table 1 . Criteria for assessment.

4.2.1 Environmental components

There are four categories of environmental components, which are as follows:

Physical/Chemical (PC): Environmental aspects that are physical and chemical.

Biological/Ecological (BE): Environment’s biological components.

Sociological/Cultural (SC): Environmental aspects related to humans.

Economic/Operational (EO): Impacts of environmental change on the economy.

4.2.2 Ranges

There are cells in the matrix that show which criteria were used when comparing the defined components to the criteria. Scores are set for each criterion within each cell. The formula above is used to calculate and record each ES number. For a more accurate rating system, ES values are grouped into comparable ranges (Scale) without claiming sensitivity. As a result of group (A) changes, these conditions are combined with the highest or lowest possible scores on group (B) criteria. The conditions are defined so that a range of ±5 can be created, and the boundaries of the bands in this range can be determined as follows ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . RIAM’s range of bands.

5 Case study

It was confirmed on 19 February 2020 that Iran had the first cases of COVID-19. The data for the assumed case study are used to assess the validity of the created environmental model and the functionality of the solution approach. The Company’s management provided the data. The results of the model were assessed in a real-life case study. By using the data for the considered real-life case study, the precision, and functionality of the proposed model can be assessed. At last, it should be noted that the proposed model is dependable and responsive. This case study emphasizes the impact of air pollution, noise pollution, and soil and water pollution. We used COVID-19 baseline data as a basis for developing matrix alternatives for each environmental component. Figure 3 shows the situation of the real case study.

Figure 3 . The map real case study in Iran ( 67 ).

6 Environmental components during the COVID-19

6.1 physical/chemical components.

• PC1: Reducing CO 2 emissions because of decreasing recovery activities.

• PC2: Reducing CO 2 emissions because of decreasing shipping activities.

• PC3: Increasing medical waste amount.

• PC4: Increasing PPE waste.

• PC5: Reducing noise pollution.

• PC6: Bad effects of COVID-19 on WM.

6.2 Biological/ecological components

• BE1: Protection of species of flora and fauna.

• BE2: Harmful effect on human health.

• BE3: Densification of the population is reduced.

6.3 Social/cultural components

• SC1: Outcomes of the modality for healthcare, prevention, and control of COVID-19.

• SC2: There are several job openings regarding COVID-19.

• SC3: COVID-19 damages caused an average number of lost days.

6.4 Economical/operational components

• EO1: The risk of infection limits manual sorting and recycling.

• EO2: Separation costs of COVID-19 waste and from normal waste.

• EO3: Hygienic costs.

The ES is calculated as follows:

(AT) × (BT) = ES

(Importance of condition) × (Magnitude of change/effect) = AT

(Permanence) + (Reversibility) + (Cumulative) = BT

PC1: A1 × A2 = 2 × (+2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 2 + 2 + 2, ES = +24

PC2: A1 × A2 = 2 × (+1), B1 + B2 + B3 = 2 + 2 + 2, ES = +12

PC3: A1 × A2 = 3 × (−1), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 1, ES = −18

PC4: A1 × A2 = 2 × (−1), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 1, ES = −12

PC5: A1 × A2 = 1 × (+2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 1, ES = +12

PC6: A1 × A2 = 2 × (−1), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 1, ES = −12

PC1 + PC2 + PC3 + PC4 + PC5 + PC6 ≥ 0

BE1: A1 × A2 = 2 × (+1), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 1, ES = +12

BE2: A1 × A2 = 4 × (−3), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 3 + 3, ES = −108

BE3: A1 × A2 = 4 × (+3), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 3, ES = +96

BE1 + BE2 + BE3 ≥ 0

SC1: A1 × A2 = 1 × (+2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 2 + 2, ES = +14

SC2: A1 × A2 = 3 × (+3), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 1 + 1, ES = + 45

SC3: A1 × A2 = 3 × (−2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 1 + 1, ES = − 30

SC1 + SC2 + SC3 ≥ 0

EO1: A1 × A2 = 4 × (+3), B1 + B2 + B3 = 3 + 3 + 3, ES = +108

EO2: A1 × A2 = 3 × (−2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 2 + 3 + 2, ES = −42

EO3: A1 × A2 = 3 × (−2), B1 + B2 + B3 = 2 + 3 + 2, ES = −42

EO1 + EO2 + EO3 ≥ 0

Figure 4 illustrates the RIAM results for the PC components. Figure 5 shows the RIAM results for the BE components. Figure 6 shows the RIAM results for the SC components. Figure 7 depicts the total results. Figure 8 illustrates RIAM results for the EO components. Figure 9 shows the RIAM results for the four components. Although COVID-19 has damaged our environment the most important of which has been the increase in infectious, hospital, and plastic waste, in general as you see in this real case all of the ES has been positive (≥ 0), and it is shown that RN has been sustainable and greener during the pandemic and lockdown periods. So this pandemic helps the environment to reconstruct ( Tables 3 , 4 ).

Figure 4 . RIAM results for the PC components.

Figure 5 . RIAM results for the BE components.

Figure 6 . RIAM results for the SC components.

Figure 7 . Total results.

Figure 8 . RIAM results for the EO components.

Figure 9 . RIAM results for the four components.

Table 3 . RIAM analysis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Table 4 . COVID-19 RIAM summary scores.

7 Conclusion and future recommendation

Based on the study’s findings, RIAM is an effective tool for decision-makers as it displays the results of different options and can produce transparent environmental solutions even with particularly complex scenarios. Data from different sectors can be examined within a typical matrix by common significant indicators, which provides a clear understanding of major impacts in a multi-disciplinary EIA. Assessors can rapidly record their judgments by following the discipline imposed by the matrix. Several scales are used to determine the value of a judgment, ensuring objectivity. Using a matrix with outlined components, it is possible to compare the with- and without-project conditions, compare different development options, and use “what if” scenarios when planning. Comparing alternative development strategies and options can be achieved through multiple matrices that identify the major positive and negative effects, show the interim and long-term effects, as well as display where mitigation can be implemented and reduce negative effects. It is important to note, however, that the initial step in a system is the definition of components, and these definitions are related to the specific conditions of the project. In specific stages in a project development process, RIAM can serve as an instrument for screening and also some methodologies for detailed impact assessment. EISs can be evaluated quickly and effectively using this system of checking with defined components. The RIAM is an ideal gadget for both Initial Environmental Evaluations (IEEs) and recording the findings of a full EIA. Due to its simple nature and the ability to use the matrix even when data is scarce. In this study, RIAM was found to be a highly effective tool for applying a consistent, transparent, and easily recordable assessment of the different components of an environmental impact assessment. Furthermore, with RIAM, strategies can be compared holistically to get a better understanding of what is most appropriate for the future. Further studies on other environmental projects should be conducted during COVID-19, such as waste disposal sites in Tehran. This study was carried out from the beginning of the epidemic to its end.

In this investigation, we focused on the environmental effects according to indicators such as the emission of CO 2 and other dangerous gases, and noise pollution. It has caused ecological restoration by reducing pressure in tourism destinations, protecting plant and animal species, reducing densely populated areas, and on the other hand, increasing medical waste and disposal of protective waste and infectious waste along the project in environmental dimensions in this issue. The total amount of bad environmental effects on the project in the state of coronavirus disease has decreased and improved. Also, the average amount of these effects in the coronavirus era has improved compared to normal conditions. This trend is logical because during the coronavirus era, due to the extensive quarantines of the mentioned items, including reducing the level of pollutants due to greenhouse gas emissions reduction and CO 2 release and the reduction of a loud environment, the damage to the environment has decreased.

Here is a succinct and precise answer to the query based on the search results that were found. According to the search results, the RIAM approach is a helpful resource for carrying out EIAs of different industrial and infrastructural projects, such as parks, landfills, and coal mining. Using a systematic evaluation process, the RIAM method assesses a project’s positive and negative environmental consequences across several components, including physical/chemical, biological/ecological, social/cultural, and economic/operational elements. This enables decision-makers to pinpoint the most important environmental effects and create effective mitigation plans. The RIAM technique has been successfully used in several studies to evaluate the environmental effects of projects under typical operating circumstances. Nevertheless, there is little information about the use of RIAM, particularly during disaster crisis.

An EIA would need to take into account any new environmental factors that the COVID-19 pandemic may have brought about, such as adjustments to resource usage, waste creation, or worker safety procedures. The RIAM technique would probably need to be modified to take these particular pandemic-related aspects into account to analyze environmental consequences during the epidemic in a comprehensive manner. In summary, the search results do not directly address how the RIAM technique may be used during the COVID-19 pandemic, even though it is a useful tool for environmental impact assessment. To comprehend the applicability and possible adjustments of RIAM for EIAs carried out in the context of the ongoing public health emergency, more investigation would be required.

Several suggestions can be made for future work. Including the use, of the other methods of evaluating the reset environment and comparing it with the method used in this paper. Increasing the scope of knowledge by examining the number of cities and geographical extent. Establishing other new indicators and expanding these indicators.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

SA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. UM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. HJ: Investigation, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. IA: Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. NK: Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. However, the article publication charges of this paper have been supported by UM of the Department of Operations Research, Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Nigeria via the frontiers Journal.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: environmental consequences, disaster situation, environmental management, real case study, sustainability

Citation: Abbasi S, Modibbo UM, Jafari Kolashlou H, Ali I and Kavousi N (2024) Environmental impact assessment with rapid impact assessment matrix method: during disaster conditions. Front. Appl. Math. Stat . 10:1344158. doi: 10.3389/fams.2024.1344158

Received: 25 November 2023; Accepted: 16 May 2024; Published: 05 June 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Abbasi, Modibbo, Jafari Kolashlou, Ali and Kavousi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Umar Muhammad Modibbo, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Environmental Impact Assessment of Kol-Dam Hydropower Project – A Case Study from Himachal Pradesh, India

Hukam Chand 1 * , K. S. Verma 2 and Tanvi Kapoor 1

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.11.1.21

The study was conducted during 2011 to investigate the impacts of Kol-dam construction on people and their overall economy. There was a loss of total land holding per family in the range of 33.07 to 64.46 per cent in 5 affected villages selected for the study. However in case of cultivated land there was a loss in the range of 36.15 to 67.36 per cent in 5 sampled villages. Submergence of land resulted in the loss of different trees (fodder, timber, fuel wood and fruit) from villages’ farmland in the range of 37.45 to 80.60 per cent in 5 affected village. There was a substantial decrease in the livestock population which ranged from 52.50 to 59.60 per cent. Construction of dam resulted in loss of assets to the extent of 33.33 to 45.45 percent in different villages. Overall there was a decrease in on-farm sectors (crop & livestock) ranged from 42.86 to 81.17 per cent whereas an increase in off- farm income (jobs and private business) ranges from 13.33 - 48.33 per cent has been observed from the affected villages. Hence it can be concluded that there was a loss of on-farm income resources like agriculture land and its associated resources i.e. important tree species and livestock. This might have serious impact on local biodiversity as well as on the life style of project affected families.

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Chand H, Verma K. S, Kapoor T. Environmental Impact Assessment of Kol-Dam Hydropower Project – A Case Study from Himachal Pradesh, India. Curr World Environ 2016;11(1) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.11.1.21

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Chand H, Verma K. S, Kapoor T. Environmental Impact Assessment of Kol-Dam Hydropower Project – A Case Study from Himachal Pradesh, India. Curr World Environ 2016;11(1). Available from: http://www.cwejournal.org/?p=13602

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Introduction Himachal Pradesh is endowed with hydroelectric potential of about 27436 MW on the five river basins namely Satluj, Ravi, Beas, Yamuna and Chenab.The basin wise potential are Satluj (13,332 MW), Beas (5,995 MW), Chenab (4,032 MW), Ravi (3,237MW) and Yamuna (840 MW) 1 . Although, hydroelectric projects provides opportunities for  economic development but also have the potential to adversely affect the livelihood and well-being of local as well as downstream communities in the area 2 .Construction ofsuch projects in this ecologically sensitive Himalayan state has threatened thelong term sustainability of the regional bio-diversity, carbon sink and moderate climate 3 . Construction of big dams leads to population displacement as well as change in land use pattern, socio-economic systems, agro-socio-forestry systems, and traditional ecological practices 4 . Hence studies on monitoring & determining the impact of hydropower projects on people and other resources existing on and around the sites of such projects are necessary for developing plans and policies to rejuvenate the degraded resources. The acquisition of private land along with setting up of the project has been resulted in changes of socio-economic aspects and lifestyle of the local people. Looking in to this, the present investigations have been attempted to study the impacts of Kol-dam hydropower project on local people and their overall economy. Materials and Methods Study Area Kol-Dam hydropower project is located between 31 0 21’54” to 31 0 05’13” N latitude and 76 0 51’31” to 77 0 23’51” E longitude on Satlujriver, in Himachal Pradesh. Itcoverssome partin Mandi and Bilaspur of the state. Sampling and Data Collection The study based upon the primary information collected through field survey by doing proportionate random sampling of villages. Multistage simple random sampling technique was used to select the study area Fig. 1. Finally five target villages were selected. 10 per cent households were selected randomly in each village and a pretested questioner was used as a tool for gathering the information on socio-economic aspects like loss of assets (residential structures, commercial structure, cattle shed); land holdings (cultivated area owned, pasture, uncultivated barren land & waste land); cropping pattern; livestock inventory; inventory of tree species on farm land; different sources of income including both on-farm & off-farm sources etc. Analytical Framework The primary data so collected during the study period were checked, scrutinized, coded, tabulated, analyzed, compiled and presented systematically by using simple tabular method. The results have been present by working out simple averages and percentages depending upon the requirement of the study.

Results and Discussion Land is the basic resource, which can be allocated for different farm and non-farm activities for maximization of household income depending upon its nature and type. Land inventory and its utilization pattern, before and after project implementation period in the sampled households have been analyzed and depicted in Table 1. The table revealed that there was a loss of total land holding per familyin the range of 33.07 to 64.46 per cent in affected villages. However in case of cultivated land there was a loss in the range of 36.15 to 67.36 per cent in sampled villages.In case of pasture, maximum loss of 60 per cent was in Kasol. It was recorded minimum (7.50 %) for village Jamthal. Similarly (Sharma 2006) 5 had also reported that 1600 hectare of cultivable land and 2000 hectare uncultivable pasture land occupied byTehri dam project in Garhwal Himalayas of Uttrakhand. Total area under crop was decreased in the range of 67.36 to 36.15 percent in affected villages (Table 2). In a similar study conducted by Katochet al 4 on impacts of NathpaJhakri project in Kinnaur and Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh they also reported that area under cultivation and current fallow had decreased by 5.82 and 42.78 per cent after the implementation of the project as compared to before project implementation. Similar impact had been reported by Adams,(1985) 6 due to Bakolori dam on Skoto river, where the cropped area decreased from 82 per cent to 53 per cent.Chau, K C 7 in his study “The Three Gorges project of China reported that this megaproject affected wholly or partly, 19 cities and counties, 238 km farmland, 50 km orange groves, as well as displacement of about 1, 1,31,800 people. Developmental projects like power projects have adverse effects on the ecology of a region and also one of the responsible factors for the extinction of land races of flora and fauna. The respondents of the study were enquired about their perceptions regarding the loss of tree species and their general view had been summarized in Table 3 and revealed that submergence of land resulted in the loss of trees (fodder, timber, fuel wood and fruit)from villages’ farmland in the range of 37.45 to 80.60 per cent in affected villages.It is evident from the tablethat maximum 83.24 per cent of timber tree population was lost in village Kasol followed by Harnora (46.74 %), Kyan (44.07 %),Ropa (37.45 %) and Jamthal (34.18 %).Execution of the project workhas accelerated extinction of flora as compared to before project implementation periods 4 .Similarly, the loss of trees due to hydropower project was also reported in project report; Environmental studies for Vishnugad hydro-electric project (Anonymous 2009) 8 total 6153 trees were lost due to project. As far as the total livestock per family is concerned, there was a substantial decrease in the livestock population which ranged from 52.50 to 59.60 per cent (Table 4).Construction of dam leads to the loss of fodder due to submergence of farmland, pasture/ghasni land which ultimately resulted in decrease in livestock population in each village. Dam also resulted in loss of assets i.e residential structure, commercial structure and cattle-sheds to the extent of 33.33 to 66.67 percent in different villages (Table 5). Total asset lost due to project was maximum (66.67) in Kyan followed by Kasol (45.45 %), Harnora (41.67 %), Ropa (38.46 %) and Jamthal (33.33 %). This was due to the fact that earlier villages were located nearest to the dam as well as at lowest altitude than the later one where large area was submerged.Overall there was a decrease in income ranged from 42.86 to 81.17 per cent from on-farm sectors (agricultural crop & livestock) and an increase in off farm (jobs and private business) income ranged from 13.33 - 48.33 per cent has been observed in the affected villages (Table 6).Vietnam Environment Sustainable Development Center (Anonymous 2000) 9 conducted a survey & estimated that before resettlement the income of people living in Yali reservoir area in Vietnam and reported that the average annual income of households from agricultural crop, livestock before resettlement was about 6.4 million Vietnam dollars which has decreased after resettlement to 3.5 million Vietnam dollars.

Conclusion It has been concluded from the present investigations that dam construction have resulted in loss of on-farm income sources like agriculture land, farm land trees and livestock population  as well as associated income of project affected families from these resources was also affected in the study area. Acknowledgement I am highly thankful to the Dean College of Forestry, Dr Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP).  Dr. S. D. Kashyap for providing all the necessary facility related to my research work and funds through college merit scholarship. I am also thankful to Dr. S.C. Verma for his guidance and support during the study. References  

• Sharma, H. K. and Rana,P. , Assessing the Impact of Hydroelectric Project construction on the Rivers of District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh in the Northwest Himalaya, India. International Research Journal of Social Sciences , 3(2); 21-25 (2014)
• Erlanger, T. E., Sayasone, S., Krieger, G. ,Kaul, Surinder, Sananikhom,Pany, Tanner, M., Odermatt, P. and Utzinger, J., Baseline Health Situation of Communities Affected by the Nam Theun 2 Hydroelectric Project in Central Lao PDR and Indicators for Monitoring. International Journal of Environmental Health Research ,18(3); 223-242 (2008) CrossRef
• Rajvanshi, Asha, Arora, Roshni, Mathur, Vinod B., Sivakumar, K. , Sathyakumar S., Rawat, G.S., Johnson, J.A., Ramesh, K., Dimri, NandKishor and Maletha, Ajay, Assessment of Cumulative Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects on Aquatic and Terrestrial Biodiversity in Alaknanda and Bhagirathi Basins, Uttarakhand. Wildlife Institute of India, Technical Report. 422p. (2012)
• Katoch,Anup, Guleria,Jagtar, Kumar, Ashok, Impact of NathpaJhakri Hydroelectric Power Project on the Environment and Livelihood in Kinnaur and Shimla Districts of Himachal Pradesh. Research Report:71, Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi. (2014)
• Sharma, R. C., Hydro-Energy Resources in Garhwal Himalaya. Environmental Challenges in Central Himalaya ,2;50-58 (2006)
• Adams, W. M., The downstream impacts of dam construction: a case study from Nigeria. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers N.S. 10;292-302 (1985)
• Chau, K. C., The Three Gorges Project of China: Resettlement Prospects and Problems. Ambio; 24(2);98-102 (1995)
• Anonymous, Environmental Studies for Vishnugad hydro-electric project. gov.in/writer addata, (2009).
• Anonymous, Vietnam Environment Sustainable Development Center (VNESDC), Study on Public Participation in Resettlement Plan related to Yali Hydropower project. With the support from National Research Program KHCN07,Oxfam Hong Kong, Oxfam Quebec& NOVIB. VNESDC, Hanoi, pp. 47-63 (2000)

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Comparative study of traditional and DNA-based methods for environmental impact assessment: A case study of marine aggregate extraction in the North Sea

Affiliations.

• 1 Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food - Aquatic Environment and Quality, Jacobsenstraat 1, 8400 Oostende, Belgium. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food - Aquatic Environment and Quality, Jacobsenstraat 1, 8400 Oostende, Belgium.
• 3 University of Ghent, Department of Data Analysis and Mathematical Modelling: Knowledge-based Systems Research Group, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
• 4 Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food - Aquatic Environment and Quality, Jacobsenstraat 1, 8400 Oostende, Belgium; University of Ghent, Department of Biology: Marine Biology Research Group, Krijgslaan 281, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
• PMID: 38908576
• DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174106

Environmental impact assessments of marine aggregate extraction are traditionally conducted based on morphological characteristics of macrobenthos, which is time-consuming, labour-intensive and requires specific taxonomic expert knowledge. Bulk DNA metabarcoding is suggested as a promising alternative. This study compares the traditional morphological and the bulk DNA metabarcoding method to assess the impact of sand extraction activities on three sandbanks in the Belgian North Sea. Substantial differences in the detected species were observed between methods: Abundant and/or large macrobenthos species were detected by both methods, while small species or species with an exoskeleton were usually only detected by the morphological method. Taxa uniquely detected by bulk DNA metabarcoding could be explained by specimens identified at a higher taxonomic level by morphology, or by specimens with very low read numbers, probably representing species missed in the morphological sorting process, DNA traces on the specimens or false positives during PCR amplification efficiency. Despite the difference in detected species, comparable alpha and beta diversity patterns were observed by both methods, indicating that bulk DNA metabarcoding can effectively detect the overall ecological changes associated with sand extraction. We further demonstrate that bulk DNA metabarcoding reduces sample processing both in time (44 % faster) and cost (26 % cheaper) compared to the morphology-based identification. However, biomass quantification remains challenging for bulk DNA metabarcoding since of the ten most abundant genera, only two genera (Echinocardium and Ophelia) showed a significant positive correlation between biomass and read numbers. Additionally, bulk DNA metabarcoding does not provide information on life stages or size of the identified specimens. As such, our results underpin the complementary nature of both methods, wherein DNA-based analyses allow for rapid detection of community changes (as similar patterns in alpha and beta diversity and biotic index were observed), while morphology-based analyses provide additional information on e.g. secondary production (biomass) and size composition. We show how the strengths of both methods can be combined to assess the impact of sand extraction.

Keywords: COI; Genetics; Macrobenthos; Metabarcoding; Monitoring, marine.

Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.

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The impact of desert regions on solar energy production with the evaluation of groundwater for maintenance: a case study in morocco.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. geographic context of the study area, 2.2. hydrological context, 2.2.1. water surfaces, 2.2.2. the gheris watershed, 2.2.3. the ziz watershed, 2.2.4. groundwater, 2.3. climatological context, 2.3.1. temperature, 2.3.2. relative humidity, 2.3.3. the wind, 2.3.4. solar irradiation, 2.4. environment matlab-simulink, 2.5. effect of scale deposits in dust on transmission, 2.6. impact of dust and limestone on solar irradiance, 2.7. moroccan drinking water treatment standard.

• All water intended for drinking, whatever the method of production and distribution Water used for the preparation, packaging, storage, and/or conservation of foodstuffs intended for the public [ 34 ].
• A number of thermal installations require cleaning and/or cooling with water, and photovoltaic panels in particular. This water must meet certain quality criteria to ensure that the photovoltaic panels function properly:
• Total dissolved solids (TDS) refer to the quantity of organic and inorganic sub-stances contained in a given liquid. They are after the standard (N.M. 03.7.001 ONSSA-MAROC). They are shown in Table 1 .
• Conductivity is the opposite of resistivity and refers to the ability of a material to let current through when a potential difference is applied.

2.8. Collects Ground Water for Cooling Purposes

3. results and discussion, 3.1. simulation parameter, 3.2. the effect of dust and limestone on the temperature of photovoltaic modules, 3.3. simulation result in matlab-simulink, 3.4. quality of water, 4. conclusions, 5. recommendations, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Ait Ali, A.; Ouhassan, Y.; Abouyaakoub, M.; Chahboun, M.; Hihi, H. The Impact of Desert Regions on Solar Energy Production with the Evaluation of Groundwater for Maintenance: A Case Study in Morocco. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 5476. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135476

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Thermoeconomic analysis and environmental impact assessment of the Akkuyu nuclear power plant

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• Published: 25 June 2024

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• Elvin Saylan 1 &
• Cemalettin Aygün   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6033-3558 2  

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Within the scope of this study, a thermoeconomic analysis was carried out for Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant (ANPP), the first nuclear power plant of Türkiye. As a result of the analysis, it is aimed to reduce the cost of energy production and prevent thermal pollution at the same time by converting the heat discharged into the environment into useful heat due to the working principle of NPP. Thermodynamic analysis was performed in the Engineering Equation Solver (EES) program using equipment values equivalent to ANPP. Cost analysis was performed using the specific exergy costing (SPECO) method, which is based on the second law of thermodynamics and is the most widely used cost analysis method. The study concludes that the energy efficiency is 35%, while the economic analysis shows that the best case has an exergy efficiency of 68% with a payback period of 7–8 years, and an electricity cost of $0.0196 per kWh. It is possible to use the heat discharged from the plant indirectly in district heating (heating, hot water needs of the lodgings, guesthouses in the facility), greenhouse heating, agricultural drying and heating, considering the geographical conditions and livelihood of the region. Thus, 68% of the waste heat was utilized, the unit cost of the energy produced was reduced and at the same time thermal pollution was reduced at the same rate. The results of the study can contribute to the efforts preventing energy waste, thermal environmental pollution, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, it could aid in the development of more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly power generation systems, including pioneering nuclear power plants in developing countries.

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Introduction

Due to rapid population growth and technological advancements, there is a pressing need to discover sustainable and long-term energy resources and use them efficiently. Furthermore, it is imperative to mitigate the escalating environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Waste heat is discharged into the environment from power plants that operate according to the thermodynamic cycle. This contributes to global warming, which is caused by many factors, including the effect of greenhouse gases and thermal environmental pollution.

The use of waste heat from power plants has gained attention in recent years due to its potential to increase energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions [ 1 ]. Waste heat is generated during the electricity generation process in power plants. If not properly managed, it is released into the environment, contributing to global warming. The literature research has identified several areas of use for waste heat, including district heating systems [ 2 , 3 , 67 ], greenhouses [ 4 ], industrial processes and process heating [ 3 ], thermal energy storage [ 5 , 6 ], seawater desalination [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ], cooling systems and cold storage [ 10 ], agriculture and aquaculture [ 3 ], direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical current [ 11 ], and generating electricity (ORC) [ 12 , 13 ]. This text will discuss recent studies on some important issues related to these areas.

Oyedepo and Fakeye [ 14 ] emphasize that the release of large quantities of low-temperature industrial waste heat into the environment is a serious problem, especially in developing countries. Waste heat can be difficult to identify and assess in terms of quantity and quality. Therefore, understanding the availability and recovery potential of waste heat offers the opportunity to reduce energy costs and minimize environmental impacts. The study states that the utilization of low-grade energy from waste heat sources can make a significant contribution to improving overall energy efficiency in energy-intensive industrial sectors. According to the results of the study, about 72% of global primary energy consumption is lost after conversion, 63% of the waste heat flows considered take place at temperatures below 100 °C, with electricity generation accounting for the largest share of these flows, followed by transport and manufacturing.

Theisinger et al. [ 15 ] performed modeling and simulation to evaluate the potential for the use of industrial waste heat in district heating systems. Considering the contributions of the industrial and building sectors to energy demand and CO 2 emissions, the potential for waste heat utilization and local emission reduction is examined. The customized modeling approach is able to simulate heterogeneous industrial heating and cooling systems and dynamic waste heat and energy demands. Simulation results show that up to 66% energy recovery and 39% CO 2 emission reductions are possible through the utilization of waste heat. Furthermore, integration with a district heating system can save up to 14% in operating costs.

Alkhaldi et al. [ 7 ] conducted an important study on desalination plants, which is one of the waste heat utilization areas mentioned above. This study examines the feasibility of integrating a low-temperature evaporation desalination plant and the APR1400 reactor. Waste steam outputs between 80 °C and 130 °C were evaluated, and energy requirements and water production costs were analyzed. Findings showed small decreases in operational efficiency and increases in water production capacity. While the use of multiple outputs keeps the power degradation rate low, cost analysis has revealed competitive prices. The research highlights the importance of integrating nuclear energy and desalination for sustainable water production.

Almomani et al. [ 8 ] in this study examines how electricity and purified water production can be increased through the integration of solar chimney power plants with nuclear power plants in Jordan. The study suggests that this integration can significantly improve the performance and water purification capacity of solar chimney power plants, thus contributing to the sustainable use of energy and water resources. It is also argued that this approach could be particularly useful for countries with high solar energy potential but limited freshwater resources, such as Jordan. It demonstrates the potential of this innovative solution to optimize the excess heat produced by a nuclear power plant and revolutionize the energy industry.

Common sources of waste heat that can be used in greenhouse farming and agriculture drying include power plants producing electricity [ 9 ], industrial processes such as petrochemical, metal processing, and furnaces [ 1 , 9 ], steel production [ 1 , 16 ], oil refineries [ 9 , 17 ], and industrial furnaces and ovens [ 14 ]. In the literature, there are studies on the use of waste heat released from many different sources in the field of greenhouse farming, and one of the interesting studies was conducted by Chen et al. [ 4 ]. This study addresses the use of waste heat generated in data centers in ecological farms. However, there is a lack of research on the use of waste heat from nuclear power plants.

In their study, Jouhra et al. [ 16 ] comprehensively reviewed various waste heat recovery technologies and applications to prevent the disposal of unused energy generated in industrial processes into the environment. The study reviews current practices and procedures, evaluating heat recovery opportunities for energy optimization in the iron and steel, food and ceramic industries. Investigations were conducted on the operation and performance of commonly used technologies including recuperators, regenerators, passive air preheaters, regenerative and recuperative burners, plate heat exchangers and economizers, as well as waste heat boilers and recirculating coil (RAC) units. It had also determined that it is possible to recover waste heat with potential energy content such as direct contact condensate recovery, indirect contact condensate recovery, transport membrane condensation and heat pumps, heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs), heat pipe systems, Organic Rankine cycles, and Kalina cycle. Techniques such as the use of gain and change units are discussed [ 16 ]. It is seen that the techniques mentioned in this study can also be used for nuclear power plants.

Although historically fossil fuels have been the main heat source, it is not difficult to find Rankine cycles in which the heat source is the combustion of a nuclear fuel, of biomass or even the result of concentrating solar power [ 13 ]. The ideal Rankine cycle for nuclear power plants and the organic ideal Rankine cycle play an important role for efficient conversion of thermal energy and generation of electrical power. The ideal Rankine cycle works by utilizing steam and is widely preferred for converting high-temperature heat in nuclear reactors into electrical energy. The organic ideal Rankin cycle uses organic working fluids and operates at low temperatures and pressures, improving thermal efficiency. Both the ideal Rankin cycle and the organic ideal Rankin cycle help to make more efficient use of thermal energy resources in nuclear power plants, while contributing to minimizing environmental impacts [ 18 ]. Although historically fossil fuels have been the main heat source, it is not difficult to find Rankine cycles in which the heat source is the combustion of a nuclear fuel, of biomass or even the result of concentrating solar power [ 13 ]. Although there are many publications on the subject, a few studies that are relevant to our study will be presented here.

Meana-Fernández et al. [ 13 ] discussed the evolution toward sustainability and environmentally friendly technologies in power generation processes. The study highlights the importance of transitioning from traditional steam and gas turbine cycles to the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC), Kalina Cycle and other innovative cycles that are more efficient and have less impact on the environment. While discussing the potential of these new cycles in energy production from low-temperature sources and their role in waste heat recovery, they also examine the challenges faced by these technologies and their future development paths. It reveals the critical role of these technologies in achieving the energy sector's goals of reducing carbon footprint and increasing energy efficiency. They also stated that for a typical Rankine cycle, efficiencies between 34 and 38% could be achieved.

Mahmoud et al. [ 18 ] conducted thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analyses, as well as performance evaluation of a novel configuration of a combined cooling and power generation system. The research suggests integrating gas turbine cycle, steam Rankine cycle, and combined organic Rankine cycle-vapor compression refrigeration (ORC-VCR) systems to achieve high efficiency from technical, economic, and environmental perspectives. The system was simulated and analyzed in terms of energy, exergy, and exergoeconomic models. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis was performed to better understand the impact of design parameters on the overall system performance. Based on a parametric study, it was noted that R602 exhibited advantageous features in the ORC-VCR subsystem, demonstrating higher thermal efficiency and improved exergetic efficiency. Overall, the analyses indicate that the proposed integrated system achieves total energy and exergy efficiencies of 46.1% and 40.57%, respectively. Furthermore, the overall configuration is shown to provide a net output power of 3810 kW and a cooling load of 303.8 kW. Exergoeconomic evaluation reveals an exergy cost of 49.84 ($ GJ −1 ) and an exergy cost rate of 826.4 (h −1 ).

Mohammadi et al. [ 19 ] carried out exergy and economic analyses of replacing feed water heaters in the [ 19 ] Rankine cycle with parabolic trough collectors. It was carried out on a Rankine cycle with integrated solar energy, and a thermal storage system was added to the cycle, enabling it to operate for 24 h. They determined that the total power production of the system increased by 8.14% compared to the base case. They revealed that the boiler had the highest rate of exergy destruction. The payback period of the proposed system is calculated as 1.5 years.

In their study, Arman and Fathollaf [ 20 ] examine advanced exergy and advanced exergoeconomic analyses of a partial heating supercritical CO 2 power cycle for waste heat recovery. The research is conducted to better understand the true potential of improving both the thermodynamic and economic performance of each system component, as well as the simultaneous interactions between system components. According to the technological constraints within the system, they demonstrate that the maximum exergy efficiency achievable is 59.8%, with 38.4% (926.9 kW) of the total exergy destruction in the system and 46.18% (32.52 $ h −1 ) of the total exergy destruction cost being avoidable. They find that 97.8% of the system's total cost belongs to the endogenous part, indicating minimal cost resulting from interaction among components. While the turbine and compressor exhibit the most significant potential for cost savings, heaters are identified to have the lowest potential.

Today, approximately 80% of electrical energy is provided from nuclear energy and fossil-based fuels. In recent years, Nuclear Power Plants are an important potential for energy production [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Fission reactors, which are used in nuclear power plants, contribute approximately 10% of the world's total electricity [ 24 ].

Nuclear Power Plants are power plants where reactions that separate (fission) or combine (fusion—in development) atomic particles take place as an energy source. These plants operate according to the steam power cycle (Rankine cycle) [ 3 ]. It is expected to obtain the highest amount of energy from the fuel used [ 23 ]. However, it is impossible to convert all of the energy obtained from the fuel into mechanical energy. While the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy takes place, some of the energy is released to the environment as waste heat due to the steam cycle [ 25 ]. This situation causes thermal pollution of the environment [ 12 , 26 ]. The more efficient use of waste heat to reduce thermal pollution is limited by exergy. At exergy limits, energy transformations take place. Energy production, conversion systems and the equipment that make up the systems are evaluated according to exergy. The analysis method performed in this way is called exergy analysis. With exergy analysis, losses occurring in systems due to irreversibilitys are determined and the improvements to be made in the system are determined. Only establishing the exergy balances and determining the losses is not sufficient in the energy planning of the facilities. In order to complete the analysis, the system must also be analyzed economically [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. In this context, thermoeconomic analysis studies become a necessity. This analysis is a solution that takes into account the costs of the power plant based on the second law of thermodynamics [ 22 ].

Regarding the cost and investment period, the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority has stated that the construction period of nuclear power plants in the world is on average 6–7 years after the first concrete is poured, and when the entire project period is considered, this period can be around 10–12 years [ 30 , 31 ].

Regarding the last reactors to be commissioned in the world and their construction times, it was reported that the Rostov-2 plant in Russia took 9 years to be built, the Rajastan-5 and 6 plants in India took 7 years each, Lingao-3 in China took 5 years, Qinshan-2 and 3 took 4.5 years, and the Tomari-3 plant in Japan took 4.5 years to be commissioned [ 32 ]. In explanations regarding the project cost, many parameters such as reactor type, power, location, credit conditions, legal and institutional conditions have an impact on the cost [ 33 ]. Moreover, nuclear reactors are energy facilities with high initial investment costs but low operating and fuel costs. Considering all factors rather than the direct cost of the reactor, it is important that the cost of electricity produced is comparable and competitive with other types of energy [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].

Terzi et al. [ 37 ] conducted a study to calculate the energy and exergy losses of each reactor component of the VVER-1000 type Nuclear Power Plant and determine the equipment with the highest losses. The condenser was found to have the highest energy loss, while the irreversibility and irreversibility reactors had the largest exergy loss according to the exergy analysis, followed by the steam generator and turbine. The VVER-1000 nuclear power plant has a thermodynamic efficiency of approximately 30%. The turbines experience an exergy loss of about 6%. The reactor pressure vessels and steam generator have irreversibility of 49% and 13%, respectively.

In studies related to cost evaluations with thermoeconomic analysis, Coşkun et al. [ 38 ] worked on Thermoeconomic Optimization of Cogeneration Plants. Energy and exergy analyses were performed in each unit of Aliağa Gas Turbines and Combined Cycle Power Plant using the first and second law of thermodynamics and EES package program. As a result of the analysis, the first and second law efficiencies of the power plant were determined as 32.8% and 43.4%, respectively. It is concluded that the highest exergy losses are in the combustion chamber, heat boiler and condenser units, and by reducing the exergy losses, the efficiency will increase and energy costs and harmful emissions to the environment will decrease.

Tozlu, Özahi and Abuşoğlu [ 39 ] realized a model of the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) adopting a gas turbine cycle using CO 2 (S-CO 2 ). They used Aspen Plus and EES package programs. As a result of the thermodynamic analysis, they evaluated the electricity generation capacity, energy, and exergy efficiency of the proposed system, respectively. For the thermoeconomic analysis of the system, they applied the specific exergy costing method (SPECO), which is widely used among second law-based methods. As a result, the electricity generation capacity of the system is 1530.88 kW, the energy and exergy efficiencies are evaluated as 23.30% and 59.60%, respectively, the unit cost of 1 kWh electricity generation is 7.28 ¢, the annual return is $ 741,146 and the payback period is calculated as 4.09 years. Similarly, Yılmaz and Kanoğlu [ 40 ], in the thermodynamic and thermoeconomic analysis of the geothermal assisted hydrogen liquefaction cycle, firstly thermodynamic analysis was performed and then SPECO analysis, which is a specific exergy cost analysis method, was used. As a result of the thermoeconomic analysis, they calculated the unit exergetic cost of electricity generated from the geothermal power plant and the unit exergetic cost of liquefied hydrogen. According to the results of the analysis, energy efficiency increased by 23.31% and exergy efficiency by 28.19%, net output power was 2726 kW and hydrogen production rate was 0.07453 kgs -1 .

Mert [ 41 ] studied that as a result of process and operational improvements that can be made on the basis of energy and exergy analysis at Erdemir, a large amount of energy can be saved by using it efficiently, thus energy costs can be greatly reduced and emissions to the environment can be minimized.

Ünsal [ 42 ] created a simplified thermodynamic analysis model of CANDU 6 Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) in Cycle-Tempo 5.0 thermodynamic analysis program. With the model, exergy destruction and losses of the equipment in the plant were determined by using the thermodynamic analysis method. The calculated thermodynamic efficiency and irreversibility of the CANDU-6 system were approximately 31% and 54%, respectively. It is concluded that significant increases in power generation, total plant efficiency and reduction of electricity generation cost can be achieved by obtaining superheated steam with fossil fuel in NPPs.

Altunbaş [ 43 ] carried out an energy and exergy analysis of a lignite-fired thermal power plant located in Afşin-Elbistan region. In the study, the exergy losses of the system equipment and the system were calculated by determining the nodal points with the design values of the power plant and using the thermodynamic values of the fluids belonging to these nodal points. The study calculated the power plant's thermal efficiency as 35.7% and found the second law efficiency to be 58.29%. Based on these calculations, recommendations were made for system improvements and the recovery of inert steam.

Recovering unused waste heat energy below 100 °C can be a challenging task, despite investing in energy-retrieving technology. Various technologies can be used to recover low-temperature waste heat (LTWH) efficiently. However, it is crucial in several process industries and domestic applications [ 25 ].

Du et al. (2021) conducted a thermoeconomic analysis and optimized the intermediate pressure ratio for supercritical CO 2 multi-stage re-pressurization in nuclear power plants. The research confirmed the existence of the optimal number of re-pressurization stages and the tendency of thermoeconomic parameters to balance. The distribution of the optimal pressure ratio increased the efficiency of the first cycle system from 46.89% to 48.07% and decreased the levelized cost of electricity from 57.40 MWh -1 to 55.87 MWh -1 [ 44 ].

Kindi et al. (2022) examine the thermoeconomic evaluation of flexible nuclear power plants and the role of thermal energy storage in low-carbon electricity systems. The analyzed configuration allows the plant to generate 2130 MW el during peak load, which corresponds to a 32% increase in its nominal rated power. Replacing the flexible nuclear plant configuration offers system cost savings, with benefits ranging from £24.3 myr -1 to £88.9 myr -1 [ 45 ].

Valencia-Ortega et al. (2023) examine the effects of thermoeconomic optimization on the price-demand balance for electricity generation. The thermoeconomic analysis determines the effects of heat transport parameters and intrinsic irreversibilities on the trade-off for asset turnover efficiency and returns to scale. The cost-output elasticity of different operating regimes is measured, and it is concluded that these regimes can be used as classification mechanisms to control the balance between price and demand, which is balanced by price-demand elasticity [ 46 ].

Ebadi et al. (2021) simulated a combined steam Rankine and organic Rankine cycle as the primary mover of the Allam generation cycle. The combined cycle is configured so that the high temperature waste heat is first used as the evaporator of the steam cycle and the waste heat from the vapor cycle evaporator is used as the low-temperature evaporator of the organic cycle. The study showed that the energy efficiency of the combined cycle is 57% and the exergy efficiency is 66%, the output work is 150,125 kW and the total irreversibility is 91,237 kW [ 47 ].

Carlson and Davidson (2020) examined the use of thermal energy storage (TES) to increase the operational flexibility of a baseload power plant and thereby promote renewable energy and decarbonize the grid. The four storage options are distinguished by where in the cycle the steam is routed for charging and whether the TES is discharged via the primary or secondary Rankine cycle. TES is compared with an alternative, steam bypass, to provide baseload flexibility. TES is significantly better than steam bypass and the storage option with the greatest thermodynamic benefit is charged by routing superheated steam from the moisture separator/heater outlet to charge the TES. The TES is discharged for peak power through an optimized secondary cycle. TES can increase the capacity factor by up to 15% compared to steam bypass at representative charge mass flow rates [ 48 ].

When the literature is examined, it is seen that various academic studies have been conducted on thermoeconomic analysis of nuclear power plants, cost evaluations, reliability analysis, political relations, and waste management. In this study, unlike the literature, a thermoeconomic analysis was conducted for Akkuyu NPP, which was signed between Turkey and Russia on July 15, 2010, within the scope of facility and operation cooperation, which is Turkey's first nuclear power plant, with four reactors of equivalent capacity, with a total power of 4800 MW and designed to generate an average of 35 billion kWh of electricity per year with full capacity operation. Depending on the results of the analysis, it has been analyzed to reduce the cost of energy production and prevent thermal pollution by indirectly recovering the heat discharged to the environment in accordance with the working principle of Nuclear Power Plants and using it for heating, hot water needs (district heating), greenhouse heating, agricultural heating and drying, taking into account the geographical conditions and livelihood of the region. In addition, the literature research shows that instead of using expensive waste heat recovery technologies [ 6 ] (such as Organic Rankine cycle, Kalina cycle), regional needs can be determined, and waste heat can be used cheaply and efficiently as we have shown in our study. This study enables the utilization of waste heat in accordance with regional conditions without requiring new technological investments. Furthermore, the waste heat from nuclear power plants established in regions with similar climatic conditions to Mersin Akkuyu will play an important role in drying greenhouse and agricultural products.

The utilization areas of the heat discharged from the condenser in the Akkuyu NPP cycle are presented in Fig.  1 .

The cycle and waste heat utilization areas of the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant. The Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant's cycle and waste heat utilization areas

Materials and methods

In Nuclear Power Plants, Uranium ore, which is the raw material of nuclear energy, is extracted from uranium ore containing U-235 isotope with less than 1% purity. After this process, enrichment of the U-235 isotope in the composition of the ore is carried out to increase the concentration of U-235 from 3 to 5%, which ensures the chain reaction [ 49 , 53 ]. The uranium fuel enriched is reacted in the Nuclear Reactor and the coolant released as a result of the reaction is used as a decelerator. The water used in this feature is called light water [ 50 ]. This type of reactors where light water is used as both moderator and coolant are considered to be among the safest reactors in the world. For this reason, the use of light water is accepted in all calculations [ 54 ]. Akkuyu NPP has four VVER-1200/509 (AE-2006) type reactors, each capable of producing 1200 MW. The steam generator PGV-1000MK, horizontal type, uses a single core recovery heat exchanger and steel 08X18H10T Y material. K-1000–60/3000 is designed as a condensing type of steam turbine, single shaft, five cylinders (2 LPC + HPC LPC), separation and steam superheating. GCNA -1391, a hydraulic casing, pump with internals, electric motor, upper and lower spacers, supports, and auxiliary systems are used [ 16 , 51 , 52 ].

The VVER-1200/509 (AE-2006) type reactors at Akkuyu NPP are upgraded versions of VVER-1000 type reactors. They have a higher power capacity, longer operational life, and enhanced safety features, and were designed and built in accordance with modern safety standards [ 21 , 55 ]. The reactors have an electricity generation capacity of 1200 MWe, a design life of up to 60 years, and can operate with an efficiency of up to 36% [ 55 ]. Furthermore, these reactors are specifically designed to meet load-following conditions and can achieve a high load factor of 90% [ 7 ].

First of all, besides the similar characteristics of VVER-1200/509 type reactors, reactors located in different geographical regions need to comply with local regulations and standards. For example, there are VVER-1200 type reactors in Russia, China and Belarus. These reactors are similar in terms of design features and safety standards [ 56 ].

Similar VVER-1200 type reactors are also located at various facilities around the world, such as the Novovoronezh and Leningrad Nuclear Power Plants in Russia. These reactors were built as part of the AES-2006 design, based on the principle of ensuring safety for personnel, the public and the environment. The AES-2006 design was developed taking into account international standards, including IAEA and European Utility Requirements (EUR) [ 57 ].

VVER-1200 type reactors are equipped with features such as passive safety systems, advanced control and monitoring systems and a range of engineering and organizational measures designed to prevent accidents. These reactors include a comprehensive application of the depth of defense principle to enhance the safety of nuclear power plants [ 57 ].

In conclusion, the VVER-1200/509 (AE-2006) type reactors at Akkuyu NPP are known for their high safety standards, long lifespan, and efficiency compared to similar reactors worldwide. These reactors are designed to ensure the safe and efficient use of nuclear energy, making them a preferred technology in other nuclear power plants around the world [ 7 , 57 ].

A simplified VVER reactor is shown in Fig.  1 . As can be seen from this figure, the VVER design is very similar to the PWR design. The reactor system consists of two circulation loops: the primary loop, which carries coolant through the reactor core, and the steam generators, which typically operate in a once-through manner. VVERs consist of the reactor pressure vessel, primary coolant pumps, steam generators, pressurizer, and associated piping systems.

Heat energy is generated in the fuel zone in the reactor pressure vessel. After the coolant under pressure (16.2 MPa for VVER-1200 s) is heated in the reactor heart, it leaves the pressure vessel and goes to the steam generator. The steam generator transfers the heat energy from the first cycle to the second cycle (feedwater). The cooling water then leaves the steam generator and is returned to the reactor heart with the help of a pump. (As follows: 1- reactor heart, 2- cooling water pipes, 3- main cooling water pumps, 4- steam generators, 5- emergency safety system water accumulators, 6- pressurizers).

Akkuyu Power Unit is equipped with a safety system to minimize accidents and/or possible consequences of the project. The Power Unit consists of two cycles: the reactor island and the turbine island (see Fig.  1 ). The first (main) cycle is radioactive and includes the reactor, four main recirculation systems, four main recirculation pumps, four steam generators and a pressurizer. The thermal energy transferred to the water washing the reactor island is released. The water is heated up to approximately 328 °C. It remains liquid because it is under high pressure. The water in the reactors is delivered to the steam generator (see Fig.  1 ). The thermal energy from the primary cycle is transferred to the secondary cycle [ 16 , 50 ].

The second cycle of the Power Unit, shown in Fig.  2 , is non-radioactive. This section includes feed pumps, water recleaning system, high pressure heaters, steam generator, steam outlet, fresh steam line, condenser pumps, low pressure cleaning heater system, condenser system, degassing system, feed water system, turbine and turbine steam cleaning system. There is also a compressor unit in the turbine, feed water cleaning heating system, water-steam separators-steam heaters and steam unloading plant, additional heated water intake system which is not continuous for its own needs and chemically treated to the cycle [ 53 ].

Akkuyu NPP Second Cycle FlowChart

Since the water is under lower pressure here, boiling occurs and enters the turbine in the vapor phase. The wet steam coming out of the turbine is transferred to the condenser under equal pressure. The waste heat discharged from the condenser is given to the environment. Waste heat constitutes 66% of the plant cycle and 33% is converted into electrical energy [ 58 ]. In order to convert waste heat into process heat, specific exergy cost analysis (SPECO) and Engineering Equation Solver (EES) program are used with Akkuyu NPP equivalent plant data according to the Ideal Rankine Cycle.

According to the Specific Exergy Costing (SPECO) approach, fuels and products are systematically defined by accounting for exergy additions and losses for each material and energy flow. This method consists of three main steps: (1) defining exergy flows, (2) identifying fuels and products for each system component, and (3) cost balance equations. This method has been extensively and successfully utilized by researchers in the field of thermo-economics and applied to thermal systems. Additionally, SPECO is considered the most realistic and applicable approach to thermal systems, allowing for easy and rapid results. This approach is more flexible compared to others, enabling engineers to actively participate in the cost determination process and yielding results closer to expected values. It is the simplest and most general approach among exergoeconomic methods. [ 59 ]

Thermodynamic data of the plant were prepared in accordance with the State Program for environmental safety, including IEA-TECDOC-1391, published in 2004. Equivalent equipment values of the reactor plant V-392, V392 and Belene NPP in Bulgaria based on the AES-92 evolutionary NPP design were used [ 60 ]. The reference environmental conditions for Akkuyu NPP are selected as 25 °C temperature and 1 bar pressure. Engineering Equation Solver (EES) program was used for thermodynamic calculations. In the non-radioactive secondary cycle of the Akkuyu NPP, flow numbering has been done for each equipment. The evaporator between flow points 1–4, shown in Fig.  2 , is designated as the starting equipment. For the temperature characteristics at the inlet and outlet flow points of the evaporator, the isentropic turbine between flow points 1–2 and the co-pressurized condenser between flow points 2–3, the temperature value was determined in line with the literature research, aiming to maximize the heat discharged from the plant [ 54 ].

The thermodynamic analyses for Akkuyu NPP were performed using the assumptions given below and the relevant equations in Table  1 (see Eq. 1–20). Thermodynamic analysis solution steps can be found in the related literatures [ 55 , 61 ].

Assumptions

In the thermoeconomic analysis solution steps of the plant, initial investment cost, fuel cost, operation and maintenance costs, discount rate, thermoeconomic factor, relative cost difference, exergy destruction costs, exergy destruction, product and fuel exergy were calculated for each equipment. All these calculations were performed using the relevant equations given in Table  2 (Eq. 21–22).

The data in Tables 3 , 4 and 5 were used for the thermoeconomic solution steps. The energy and exergy equations used in the equipment inputs and outputs of the plant are presented in Table  3 .

The equations used to calculate the product and fuel exergies of the equipment are given in Table  4 .

Table 5 presents the exergy-related cost balance equations and unit exergy cost equivalents of the plant equipment.

Equation 9 was used to determine the amount of heat entering the system from the evaporator located between points 1 and 4.

Equation 25 was used to calculate the amount of heat rejected to the environment, i.e., the amount of waste heat from the condenser located between points 2 and 3.

When comparing the incoming and outgoing heat quantities in the power plant, 32% of the heat is utilized, while 68% is released as waste heat to the environment.

Equation 5 was used to find the net amount of work produced by the turbine located between points 1 and 2.

The work of the pump between points 3 and 4 was calculated using Eq. 6. There is no heat exchange in the pump. Kinetic and potential energies in the system were neglected.

The amount of heat entering the evaporator was calculated using Eq. 3.

The amount of heat released from the evaporator was calculated using Eq. 15.

Equation 5 was used to calculate the amount of work output from the turbine.

Equation 20 was used to calculate the amount of work input to the pump.

Equation 7 was used to calculate the net amount of work produced in the power plant.

Equation 11 was used to calculate the net amount of power generated in the power plant.

Equation 16 was used to calculate the efficiency of the evaporator, which is located between points 1 and 4.

Equation 16 was used to calculate the efficiency of the turbine, which is located between points 1 and 2.

Equation 16 was used to find the efficiency of the condenser located between points 2 and 3.

Equation 16 was used to find the efficiency of the pump located between points 3 and 4.

Equation 16 was used to calculate the energy efficiency of the power plant.

To calculate the exergy efficiency of the power plant, Eq. 14 was first used to find the exergy heat, and then Eq. 18 was used to calculate the exergy efficiency of the power plant.

Monthly consumption amounts per dwelling for heating and hot water use were requested from the natural gas distribution company serving, through an official letter, in the province where the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is located (Mersin). Consumption data is provided in standard cubic meters and converted to kWh and presented in Fig.  3 and 4 [ 62 ].

The monthly average amount of natural gas per residence for heating purposes for Mersin [ 62 ]

Monthly average amount of natural gas per house for hot water use in Mersin [ 62 ]

The average household in Mersin province uses natural gas for both heating and hot water, with the consumption presented in sm 3 and kWh on a monthly basis in Figs. 3 and 4 , respectively. Total consumption amounts for heating data shown in Fig.  3 are 739 sm 3 and 7783 kWh . Similarly for the hot water data shown in Fig.  4 , the total consumption amounts are 193 sm 3 and 2057 kWh .

Greenhouse indoor temperature values were selected as 16 °C day and night and 25 °C ventilation starting temperature. Calculations were made for tomato plants and for the growing period from October 01 to March 31. A steel pipe heating system placed close to the floor was selected as the heating system and the water inlet temperature was set to 90 °C and the outlet temperature was set to 70 °C. Three different greenhouse characteristics used in the study of a province in the Mediterranean climate zone were taken as an example for Mersin. The calculation for the greenhouse types suitable for the regional conditions was determined using Table  6 [ 63 ]. The greenhouse types given in Table  6 are classified as Type-1, 2 and 3 according to the covering materials used in the greenhouses [ 63 ].

Çaylı and Temizkan [ 63 ], in their literature study, calculated that the type of greenhouse with the highest heat requirement is Type-1 without heat curtain and if heat curtain is used, 34%, 32% and 31% heat can be saved in Type-1, Type-2 and Type-3 greenhouses, respectively. For this reason, the calculated values are given in Table  7 in order to compare the heat requirements of some provinces in the Mediterranean climate zone for the Type-1 greenhouse with a day/night temperature of 16 °C and a ventilation temperature of 25 °C.

The average per capita electricity consumption ( kWh ) for Mersin province is shown in Fig.  5 , according to statistical information from the official website of the Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK) [ 64 ]. The data were compared with the sector report of Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ). The values were found to be the same on average.

Electricity consumption per capita in Mersin [ 64 ]

According to the pre-feasibility study report of the fruit and vegetable drying facility, the amount of power drawn from the grid by the machinery and equipment used in the production process is around 20 kW. According to the results of the "Cold Storage with Renewable Energy Sources" feasibility study prepared by Aydın Commodity Exchange for the Development Bank, it is assumed that 100 square meters of cold storage will draw 100,000 kWh of energy annually [ 65 ]. Fruit and Vegetable Drying Plant Electricity Expenses are given in Table  8 . Using these data, the agricultural drying values presented in Tables 16 and 17 were calculated.

Investment costs are shown in Table  9 The economic lifespan of the facility is determined as minimum 20 years, as indicated in Table  9 [ 66 ], with operating hours calculated at 8040 h based on total working hours of 8760 h when operating at full capacity. The difference of 720 h is the time allocated for periodic maintenance of the system [ 39 ].

Using this table, Eq.  23 was used for the annual capital investment, Eq. 24 for the maintenance/repair cost and Eq. 25 for the total annual capital investment of each equipment in the plant. The discount rate of Akkuyu NPP was determined as 10% [ 66 ]. The calculation steps for annual capital investment, maintenance/repair cost and total annual capital investment for the evaporator are shown as an example.

Result and discussion

Exergy analysis was carried out with the help of thermodynamic equations using equipment values equivalent to the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant operating according to the real steam power cycle. Specific exergy costing (SPECO) method, which is the most widely used cost analysis method based on the second law of thermodynamics, was used to calculate exergy-related product, fuel costs, relative cost difference, performance evaluation variable, exergy destruction costs and total investment costs. With the tabular data generated as a result of the analysis, heat discharged from the plant, heat entering the plant, electricity generation cost, annual profit amount and depreciation period were determined.

The values calculated for the six points using the equations (see Eq. 1–20) given in Table  1 are presented in Table  10 .

Based on the first and second law of thermodynamics, energy equations were calculated using Eq. 12 and exergy equations were calculated using Eq. 13 with the data in Table  10 . The values obtained are presented in Table  11 and Fig.  6 .

Energy and Exergy values and fractions

The detailed energy and exergy balances for six points (see Fig.  2 ) are shown in Table  11 and Fig.  6 . There is a notable difference in the energy and exergy balances represented. These ratios show the difference between energy and exergy analysis. Exergy analysis reveals the causes of process inefficiency more thoroughly than energy analysis. According to [ 68 ], there was a similar finding reported. In the first cycle, it is observed that points 5 and 6 have the highest energy and exergy values. This can be attributed to the relatively small temperature difference between these two points (see Table  11 ). In the second cycle, it is observed that the highest energy and exergy ratio is associated with flow region number 1. These figures also demonstrate the difference between energy and exergy analysis [ 43 , 68 ].

Product and fuel exergy were calculated using the equations given in Table  4 and exergy destruction was calculated using Eq. 29. The heat transfer rates, work, specific flow exergy, exergy destruction, products, exergetic efficiency values obtained as a result of all these calculations are presented in Table  12 .

According to Table  12 and Fig.  7 , the energy and exergy efficiencies of the plant are calculated as 35% and 68%, respectively. It is seen that the equipment with the highest exergy destruction in the system is the evaporator. It is lower exergy efficiency when compared to other sub-components in the power plant due to their high exergy destructions. This can be explained by the temperature and phase difference of the flows entering and leaving the evaporator. The energy efficiencies of the equipment were calculated as 35.34% for the evaporator, 98% for the turbine, 54.66% for the condenser and 70.44% for the pump. This energy efficiency value is within the range of the values provided in [ 13 ], and the exergy efficiency value is in concordance with the values provided in [ 39 ]. When we look at the evaporator and condenser in the plant, it is seen that they have lower energy efficiency than the other equipment.

Exergy destruction and Exergy efficiency of the Akkuyu Nuclear power plant components

The most exergy destruction is related to the evaporator 3,399,033 kW (%90), the condenser 341,283 kW (%9), the turbine 47,155 kW (%1) and the pump 13,571 kW (%0.1), respectively, which implies a large amount of irreversibility in these components due to the high temperature difference. The results in the cited reference [ 20 ] are in agreement with these results.

The purchase cost (PEC) and initial capital cost ratio, operation and maintenance cost ratio, total capital cost ratio of the equipment in the plant are presented in Table  13 .

For the purchased equipment cost (PEC), the amounts of the equipment in the plant were determined with ratios over the total PEC amount in line with the literature research. Accordingly, initial investment costs [ 69 ] constitute the purchased equipment costs. The PEC amount is composed of the construction costs shown in Fig.  8 . The PEC amount is calculated as 5% for the evaporator, 6% for the turbine, 5% for the condenser and 4% for the pump. The remaining amount over the total PEC amount constitutes the other components of the plant. SPECO method is applied then the results are evaluated for all components. The capital investment cost rate, the operating and maintenance costs rate, and the total cost rate of the turbine are found to be 109.937 $ h-1, 10.993 $ h −1 , and 120.930 $ h −1 , respectively. The total cost rate of turbine is found to be 241.86 $h −1 . It has the highest value among the components.

PEC, IC and OM for Power Plant components

Using the exergy values calculated in Table  11 and the total cost ratios calculated in Table  13 for each equipment, exergy costs were calculated with the exergy-dependent cost equations created in Table  5 . Using the exergy costs and exergy values and Eq. 21, the cost ratios at the flow points of each equipment were calculated.

For each equipment, the cost ratio was calculated using the above example steps and Eq. 21. The calculated exergy values, cost ratios and exergy-related costs are presented in Table  14 .

As can be seen from the table, the highest cost ratio is observed at flow points 5 and 6 of the first cycle. On the other hand, the cost ratios based on exergy are the lowest. This is due to the small temperature difference.

Equation 31 was created to calculate the electricity generation cost of the plant. In Eq. 31, the amount of heat entering and leaving the plant, exergy-related unit cost ratios and total cost ratio of the plant, operation, maintenance activities, annual capital investment and the operating hours of the plant at full capacity are used. For 1 kWh, the unit price of electricity was found as 0.01969 $ kWh −1 .

According to the October 6, 2010, official gazette announcement, the amount of electricity purchased by the.

Turkish Electricity Trade and Contracting Corporation of the Republic of Türkiye (TETAŞ):

The purchased amount of electricity is \(17.5x{10}^{10}kWh\)

The unit cost of electricity production for Akkuyu NGS is 0.0196 $/kWh.

Electricity production cost= \(17.5 x{10}^{9}\) kWh (0.0196 $ kWh −1 ).

Electricity production cost =  \(343x{10}^{6}\mathrm{ \$}\)

The purchase price of electricity is 0.1235 $ kWh −1 .

Amount of electricity sold and purchased =  \(17.5x{10}^{10}kWh (0.1235\mathrm{ \$ }{kWh}^{-1})\)

Amount of electricity sold =  \(216125x{10}^{4}\mathrm{ \$}\)

Annual profit amount of the power plant = (Amount of electricity sold)—(Cost of electricity production).

Annual profit of the power plant =  \(216125x{10}^{4}-343x{10}^{6}\) = \(181825x{10}^{4}\) $

Amortization period = Investment Cost / Annual profit.

Amortization period =  \((13963636x{10}^{3}\mathrm{\$})/(181825x{10}^{4}\mathrm{ \$})=7.68\mathrm{ years}\)

The annual amount of electricity purchased by the Government of the Republic of Turkey from Türkiye Electricity Trading and Contracting Inc. (TETAŞ) 216,125 × 10 4 $ is calculated as the cost of electricity generated by Akkuyu NPP. Cost of electricity generated by Akkuyu NPP 343 × 10 6 $ as the annual profit of the power plant. The profit amount of the power plant is calculated as 181,825 × 10 4 calculated as $.

The amortization period for the power plant's initial investment is estimated to be within a commendable range of 7 to 8 years, underpinning its financial viability.

Considering the inlet and outlet of the flow points for each equipment, the exergy costs of the products and fuels of the equipment were calculated with the unit exergy cost equations in Table  5 . Exergy-dependent product for evaporator \({(c}_{{\text{p}},{\text{k}}})\) , and fuel costs \({(c}_{{\text{f}},{\text{k}}})\) , relative cost difference, which is a thermoeconomic evaluation variable \(({r}_{{\text{k}}})\) , performance evaluation variable \({(f}_{{\text{k}}})\) , exergy destruction costs \({(\dot{D}}_{{\text{D}},{\text{k}}})\) calculations were calculated with the help of the equations given in Table  2 .

For all other equipment, calculations were made using the example process steps above. As a result of the calculations, the exergy-dependent product \({(c}_{{\text{p}},{\text{k}}})\) and fuel costs ( \({c}_{{\text{f}},{\text{k}}})\) , relative cost difference, which is a thermoeconomic evaluation variable \(({r}_{{\text{k}}})\) , the thermoeconomic factor \({(f}_{{\text{k}}})\) , exergy destruction costs \({(\dot{D}}_{{\text{D}},{\text{k}}})\) , and total investment costs \(({\dot{Z}}^{T})\) is presented in Table  15 .

It is seen that the equipment with the highest exergy and fuel related product cost is the pump, while the equipment with the highest exergy destruction cost is the evaporator. Since the condenser is the equipment with the highest cost in terms of thermoeconomic factor, the improvements in the condenser will not increase the investment cost of the system. Improvements in the turbine will change the performance of the system. Efficiency of the process units is tried to be increased by increasing the initial investment cost. The explanations in [ 39 , 61 ] are consistent with this result.

According to the technological constraints in the system, the maximum achievable exergy efficiency is 68%, total exergy destruction is 3,801,568 kW and the total exergy destruction cost is 240,168 $ h −1 [ 20 ].

In accordance with the literature research, the amount of usable heat was calculated based on the plant efficiencies determined according to the areas of use and the heat entering the plant. The amount of usable heat according to the areas of use is presented in Table  16 .

The highest amount of usable heat is observed in electricity generation, as shown in Table  16 , with an efficiency of 88%. In contrast, the efficiency of use for residential heating and hot water needs, although equal, is around 85%. Subsequently, greenhouse agriculture and agricultural drying applications follow, presenting an efficiency rate of 60%.

The annual consumption for heating and hot water use at the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is calculated for the construction of approximately 2500 residential units (living space for 4500 people). The annual consumption is calculated for an area of 10,000 square meters for greenhouse and 1000 square meters for agricultural drying. The amount of electricity consumption is considered for a living area of 4500 people. In line with this information, waste heat utilization rates are presented in Table  17 .

Tables 16 and 17 show that the data pertaining to greenhouse farming and agricultural drying have similar values. The same applies to residential heating and hot water.

As illustrated in Table  17 , it is evident that the maximum benefit can be derived from waste heat, approximately 60%. The emission of the remaining 8% of waste heat into the environment minimizes thermal pollution. However, it is important to note, as mentioned in the introduction based on references, that exploiting this potential requires expensive technological infrastructures for electricity. Conversely, traditional methods for residential heating, hot water, greenhouse agriculture, and agricultural drying do not necessitate such costly technological frameworks. It should also be noted that the sustainability of greenhouse agriculture in winter and agricultural drying in summer can be maintained depending on the geographical and climatic conditions of the region. While approximately 10% of waste heat is released into the environment for residential heating or hot water needs, this figure is approximately 27% for greenhouse agriculture and agricultural drying.

In this context, to achieve sustainability and minimize waste heat, a combined use of residential heating, hot water, greenhouse agriculture, and agricultural drying would be appropriate. This integrated approach not only maximizes the utilization of waste heat but also contributes to the reduction of environmental impact, showcasing a synergistic model that leverages seasonal variations and local climatic conditions for optimized energy efficiency.

In accordance with the data presented in Fig.  3 , the annual natural gas consumption for heating purposes has been calculated for approximately 2500 dwellings (living space for 4500 people) for Akkuyu NPP employees and their families, using the annual natural gas consumption of a dwelling for heating purposes. With the indirect recovery of waste heat, the heating needs of 568 dwellings in the living area can be met from waste heat. Of the 67.99% waste heat discharged from the NPP, 57.80% was converted into useful heat (see Table  17 ).

Figure  5 compares the annual electricity consumption data per capita from the official website of TÜİK with the TEDAŞ sector report. At the same time, if the VAT (18%) rate is added to the June 2022 1 kWh electricity price of 1.593 TL kWh −1 for residential consumers, this amount becomes 1.880 TL kWh −1 . In our study, since calculations are made in dollars, the dollar equivalent of this amount is calculated as 0.125 kWh −1 . Plant efficiency for electricity distribution and generation is calculated at 88%.

If the annual electricity demand is purchased from the distribution company in the province:

If the waste heat is used to meet the electricity demand, the cost of the used amount is calculated as:

As a result of the above calculation, if the electricity need in the living area of the power plant is purchased from the distribution company serving in the province, 540,104 $ will be paid. However, if the electricity need is met from waste heat, waste heat worth 84,688 $ will be utilized.

Conclusions

Thermodynamics and thermoeconomic analysis for Türkiye’s first nuclear power plant, Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant in Mersin were performed in the current study was analyzed. The key parameters such as electricity production cost, annual profit, and depreciation period were calculated using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software. The important outcomes are grouped as follows:

Economic Efficiency:

The electricity cost was calculated as low as $0.0196 per kWh.

Annual revenue of $1.82 billion can be generated from the sale of electricity.

The amortization period is calculated to be 7–8 years.

Sustainable Energy Utilization:

In addition to reducing environmental impact and costs by using plant waste heat to meet residential heating and hot water needs,

An innovative approach in using of waste heat from the plant would satisfy heating demands of 568 households and hot water requirements for 2029 households. The suggested is approach not only recycles 58% of the waste heat (originally around 68%), but also significantly reduces environmental impact, resulting in substantial decrease in thermal pollution by the same margin, and heat discharge is limited to 10%.

Compared to the conventional use of natural gas, this method of meeting heating and hot water needs through waste heat recovery represents about a 16% improvement in energy cost efficiency.

Agricultural and Residential Benefits:

The region's geographical conditions and livelihood allow by the utilization of about 41% of waste heat (originally around 68%) for greenhouse heating or agricultural drying, thereby enhancing thermal efficiency which is a significant environmental benefit.

The waste heat from nuclear power plants constructed in regions with a climate similar to Mersin Akkuyu will serve a significant role in greenhouse farming and agricultural product drying, eliminating the need for additional technological investments.

Providing electricity through waste heat recovery instead of purchasing electricity from the distribution company can save about $540,000 per year, which is about %84 improvement in unit energy consumption efficiency.

Indirect recycling of the heat from the cycle can meet the electricity needs of 1,521 people and reduce thermal pollution by approximately 60%, with around 8% waste heat released to the environment.

The current study not only leveraging waste heat presents a promising opportunity to enhance economic viability, reduce environmental footprint, and fulfill our responsibility toward sustainable energy practices but may also serve as a benchmark for the nuclear plant to be established in developing countries.

Widespread adoption of waste heat recovery systems in similar facilities is regarded as essential to reduce energy costs and environmental impact. Further optimization studies can be conducted to enhance efficiency and profitability. Long-term studies can also be conducted to assess the sustainability and scalability of waste heat utilization in various contexts.

Abbreviations

Cost per exergy unit, ($ GJ − 1 )

Unit exergy cost of fuel, ($ GJ − 1 )

Unit exergy cost of product, ($ GJ − 1 )

Cost rate, ($ h − 1 )

Cost rate of exergy destruction, ($ h − 1 )

Exergy rate, (kW)

Exergoeconomic factor, NA

Specific enthalpy, (kJ kg − 1 )

Specific volume, (m 3 kg − 1 )

Internal energy, kJ kg − 1

Mass flow rate, kg s − 1

Pressure, bar

Heat addition, kW

Relative cost difference, NA

Specific entropy, kJ kg − 1  K − 1

Temperature, °C

Workflow rate-power, kW

Capital cost rate, $ h − 1

Exergy efficiency, NA

Effectiveness, NA

Energy efficiency, NA

Specific flow exergy, kJ kg − 1

Annual capital investment $

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Saylan, E., Aygün, C. Thermoeconomic analysis and environmental impact assessment of the Akkuyu nuclear power plant. J Therm Anal Calorim (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13237-x

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Received : 19 December 2023

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Published : 25 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13237-x

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NPO (Public Health and Environment) - (2404766)

Objectives of the programme.

WHO India Country Office collaborates with the Government of India and relevant stakeholders within the framework of the collaborative Country Cooperation Strategy, to actively support the development and implementation of national health policies, strategies and plans aiming at promoting access to and utilization of affordable and quality health services and improving the financial protection against health-related risks.--> To collaborate with national authorities to improve health and quality of life through promotion of environmental health especially in the areas of water supply and sanitation, chemical safety, food safety, occupational health, air pollution, climate change, building healthy cities, health risk assessments and management.--> To collaborate and support related areas of work such as prevention and control of water and sanitation linked diseases, burden of disease attributable to environmental factors, climate change, preparedness and response to chemical and radio-nuclear events and sustainable development. To liaise with other related teams such as communicable and non-communicable diseases, health through the life-course, food safety and health system development for coordination of various health related activities. Underlying Values and Core Functions of WHO WHO's mandate revolves around six (6) leadership priorities specifying (i) advancing universal health coverage (ii) health related sustainable development goals (iii) addressing the challenge of non-communicable diseases and mental health, violence and injuries and disabilities (iv) implementing the provisions of the International Health Regulations (2005) (v) increasing access to quality, safe, efficacious and affordable medical products (vi) addressing the social, economic and environmental determinants of health. The South - East Asia Region (SEAR) of WHO is made up of 11 countries, with over 1.9 billion people, with India's population of 1.4 billion. All the Member States of WHO/SEAR (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Timor Leste), share the common value of the highest attainable standard of health as a fundamental human right. All of WHO actions are based on this and rooted in the underlying values of equity, solidarity and participation. The mission of WHO India is to improve quality of life of the 1.4 billion people in India by supporting the government in eliminating vaccine preventable and other communicable diseases, reducing maternal and neonatal mortalities, promoting healthy lifestyles, addressing determinants of health, preparing and responding to health emergencies and strengthening health systems for universal health coverage.

DESCRIPTION OF DUTIES

Under the overall guidance of the WHO Representative, and the direct supervision of Deputy Head of WHO Country Office, and in collaboration with relevant technical units in the Country Office, the incumbent will perform the following duties:

• Provide technical support to the country in planning, monitoring and evaluating environmental health interventions with a focus on the provision of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygiene, improving air quality, healthy workplaces, health care waste management, and the sound management of chemicals and pesticides throughout their life-cycle
• Collaborate with partners to develop national strategies and institutional capacities on primary prevention interventions, particularly those related to the safety of drinking water, sanitation, waste management, occupational health and to mitigate the health impact of air pollution and climate change.
• Provide support to Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) and other related Ministries, Government of India (GoI) for development of Strategies on Environmental Health, Water and Sanitation, air pollution, and climate change based on national context.
• Formulate, evaluate and oversee the technical support to national and state environmental health programmes in the areas of community water supply and sanitation, chemical and pesticide safety, occupational health, healthy settings, environmental health risk assessment and management.
• Provide technical support - advising/ coordinating/ guiding - on issues concerning climate change and its impact on health, environmental epidemiology, air pollution, occupational health, water, sanitation and hygiene and waste management in the context of sustainable development. The activities include preparation of work plans, programme budget, implementation and monitoring the progress of work.
• Provide technical advice and support to the MOHFW on water sanitation and hygiene, assisting and proactively participating in the design and implementation of water and air quality monitoring and surveillance as appropriate.
• Support capacity-building of national program managers to promote safe water, sanitation, hygiene and sound waste management in the community, in health-care facilities and in the workplace, and to support capacity-building in other priority areas of environmental health.
• Liaise with concerned National counterparts of the technical units/departments , WHO/SEARO and WHO/HQs, collaborate with other clusters in areas i.e. communicable and non-communicable diseases, family, gender and life-course, health systems development for coordination of various health related activities ;and with donors and development partners (bilateral and UN) to harmonise recommendations on policies and strategies relating to environmental health cluster are suitably adopted to the Indian context.
• Promote development of studies and research on the environmental health areas, including water, sanitation, air quality and climate change, in close coordination and collaboration national authorities, WHO collaborating centres, national centers of excellence and national R & D institutions, dissemination of research information to all stakeholders.
• Coordinate and participate in inter-agency working group meetings/workshops and strengthen Inter-agency collaboration and liaise with external /donor agencies.
• Support information brokering/exchange function of WCO India through contributions to the health repository at the WCO India by collation, analysis and sharing of relevant information and statistics.
• Prepare technical reports, as necessary and perform any other duties as may be assigned by WR-India and DWR.

REQUIRED QUALIFICATIONS

Essential : University Degree in environmental sciences such as water and sanitation and environmental engineering from a recognized University Desirable : Postgraduate degree or training in Public Health or related field.

Essential : At least five (5) years of experience in Public Health/Environmental Engineering/Environmental Management programme at national level. Desirable : Experience of work in WHO or other UN Agencies; field level experience to handle emergency programme at national level

• The incumbent should identify with the core values of World Health Organization.
• Thorough knowledge of the situation in India with regard to adolescent health and development with good understanding of country's needs and priorities.
• Very good knowledge of WHO policies, programmes and guidelines in the related areas.
• Sound technical and policy advisory skills, based on evidence. 
• Leadership skills with demonstrated ability to work effectively with government and colleagues in a team setting at national and international levels, to share information and data and make oral and written presentations on technical issues.
• Very good ability to build and maintain relations and network with national authorities and other stakeholders across relevant sectors.
• Understanding of the potential motivating factors within national context and ability to adjust to new approaches in an increasingly complex environment.
• Modern management skills including planning and evaluation.
• Capacity to prepare terms of reference and to prepare and monitor and manage the implementation of contractual agreements.
• Capacity to convey information and options in a structured and credible way; ability to speak and write clearly.
• Proficiency in computer applications and ability to draft reports.
• Knowledge of WHO /UN agencies programmes and practices will be an advantage

WHO Competencies

• Respecting and promoting individual and cultural differences
• Communication
• Producing results
• Creating an empowering and motivating environment

Use of Language Skills

Essential : Expert knowledge of English. Expert knowledge of Hindi. Desirable :

REMUNERATION

Remuneration comprises an annual base salary starting at INR 3,663,614 (subject to mandatory deductions for pension contributions and health insurance, as applicable) and 30 days of annual leave.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

• This vacancy notice may be used to fill other similar positions at the same grade level
• Only candidates under serious consideration will be contacted.
• A written test and/or an asynchronous video assessment may be used as a form of screening.
• In the event that your candidature is retained for an interview, you will be required to provide, in advance, a scanned copy of the degree(s)/diploma(s)/certificate(s) required for this position. WHO only considers higher educational qualifications obtained from an institution accredited/recognized in the World Higher Education Database (WHED), a list updated by the International Association of Universities (IAU)/United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The list can be accessed through the link:  http://www.whed.net/ . Some professional certificates may not appear in the WHED and will require individual review.
• According to article 101, paragraph 3, of the Charter of the United Nations, the paramount consideration in the employment of the staff is the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due regard will be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical basis as possible.
• Any appointment/extension of appointment is subject to WHO Staff Regulations, Staff Rules and Manual.
• The WHO is committed to creating a diverse and inclusive environment of mutual respect. The WHO recruits and employs staff regardless of disability status, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, language, race, marital status, religious, cultural, ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds, or any other personal characteristics.
• The WHO is committed to achieving gender parity and geographical diversity in its staff. Women, persons with disabilities, and nationals of unrepresented and underrepresented Member States ( https://www.who.int/careers/diversity-equity-and-inclusion ) are strongly encouraged to apply.
• Persons with disabilities can request reasonable accommodations to enable participation in the recruitment process. Requests for reasonable accommodation should be sent through an email to  [email protected]
• An impeccable record for integrity and professional ethical standards is essential. WHO prides itself on a workforce that adheres to the highest ethical and professional standards and that is committed to put the  WHO Values Charter  into practice.
• WHO has zero tolerance towards sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA), sexual harassment and other types of abusive conduct (i.e., discrimination, abuse of authority and harassment). All members of the WHO workforce have a role to play in promoting a safe and respectful workplace and should report to WHO any actual or suspected cases of SEA, sexual harassment and other types of abusive conduct. To ensure that individuals with a substantiated history of SEA, sexual harassment or other types of abusive conduct are not hired by the Organization, WHO will conduct a background verification of final candidates.
• WHO has a smoke-free environment and does not recruit smokers or users of any form of tobacco.
• For information on WHO's operations please visit:  http://www.who.int.
• WHO also offers wide range of benefits to staff, including parental leave and attractive flexible work arrangements to help promote a healthy work-life balance and to allow all staff members to express and develop their talents fully.
• The statutory retirement age for staff appointments is 65 years. For external applicants, only those who are expected to complete the term of appointment will normally be considered.
• Please note that WHO's contracts are conditional on members of the workforce confirming that they are vaccinated as required by WHO before undertaking a WHO assignment, except where a medical condition does not allow such vaccination, as certified by the WHO Staff Health and Wellbeing Services (SHW). The successful candidate will be asked to provide relevant evidence related to this condition. A copy of the updated vaccination card must be shared with WHO medical service in the medical clearance process. Please note that certain countries require proof of specific vaccinations for entry or exit. For example, official proof /certification of yellow fever vaccination is required to enter many countries. Country-specific vaccine recommendations can be found on the WHO international travel and Staff Health and Wellbeing website. For vaccination-related queries please directly contact SHW directly at  [email protected] .
• This is a National Professional Officer position. Therefore, only applications from nationals of the country where the duty station is located will be accepted. Applicants who are not nationals of this country will not be considered.
• In case the website does not display properly, please retry by: (i) checking that you have the latest version of the browser installed (Chrome, Edge or Firefox); (ii) clearing your browser history and opening the site in a new browser (not a new tab within the same browser); or (iii) retry accessing the website using Mozilla Firefox browser or using another device. Click this link for detailed guidance on completing job applications:  Instructions for candidates

Grade: NO-C

Contractual Arrangement: Fixed-term appointment

Contract Duration (Years, Months, Days): Two years

Job Posting: Jun 25, 2024

Closing Date: Jul 9, 2024

Primary Location: India-New Delhi

Organization: SE_IND WR Office, India

Schedule: Full-time

Link to apply:

• WHO Careers Website:  Careers at WHO
• Vacancies (staff member access):  https://careers.who.int/careersection/in/jobsearch.ftl  
• Vacancies (external candidate access):  https://careers.who.int/careersection/ex/jobsearch.ftl