square brackets in essay

The Editor’s Manual

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Square Brackets [ ]

Use square brackets to enclose text added to a quote by someone other than the original speaker or writer. This could be an editorial correction, clarification, or other explanation.

• He insisted that “it [ the decision ] was fair.”
• She describes making peace with her past. “Good and bad [ memories ] make us who we are.”

Place the Latin word sic (traditionally italicized) within brackets to indicate that quoted text has been reproduced exactly, including any errors or unexpected turns of phrase.

• An occasional feature, ‘The Den of Villany [ sic ],’ was a forum for Douglass to comment on discrimination in American society. — “The North Star (American Newspaper),” Encyclopedia Britannica (Accessed September 8, 2022)

Enclose in brackets any parenthetical material that appears in text already within parentheses.

• This disrupts communication and navigations patterns of marine animals (including dolphins and whales [ Table 1 ]), causing a decline in local populations.
• The adverb sic is italicized and placed in square brackets. (Parentheses [ round brackets ] are used instead in some styles.)

Square brackets: When are they used?

Square brackets (or simply brackets ) are punctuation marks used mainly to enclose additional text that is not originally part of the surrounding passage. This is information added later by someone other than the original speaker or writer—an explanation, editorial clarification, correction, or translation. Square brackets are also used when brackets are needed within parentheses.

• He continued, “It [ the vaccine ] has been clinically tested, and we [ health officials ] are confident it will save lives.”
• “The two cities [ Nusquam and Pouthena ] will now be on the map.”
• “Patients can now [ have their eyes checked ] while they wait.”
• She believes that people should not attempt to “logicize [ sic ] religion.”
• They reviewed safety features of boats, canoes, and rafts (as part of the overall investigation into portable floating devices [ PFDs ]) for this report.
• Some cats prefer laser to feather toys (see The Complete Guide to Cats [ 1991 ]).

In this article, we discuss when to use square brackets and how to use them correctly.

Comments and clarifications in quoted text

When you quote someone, enclose in square brackets any comments, clarifications, interpolations, explanations, and other information added later and not in the original speech or text .

• “Various therapies can help patients better manage MS [ multiple sclerosis ].”
• He claims that he has “found the ultimate cure [ for sleep disorders ], which is to live alone in a cave for three months.”
• “She [ the CEO ] will not be appearing in court.”
• Dark matter, according to Dash, explains the expansion of the universe. [ Other physicists suggest modifying the theory of general relativity.—Ed. ]
• “It took all her resolution not to cry when she bade farewell to [ her cat ] Mike, who was curled up on the sun-warm grass at the back door” (Lucy Maud Montgomery, Emily of New Moon , 1923).

Such editorial interpolations can help clarify an unclear pronoun reference in quoted text.

• “She [ the governor ] will deliver an address to the Legislature later today on the matter.”
• “They [ the students ] were exploring the canyon without adult supervision.”
• Dash clarifies her earlier statement: “We [ editors ] have a duty to not change the intended meaning of a text.”

You may also simply replace an unclear pronoun. Enclose the replacement in square brackets to indicate it has been changed from the original.

A replacement rather than an additional insertion can make for smoother reading, particularly in news copy and other writing meant for a general audience. Also enclose in square brackets a word inserted in quoted speech that was not in the original.

• “I mean such [ solutions are ] only temporary. What we need is a long-term cure.”
• “We have asked [ the mayor ] for clarification.”

If quoted text already contains brackets, write “brackets in the original” in the source reference to clarify that this is not an addition to the original text.

• It is important that she [ the president ] remain neutral (Minerva Dash, October 1999; brackets in the original ).

In a translation, square brackets may be used to enclose a term in the original language if you think this would be useful to readers.

• Sartre distinguishes between being in-itself [ en-soi ] and being for-itself [ pour-soi ].

Square brackets can also enclose any other information you think may be useful to the reader, like a translation or phonetic transcription, which you add later and is not in the original text.

• Dash explains, “The Japanese concept of Kaizen [ improvement ] became popular in the West in the nineties.”
• “The plural of base is bases [ beɪsɪz ] and that of basis is also bases [ beɪsiːz ], pronounced differently.”

To indicate emphasis

If you emphasize a portion of quoted text (e.g., by italicizing it), inform your readers of this change by inserting a clarification in square brackets. Write “emphasis mine,” “my italics,” “italics added,” or something similar.

• As Russell says, “It is clear that the most elementary condition, if thought is to be free , is the absence of legal penalties for the expression of opinions” [ emphasis mine ].
• Davis (1989) disagrees: “The process of empowerment cannot be simplistically defined in accordance with our own particular class interests ” [ italics added ].

If the emphasis in a passage is from the original text (not added by you), this may be specified by inserting in square brackets a clarification that says “emphasis in the original text,” “italics in original,” or similar. Do so only if you consider it necessary to clarify this, perhaps because other portions of the text have been changed. (If no clarification is provided, emphasis is automatically assumed to be in the original text.)

• “[Syndicalism] is concerned with reforming actual work, and the organization of industry, not MERELY with securing greater rewards for work” (Bertrand Russell, 1918; emphasis in the original text ). The pronoun “it” in the original has been replaced by the word “syndicalism” in the quoted text, indicated by means of square brackets. But emphasis on the word “merely” was in the original text by Russell. The author clarifies this to the reader in the source citation , where square brackets are not required.
• As Woolf’s Mrs. Hilbery says, “There are some books that live ” [ italics in original ]. The square brackets indicate editorial clarification.

To adjust sentence structure

It may be necessary to adjust the grammatical structure of quoted text to match the passage in which it appears. This could be a change in tense or verb form . When you make such a change, enclose the altered text in square brackets.

• Original: “I hate grammar.” Quoted: My English teacher said she “hate[ s ] grammar,” which is not confusing at all.
• Original: “We have asked for clarification but haven’t received any.” Quoted : The researchers stated that they “[ had ] asked for clarification but [ had not ] received any.”

The Latin sic is used to indicate that a quotation has been exactly reproduced, including any spelling or grammatical errors in the original text. Sic comes from Latin and literally means “so,” loosely translated as “intentionally so written.” It signifies an intended reproduction of original text, errors and all. The term sic is traditionally italicized and enclosed in square brackets in formal writing.

• In a tweet, the then president-elect called it an “unpresidented [ sic ] act.”
• Poco wrote back to say, “The chip [ sic ] has sailed,” which, despite her earlier tears, was a bit of a relief.
• The Governor said she “could [ sic ] care less” about gun violence.

Using sic isn’t always necessary. Pointing out someone’s grammatical errors can seem needlessly judgmental, and silent editing is becoming increasing acceptable. You may simply correct a spelling mistake or grammatical error, or if necessary, replace the typo with the correct word in square brackets. Sic is necessary only if you must print quoted words exactly.

Sic need not always indicate a grammatical error. It can simply signify an uncommon spelling, an unexpected turn of phrase, or an opinion that is unacceptable or unpopular—that someone has been quoted verbatim.

• His latest venture is titled “Carzzz” [ sic ].
• He remained committed, he said, adding, “Wild lions [ sic ] couldn’t drag me away.”

Inside parentheses

Use square brackets to enclose parenthetical material that appears in text already in parentheses (brackets within brackets).

• Pollution affects pollinators (insects and birds that pollinate flowers [ e.g., bees and butterflies ]).
• In her debut novel ( On Silence [ 1982 ]), Dash creates a world so unreal in its reality that it blurs the lines between truth and disbelief.
• Sea levels rose to their highest in a century (based on data collected across 14 locations [ Table 1 ]).
• Many cats enjoy being brushed (see The Complete Cat Manual [ pp. 373–4 ]).

Don’t use square brackets if the text inside parentheses can be set off using commas instead. Commas are less intrusive than brackets.

• Poor: Pollution affects pollinators (insects that pollinate flowers [ like bees and butterflies] ). Better: Pollution affects pollinators (insects that pollinate flowers, like bees and butterflies ).

In citations

Many citation styles call for the use of square brackets (e.g., to cite an author’s pseudonym, to provide an abbreviation, or with in-text citations ). Here are some examples.

• MLA (Works Cited) : Asimov, Isaac [ Paul French ]. The Complete Adventures of Lucky Starr . Doubleday, 1952.
• APA (Reference List) : Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022). Consumer expenditures, 2021 [ Annual report ]. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/consumer-expenditures/2020/home.htm
• APA (in-text) : Cats like pizza (Association of Cat Lovers [ ACL ], 1999).
• IEEE (in-text) : Cats like pizza, as experimentally shown by Dash [ 1 ], [ 2 ].
• Chicago (in-text) : Cats prefer pasta (Femy R. [ New York ], June 3, 2021, reply to Dash 2021).

Square brackets with other punctuation

Other punctuation marks like periods and question marks are used the same way with square brackets as they are with parentheses (round brackets). Punctuation goes inside brackets if it belongs to the bracketed material but outside if it is part of the surrounding text.

• As postulated by Dash ( The Complete Guide to Cats [ 1991 ? ]), cats are adept at interdimensional travel.
• Cats, according to Dash, can travel through time. [ Other researchers believe teleportation to be a more likely explanation for feline kinetics.—Ed . ]
• Feline interdimensional travel was first investigated by Minerva Dash ( The More Complete Guide to Cats [ 1993 ] ) .
• Feline interdimensional travel was first investigated by Minerva Dash in 1993. (Further research was then conducted by Femy [ 1995 ] . )

Brackets vs. parentheses

Parentheses and brackets both enclose additional information. Parentheses are used mainly to set off explanatory material from surrounding text, whereas brackets enclose information added to quoted text by someone other than the original writer.

• Parentheses for explanatory information: We need emergency supplies ( blankets, medicines, food, water, etc. ).
• Brackets for insertion in quoted text: “These [ supplies ] are needed to keep people warm through the night.”

Brackets can also enclose parenthetical material, but only if it appears within text already enclosed in parentheses.

• Brackets within parentheses: They have asked for help ( including emergency supplies [ blankets, medicines, food, and water ] ).

Round brackets are called parentheses in U.S. English, with square brackets being referred to as brackets . In British English, the word brackets refers to round brackets, and square brackets are known as such.

Examples from published content

Here are some examples from published content that illustrate the use of square brackets.

• To insert an editorial clarification ‘I think the biggest thing they [ super-deep diamonds ] inform us about is the process of subduction,’ says Smith. — Zaria Gorvett, “The ‘Super-Deep’ Royal Diamonds Revealing Earth’s Secrets,” BBC Future (September 23, 2022)
• He describes people who have come to reassess their basic values, so that they change jobs, travel the world or commit themselves to charity work. ‘They’ve channelled [ their distress ] into something positive.’ — The Complicated Truth of Post-Traumatic Growth, BBC Worklife (March 14., 2022)
• Pentagon spokesman Peter Cook later said in a statement: ‘Through direct engagement with Chinese authorities, we have secured an understanding that the Chinese will return the UUV [ unmanned underwater vehicle ] to the United States.’ — “Donald Trump Accuses China of ‘Unpresidented’ Act over US Navy Drone,” Guardian (December 18, 2016)
• To insert a comment in quoted text ‘I knocked at your door but had no answer so gather you’ve taken my advice and are sleeping off last night. . . . Don’t think any more about the dress. [ This last was heavily underlined ] Yours affectionately, Bee. [ And a postscript ] You must both come over and see us soon.’ — Daphne du Maurier , Rebecca (1938)
• Sic to indicate an exact reproduction, including errors ‘Blue . . . signifies vigilence [ sic ], perseverence [ sic ] & justice. — “Flag of the United States of America,” Encyclopedia Britannica (Accessed September 8, 2022)
• In a citation Upon her return to Amherst, Dickinson confined herself to the Homestead, declaring, ‘I do not cross my Father’s ground to any House or town’ (Letters 330 [ L330 ], p. 460).’ — Paul Crumbley, Emily Dickinson’s Life (2000)
• To quietly correct grammar or spelling The making of the gooseberry jam and a good recipe for orange wine interests her more than all the marchings and countermarchings, the man[ oe ]uvres and diplomacies, going on the world over. — Jane Austen , The Letters of Jane Austen (Edited by Sarah Chauncy Woolsey ) (1908)
• Brackets within parentheses The most predictive neural activity was associated with reward processing (ventral striatum [ VS ]) and the ability to simulate the minds of others (temporoparietal junction [ TPJ ] and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex [ DMPFC ]). — Scott Barry Kaufman, “The Neuroscience of Social Influence,” Scientific American (July 9, 2013)

Usage guide

The primary use of square brackets in English is to enclose an editorial comment, correction, or clarification, or any other change made to quoted text by someone other than the original speaker or writer. Brackets are also used in source citations. Brackets are not interchangeable with parentheses but can enclose parenthetical material that appears in text already within parentheses. Finally, any punctuation goes inside square brackets if it belongs to the bracketed material but outside if it belongs to the larger sentence.

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Enclose in square brackets any editorial clarification added to a quote.

Use square brackets instead of parentheses to enclose an editorial clarification. (In this sentence, presumably, a pronoun has been replaced by “the cat” for clarity.)

The word sic may be enclosed in either square brackets or parentheses. Square brackets are preferred in formal American writing; parentheses are generally seen in British style and news copy.

Use square brackets to enclose parenthetical material already within parentheses (brackets within parentheses, not parentheses within brackets).

What Are Square Brackets ( [ ) And How Do You Use Them?

• What Are Square Brackets?
• When To Use Them
• How To Use Them
• Get Help From Grammar Coach

Of the different types of brackets, most people would likely say that parentheses are the ones they know the best. Going further, some people may not even know that there are other types of brackets. While square brackets may not be used very often, they are often crucial to writers who are wrangling an especially difficult quote. You never know when this poor writer might be you, so it is a good idea to be prepared and learn the best ways to use square brackets in your writing.

What are square brackets ?

Square brackets , often just called brackets in American English, are a set of punctuation marks that are most often used to alter or add information to quoted material. Square brackets come in pairs as [ and ] . Square brackets resemble and are used similarly to parentheses , but these two punctuation marks are NOT used interchangeably.

✏️ Examples

The following sentences show different ways that we use square brackets. You’ll notice that almost all of the examples involve quotations.

• According to police, the suspect “hid [in a tree] for two days before he was caught.”
• The senator said, “We should of [sic] invested more money in education from the beginning.”
• The judge’s decision was that “the two teams [the Lions and the Tigers] both violated the rules.”
• If you need help, call my phone number. (It is [555] 123-4567.)

When do you use square brackets?

In general, square brackets are used much less often than parentheses in writing. Most of the time, they are used to alter or provide additional context to quotes. Often, writers will adjust their work or rephrase the text around a quote so as to avoid having to use square brackets at all. Sometimes, though, using square brackets might be unavoidable so it is good to learn when you may need to use them.

Typically, the most common reason you would need to use square brackets has to do with quotations .

All style guides, grammar resources, and ethical guidelines will tell you that it is not acceptable to change the wording of a quote so as to change its meaning or attribute words to a person that they never said.

However, sometimes it is necessary to adjust a quote or provide additional context to it so as to help a reader understand what was being said. Square brackets allow you to do this while making it clear that whatever is in the square brackets was not part of the original text or statement.

When it comes to quotes, there are several different reasons to use square brackets.

Clarification

Sometimes, a quote doesn’t make sense outside of the context it was originally used in or it references something else said earlier. In this case, a writer can use square brackets to add clarifying information for a reader. For example,

• Original statement: “I love my cat. Her name is Nina, and she is a great hunter. Nina loves eating mice and killing birds.”
• Quote with square brackets: He said, “Nina [his cat] loves eating mice and killing birds.”

Adding more information

Sometimes, a quote needs additional information that was never said originally in order to make sense to a reader. Again, we can use square brackets to add this information:

• Original statement: “This is a momentous day. These two nations have joined in friendship, and I am honored to have been a part of it.”
• Quote with square brackets: The ambassador said it was “a momentous day.” Going further, she said, “These two nations [Rohan and Gondor] have joined in friendship.”

Adjusting a quote for grammatical reasons

Sometimes, a quote doesn’t match grammatically with a writer’s text. For example, the original speaker may have been talking in the first person, but a writer is quoting them in the third person. Square brackets can be used to signal that a writer is adjusting a quote for grammatical reasons.

• Original statement: “I like mayonnaise. I even put it on hot dogs.”
• Quote with square brackets: She said that “ [she] like[s] mayonnaise” and that “ [she] even put[s] it on hot dogs.”

Noting a grammar error that was in an original quote

Because most writers will not change quotes at all, some quotes may contain grammar errors, misspellings, or other mistakes. Square brackets can be used to indicate to a reader that the error was present in the original source. In this case, the term sic is often used within the square brackets to state that the error was present in the original source. 

• Original statement: “The largest dessert on Earth is actually located in Antarctica.” 
• Quote with square brackets: I was surprised to learn the largest desert was actually in a cold place. My geography textbook says, “The largest dessert [sic] on Earth is actually located in Antarctica.” 

Parentheses within parentheses

Some style guides or grammar resources may allow using square brackets to avoid using a set of parentheses within another set of parentheses. For example,

• Joe did everything himself. (He never asks me [or anyone else] for help.) 

However, the rules regarding this particular case are not universal. It is best to consult the style guide or grammar resource you use if you ever encounter this situation. 

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How to use square brackets

For the most part, square brackets follow all of the same rules of parentheses. However, square brackets are generally easier to use because they typically do not contain full sentences. 

Square brackets always come in pairs

Like parentheses, it is considered a grammatical error to use only a single square bracket. The additional information should be entirely contained within two square brackets:

❌ Incorrect: Leslie Mitchells of Canada] won the gold medal. ✅ Correct:  Leslie Mitchells [of Canada] won the gold medal.

Capitalization

The first letter in square brackets typically isn’t capitalized because square brackets usually contain sentence fragments, single words, or single letters/symbols. However, proper nouns are typically capitalized even when used alone in square brackets. 

✅ Correct: Zach said, “I can teach [yoga] to anyone who is willing to learn.” ✅ Also correct: Whoville authorities are looking for “a grouchy green monster who hates [Christmas] .”

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Mastering the Art of Brackets: A guide to proper use in academic writing

Specific paired punctuation refers to a type of punctuation that occurs in pairs and is used to enclose or separate text within a sentence. These paired punctuations such as brackets can be used as delimiters to determine the order of performing calculations within a mathematical equation, or to alert the reader to text that is not part of a quotation, is incorrect in its original form, or has been omitted.

Paired punctuation marks are typically used in academic writing, technical writing, and other types of formal writing. They are used to improve clarity and accuracy, and to ensure that the reader fully understands the writer’s meaning. In order to use paired punctuation correctly, it is important to understand the specific purpose and function of each type of mark, as well as the correct placement and formatting guidelines. However, the use of paired punctuation is standard in academic writing, but there are some exceptions to this standard.

Table of Contents

Types of Brackets

The four main paired punctuation symbols are the bracket (or square bracket; also called parenthesis in British English), the parenthesis (plural: parentheses), the brace (curly bracket in British English), and the inequality sign (pointy bracket). The normal sequence or order of use is {([ ])}; however, this can also differ according to the discipline and which English is used.

[ ]: square bracket

( ): parentheses

{ }: brace or curly bracket

< >: pointy bracket or inequality sign

One more paired punctuation, the angle bracket (〈 〉), is used mainly in mathematics; however, most computer keyboards do not have these symbols and writers tend to use the pointy brackets in its place. It is possible to designate the angle bracket in professional typesetting to avoid this issue, but using the pointy brackets is acceptable.

With a few exceptions, both American and British English use these paired symbols in the same way, although the terminology might differ. For example, in British English, a bracket is either round or square but is not called a parenthesis.

What Is Parenthesis?

Parentheses are a type of paired punctuation consisting of two curved lines ( ) used to enclose a word, phrase, or sentence within another sentence. They are used to provide additional information that is not essential to the main point of the sentence, but that can provide clarification, elaboration, or examples.

Parentheses can be used in a variety of ways in writing, including:

• To enclose additional information or examples within a sentence, as in: “The new software (which was released last week) is already very popular.”
• To provide clarification or explanation, as in: “The company’s new policy (which was implemented last month) has caused some confusion among employees.”
• To indicate a citation or reference, as in: “Recent studies have shown that regular exercise can improve mental health (Smith et al., 2020).”

When using parentheses, it is important to follow certain guidelines to ensure that they are used correctly and effectively. These guidelines include:

• Using parentheses sparingly,
• Avoiding the use of nested parentheses (that is, using parentheses within parentheses),
• Using them consistently throughout a piece of writing.

Your style guide will provide protocols for your field of discipline. Writers in the liberal arts and humanities disciplines use the  Modern Language Association  (MLA) style guide; those in the social and behavioral sciences, usually refer to the  American Psychological Association  (APA) style guide; writers not writing within a specific discipline use the  Chicago Manual of Style  (CMOS), and those in the physical sciences use the  Council of Science Editors  (CSE) guide.

When Is a Bracket called a Parenthesis?

In American English, the term “parenthesis” is often used to refer to the punctuation mark that is more commonly known as the “round bracket” or “parentheses.” These are the curved marks ( ) that are used to enclose a word, phrase, or sentence within another sentence.

In British English, the term “parenthesis” refers to the use of any type of paired punctuation, including square brackets [ ], curly braces { }, and angle brackets < >, as well as round brackets.

In academic writing, it is important to be aware of the different terms used for these types of paired punctuation marks, and to use them correctly according to the guidelines of the relevant style guide. However, in general usage, the terms “parenthesis” and “parentheses” are often used interchangeably to refer to the curved marks ( ) that are commonly used in writing.

Related: Are punctuation marks leaving a question mark on your face?  Check out some useful resources now!

How to Use Brackets in Quotations?

Here are some of the most common uses for brackets in quotations:

• Use square brackets to include words within a quote that are not part of the original quote. For example, if a quoted passage is not entirely clear, words enclosed in square brackets can be added to clarify the meaning.
• Enclose “sic” (loosely meaning, “as written”) in square brackets to indicate that the quote is exactly as is in the original, even if there are spelling or other syntax errors (“The maiden [sic] wore a yellow dress”).
• Usually, enclose an ellipsis in brackets. MLA suggests that parentheses (round brackets) be used; CMOS suggests using square brackets; and some style guides, such as APA, do not use any brackets.
• If you  emphasize a word or phrase in a quotation  by italicizing or underlining it, use either square brackets or parentheses to inform the reader that these were not part of the original quote. For example, “The dog had  really  big teeth [emphasis added]!” CMOS suggests using parentheses immediately after the quotation or within the citation; however, if the original quote already has emphasis, square brackets should be used and placed directly after the added emphasis.
• If there is objectionable content in the original quote, use square brackets to substitute for the word or phrase. For example, “The UFO was [expletive] huge!” Although this would rarely occur in the technical and scientific text, you might come across it in other disciplines, and if you find it to not be appropriate for your intended audience, use this rule.

Use of Brackets in Mathematics and Statistics

Brackets are always used in mathematical expressions to help the reader perform various operations within an equation. There are very specific rules about bracket use in this discipline that are rarely altered, and the sequence of use—{[()]}—is different from that in normal text. For example, in the below expression, the calculations would be performed  according to the bracket use .

[(3 + 2) × (6 – 4) + 2] × 4

The expression in parentheses would be solved first, that in the square brackets would be solved second, and that not inside the brackets would be solved last. Braces are also used in a mathematical expression to indicate functions or numbers sets. For example, the expression {2, 6, 14, 28} would indicate a specific set of numbers within that range. Of course, both examples are extremely simple mathematical functions, but you get the picture.

In statistical expressions, bracket use also depends on the specific style guide being used. For example, when expressing a probability (p or P), CSE suggests that the expression be surrounded by parentheses, as in (P =.05), but APA prefers that a square bracket is used.

Parentheses Within Parentheses and Lists

When there is a parenthetical word or phrase within an already parenthetical phrase, square brackets are used in American English ([ ]); however, parentheses are used in both British English and legal documents (( )).

Although rare, braces (curly brackets) are used to denote a  list within a list . For example, I might say, “I need to go to the store today for laundry detergent, pet food, and dairy products {milk, cheese, yoghurt}.” The words inside the braces constitute a listing within a list.

Website Addresses

Website addresses are not usually included in references; however, if they are, MLA and APA recommend using angle brackets (< >) before and after the address. The brackets will help the reader identify the entire address, but this format also differs. CMOS does not include the brackets.

Regardless of your field of discipline, you should always double check the rules for bracket use, not only in the style guide but also in the author guidelines from the journal to which you are submitting your paper.

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• AWELU contents
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• Elements of the reference list
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• Academic integrity What is academic integrity? Academic integrity and writing Academic integrity at LU Plagiarism

There are four bracket types that ought to be mentioned in the context of academic writing. To begin with, we have the parentheses, i.e. ( ). Secondly, we have square brackets, [ ]. Thirdly, we have curly brackets, { }. Finally, something must be said about angle brackets, < >.

Parentheses: ( )

Generally speaking, parentheses (singular: parenthesis ), which can also be called 'round brackets', 'open brackets', or just 'brackets' in British English, are used to separate parenthetical (i.e. non-essential) information from the main text.

(1) This example (which was written in January) is intended to illustrate the use of parentheses.

Such parenthetical information, which can be of different types, is not necessary in order to understand the text, and a sentence that contains parenthetical information must be complete and understandable even if the parenthetical information is removed (this does not mean, by the way, that the sentence must make sense if only the actual parentheses are removed).  If we remove the entire parenthesis from (1) above, we thus get the acceptable and understandable (2):

(2) This example is intended to illustrate the use of parentheses.

In this particular case,  (2), we get an acceptable result if we just remove the parentheses (i.e. the symbols) too. However, in other cases, for instance in (3), the result of just removing the symbols would be strange, ungrammatical, or even incomprehensible.

(3) When you use parentheses (parenthes should not be used too often, by the way), do not forget to close them.

Parenthetical information is typically extra information that makes it easier for the reader to understand the text, offers a clarification, or gives the interested reader a fuller picture or some food for thought.

(4) Many people who use parentheses (or brackets, as they are called in less formal British English) should consider using footnotes instead.

In this respect, using parentheses is fairly similar to using footnotes (disregarding, of course, footnotes or endnotes that contain nothing but a reference to a source).   Parentheses are sometimes used to enclose examples of what the main text is discussing. Here, too, we can remove the whole parenthesis without causing ungrammaticality or serious comprehension difficulties, but the examples within parentheses are often very helpful to the reader. (5) is an example of this type of parenthetical information:

(5) The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) used to be part of the Soviet Union.

Sometimes the writer wants to add a comment of her own. Such a comment can be parenthetical in relation to the main message of the text, that is, it does not add any extra information about the subject matter as such, only the writer's personal opinion or reflections. 

(6) People who use too many parentheses and footnotes in their texts (I have to admit that I am one of them) are usually perfectionists.

In written documents of various types, parentheses are also used around numbers and letters in connection with various lists, numbered examples in a text such as this one, etc. Here is an example of what this may look like:

(7) Before we reach a conclusion, we have to take into consideration (i) his age, (ii) his CV, and (iii) his reputation.

In academic writing, parentheses are also used (in some reference systems) both when we refer to our sources in the text and in our reference lists or bibliographies. Parentheses are also used to enclose cross-references of the type found in (8):

(8) Parentheses also enclose cross-references (see chapter 5).

For more detailed information on how parentheses should be used in a particular reference system, please see the AWELU section on references and/or the reference guide or style manual that you have received from your teacher, supervisor, department, editor, or publisher.

• The AWELU section on references
• Brackets in references

Finally, please note that it is common practice not to capitalise the first letter of a sentence within parenthesis, or use a full stop at the end, when this parenthesis is inserted inside (or at the very end) of another orthographic sentence (see definition of 'orthographic sentence' below), as in (9).

(9) The use of brackets (this is the topic of this AWELU section) may be a problematic area for the inexperienced writer.

Orthographic sentence

(10) The use of brackets may be a problematic area for the inexperienced writer. (This is the topic of this AWELU section.)

Square brackets: [ ]

(11) According to Harris (2005:63), "the Scandinavian countries [Denmark, Norway and Sweden] have sound economies."

(12) According to Harris (2005:63), "[t]he Scandinavian countries have sound economies." (13) According to Harris (2005:63), this is partly due to "[their] being rich in natural resources."

(14) According to Harris (2005:63), "the Scandinavian countries [...] have sound economies."

• AWELU on MLA

(15) According to Harris (2005:63), "the Scandinawian [ sic ] countries have sound economies."

(16) According to Harris (2005:63), "the Scandinavian countries, including Iceland , have sound economies." [my emphasis]

(17) In his recent work (which has [unfortunately] not been published yet), Professor Watson discusses the usefulness of square brackets.

• How to edit quotations

Curly brackets: { }

(18) E = {2, 4, 6, 8, ...}

Angle brackets: < >

(19) The first time a source is referred to, a full reference is provided in the note: 1. Maria Colenso, "Meerkat habitat and diet", para. 4, How Stuff Works (13 May 2008). <http://animals.howstuffworks.com/mammals/meerkats1.htm>, accessed 22 Jan. 2011.

• AWELU on documentory note styles

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• Writing Tips

An Introduction to Brackets and Parentheses

4-minute read

• 21st November 2018

We apologize if you clicked on this page looking for DIY advice , as the brackets we’re interested in are no use for putting up shelves. Instead, we’re looking at how brackets are used in writing .

Round Brackets (Parentheses)

The most common brackets are round brackets or parentheses.  These can be used for a variety of reasons, including the following:

• Setting non-essential information apart from the rest of the text ♦
• Adding commentary from the author or narrator’s perspective ♦
• Introducing an abbreviation after the full term ♦
• Clarifying a detail or explaining something ♦

We’ve included colors above so that you can see how each of these work in the passage below:

I saw something strange while walking home the other day ( a sunny Thursday ) . It was a pair of brackets, just hanging there in mid-air. I circled them for some time, trying to work out whether I should tell someone ( I was worried nobody would believe me ) . Eventually, I called Dr. Jenny Braces at New York University ( NYU ) . She told me that the brackets would “dematerialize comprehensively after an indeterminate duration if left undisturbed” ( i.e., they would go away by themselves in the end ) .

In addition to the above, parentheses also have special uses in some subjects, such as mathematics . And in academic writing, they are used for citations in author–date referencing systems.

Square Brackets [Box Brackets]

Square brackets are most often used to indicate a change to what an author wrote, such as when editing a quote or adding an editorial note. For example, we might use them to add a translation:

Chaucer speaks of April and its “shoures soote [sweet showers].”

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Here, we have added a translation of the Middle English for clarity. Using square brackets shows the reader that this is an addition, not part of the original text by Chaucer.

Other uses include to add “[sic]” after an error in a quote or to enclose ellipses (i.e., […] ). However, the rules about these can vary, so check your style guide (if available) before doing either.

Curly Brackets {Braces} and Angle Brackets ⟨Chevrons⟩

Finally, a quick word on curly brackets and angle brackets. Both of these are rare in most types of writing, but they are very useful in certain subject areas:

• Curly brackets (or “braces”) can be used to define a set of values in mathematics or computing. They are also used in musical notation.
• Angle brackets are indicated either with ⟨chevrons⟩ or <lesser than and greater than symbols>. These have several uses in the sciences, mathematics, and linguistics. However, they are rare in most writing types.

Some other symbols are also described as “brackets” (mostly from other languages). But these are even rarer than curly and angle brackets, so most people will not need to know about them.

Summary: An Introduction to Brackets and Parentheses

There are two main types of bracket that you may need to use in your writing:

• Parentheses or round brackets are used to set apart non-essential information in writing (such as to provide an example or additional information, like here). These are the most common type of brackets.
• Box brackets or square brackets are usually used to indicate an addition to text, such as a correction to a quote or an annotation from someone who is not the author [EDITOR’S NOTE: This is correct].

In some subject areas, such as computing and math, you may also see {curly brackets} and ⟨angled brackets⟩, which have technical uses. But these are very rare in most types of writing. Hopefully, this answers your bracket-based questions! But let us know if you’d like more help.

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When do you use square brackets [ ] in English? - Easy Learning Grammar

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Square Brackets, Curly Brackets, Angle Brackets, Oh My!

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Learn how to use brackets effectively in your writing

Let me give you folks a glimpse of life at Scribendi.com. When we're not madly editing until the wee hours of the morning (which, frankly, we are most of the time), we spend the rest of our time discussing and writing articles designed to help you (our wonderful customers) become better writers.

When I was assigned the article on brackets , I was overjoyed (okay, not really). Truthfully, I wasn't sure how I was going to write an entire article on brackets, but, as I discovered in my research, brackets are actually more complex than most people realize.

Square Brackets

Sometimes, square brackets are used to make a piece of text clearer. When a quote used in a paper contains the word "it," the author of the paper will frequently use brackets to clarify the antecedent. This is done for a number of reasons, but most frequently because when a writer uses a quote in a paper, the reader is encountering the quote out of its original context and since readers rely on context to determine the antecedent, the antecedent needs to be provided. For example:

Blanche Dubois states that "While Benjamin Franklin is frequently credited as discovering it [electricity], the ancient Egyptians actually deserve most of the credit."

Square brackets are also used to enclose the Latin word sic, which means "so, thus." In academic writing, [sic] is used to denote an error that originally appears in the source material and is not attributable to the author who is using the quote. For example:

In a letter to the CK Daily Post, General Ross wrote that "extended tours of duty are not beneficial for maintaining a positive group moral [sic]."

Square brackets are also used to indicate that a certain portion of a quote has been omitted.

For example, Gore Vidal is quoted as saying "Andy Warhol is the only genius I've met […] with an IQ of 60."    

Curly Brackets

Unless you are a physicist or a highly skilled mathematician, you are unlikely to encounter curly brackets in your research or reading. If you're a programmer, you would most assuredly use these bygone little squiggly marks. But much like Hypercolor shirts or wearing spandex shorts for anything other than biking, curly brackets have largely fallen out of fashion. But just in case you do encounter curly brackets outside of the above-mentioned fields, they are likely indicating a series of equal choices. For example:

Select your pizza topping {pepper, onion, sausage, tomato, feta, anchovies, bacon, sun-dried tomatoes, chicken, broccoli} and follow me.

The only other place you may encounter curly brackets is on forums or when instant messaging. In this context, they are used to indicate a hug. The way the curly bracket is facing indicates the direction of the hug. A curly bracket that opens to the right is a right hug and a curly bracket that opens to the left is a left hug. For example:

AlaskanWolfHunter: hey, just thought id let u know im bringing home some flowers

({)WasillaMomof5: aw….thanks boo…(})

Angle Brackets

Also known as chevrons, these types of brackets frequently appear in mathematics and quantum physics. But unlike curly brackets, you may actually encounter them when reading outside of those disciplines, although not with any type of frequency.  Angle brackets may occur in linguistics. For example:

                The English word /kæt/ is spelled ⟨cat⟩.

Sometimes, although not often, angle brackets are used to indicate internal thought. For example:

                Todd handed me a flower. "Smell it."

                I took a sniff. "It's nice." <What a disgusting stench!>

Angle brackets are used frequently in comic books to denote someone speaking in another language. Double angle brackets are sometimes used in lieu of quotation marks . They are also used in computer-mediated communication to indicate an action or status. For example:

< <waves>>

<<offline>>

It's important not to overuse brackets or rely on them too heavily. Some writers use brackets in place of commas . Others think the whole problem of brackets is better left alone. But you can't avoid problems forever. At some point, you may have to use brackets or you may encounter them in your research, in which case, we hope this article has helped.

If you're still unsure about how and when to use brackets, you can always send your writing to the experts at Scribendi for a thorough, professional proofread .

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Square Brackets Punctuation Rules and Examples

Let’s explore the use of square brackets, which have specific applications in English writing.

Table of Contents

Square Brackets: []

Clarification within a quote:.

Square brackets are used to clarify or modify a quote for readability, often by providing additional context or information.

Example: “He [John] is coming to the party tonight.”

Translation or Explanation:

They can enclose a translation or explanation of a non-English term or phrase.

Example: “She said, ‘Te amo [I love you].'”

Editorial Comments or Corrections:

In editing, square brackets are used to include comments, corrections, or the Latin term “sic” to indicate an error in the original text.

Example: “She wrote a [sic] incorrect sentence.”

Nested Information:

If parentheses are used within another set of parentheses, square brackets can be used for the inner set to avoid confusion.

Example: “He enjoys fruits (especially apples [Granny Smith], oranges, and bananas).”

Citations in Academic Writing:

Some academic citation styles use square brackets to enclose citations or references.

Example: “The study found significant results [Johnson, 2005].”

Square brackets provide a clear and specific way to include extra information within a text, especially within quotations or other parentheses. They allow writers to add clarification, translation, or editorial comments without confusing the reader or disrupting the original content.

Square brackets are used in English writing to enclose additional information, especially within quotes, parentheses, or academic citations. Their specialized applications make them an important tool for clarity and precision in writing. Understanding how to use square brackets correctly can enhance your writing, ensuring that additional details are presented clearly and without confusion. Whether you’re clarifying a quote, translating a foreign term, or providing editorial insight, square brackets help you communicate more effectively with your reader.

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• Parentheses () | Definition, Punctuation, Rules & Examples

Parentheses () | Definition, Punctuation, Rules & Examples

Published on April 14, 2015 by Shane Bryson . Revised on November 29, 2022.

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Table of contents

Side-by-side parentheses, nested parentheses.

Sometimes you might need to use two parenthetical elements together—for example, when a sentence contains both an acronym and a citation. Style guides disagree about whether it’s okay to place two (or more) parenthetical asides side by side.

APA style  recommends using a single set of parentheses with a semicolon separating the main elements.

• The results were sorted by gross domestic product (GDP; Odin, 2018).

Chicago  also advises this approach, but allows side-by-side parentheses if their content is entirely unrelated. If you do use two sets of parentheses, put a space between them.

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When you want to enclose a set of parentheses inside another set, most style guides recommend using square brackets for the inner element.

• Several prestigious organizations (e.g., National Institutes of Health (NIH)) supported the initiative.
• Several prestigious organizations (e.g., National Institutes of Health [NIH]) supported the initiative.

In British English , parentheses within parentheses are more acceptable. However, it’s always best to avoid this kind of nesting whenever possible. If you can rephrase the sentence to remove one of the parenthetical elements, this is the best option.

• Several prestigious organizations, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), supported the initiative.

When including a citation within a parenthetical element, APA style recommends using commas instead of parentheses or brackets.

• This sort of testing is usually unreliable (as Jenner [2012] took pains to show).
• This sort of testing is usually unreliable (as Jenner, 2012, took pains to show).

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

Bryson, S. (2022, November 29). Parentheses () | Definition, Punctuation, Rules & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 21, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/language-rules/parentheses/

Butterfield, J. (Ed.). (2015).  Fowler’s dictionary of modern English usage  (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Garner, B. A. (2016).  Garner’s modern English usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

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Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, inserting or altering words in a direct quotation.

• CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 by Nancy Lewis

What punctuation should be used when words are inserted or altered in a direct quotation?

When writers insert or alter words in a direct quotation, square brackets—[ ]—are placed around the change. The brackets, always used in pairs, enclose words intended to clarify meaning, provide a brief explanation, or to help integrate the quote into the writer’s sentence.  A common error writers make is to use parentheses in place of brackets.

How are square brackets used around clarifying or explanatory words?

Let’s look at an example:

Quotation with brackets used correctly around a clarifying word:

“It [driving] imposes a heavy procedural workload on cognition that . . . leaves little processing capacity available for other tasks” (Salvucci and Taatgen 107). [1]

Note : Brackets are placed around the inserted word in this example to let the reader know that ‘driving’ clarifies the meaning of the pronoun ‘it.’

Quotation with parentheses incorrectly used in place of brackets:

“It (driving) imposes a heavy procedural workload on cognition that . . . leaves little processing capacity available for other tasks” (Salvucci and Taatgen 107).

Note : Parentheses are used incorrectly in place of brackets in this example, making the inserted word look like it could be part of the original text.

Let’s look at another example:

Quotation with brackets used correctly around an explanatory insert:

“[D]riving is not as automatic as one might think; in fact, it imposes a heavy procedural workload [visual and motor demands] on cognition that . . . leaves little processing capacity available for other tasks” (Salvucci and Taatgen 107).

Note : Brackets are placed around the inserted words in this example to provide further explanation of the “procedural workload” discussed in the original text.

“[D]riving is not as automatic as one might think; in fact, it imposes a heavy procedural workload (visual and motor demands) on cognition that . . . leaves little processing capacity available for other tasks” (Salvucci and Taatgen 107).

Note : Parentheses are used incorrectly in place of brackets in this example, making the inserted words look like they are part of the original text.

How are square brackets used to help integrate a quote properly?

Original direct quotation beginning with an upper case letter:

“The heavy cognitive workload of driving suggests that any secondary task has the potential to affect driver behavior” (Salvucci and Taatgen 108).

Integrated quotation with brackets used correctly to indicate a change in letter case:

Salvucci and Taatgen propose that “[t]he heavy cognitive workload of driving suggests that any secondary task has the potential to affect driver behavior” (108).

Note : Brackets are placed around the lower-case letter ‘t’ to indicate that the letter case has been changed. The quotation is introduced by a signal phrase, which makes the quote an integral part of the writer’s sentence; as a result of this syntactical change, the upper case ‘T’ in the original is changed to a lower case letter.

Original direct quotation written in the past tense:

“Not coincidentally, drivers have been increasingly engaging in secondary tasks while driving” (Salvucci and Taatgen 68).

Note : The authors’ words appear in the past tense in the original text.

Quotation with brackets used correctly to indicate a change in verb tense:

“Not coincidentally, drivers [are] increasingly engaging in secondary tasks while driving” (Salvucci and Taatgen 68).

Note : Brackets are placed around the word ‘are’ to indicate that the verb has been changed to the present tense, which is the preferred tense for most writing in MLA style. The past tense is preferred for APA style writing. 

A word of caution : Bracketed insertions may not be used to alter or add to the quotation in a way that inaccurately or unfairly represents the original text. Quite simply, do not use bracketed material in a way that twists the author’s meaning.

Bracket Use: Quick Summary

[1] Salvucci, Dario D., and Niels A. Taatgen. Multitasking Minds . Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) . Web. 20 Feb. 2012.

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Square Brackets in Quotations

Using square brackets in quotations.

Square Brackets to Make the Text Clearer

Square brackets to modify the original text, square brackets: [sic], square brackets: [...], a video on using square brackets.

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Square Bracket: A Guide on its Definition and Use

Table of Contents

In writing, there are many punctuation rules that you need to follow. One of the punctuation marks in English that most people get confused about is the  square bracket .

These marks help us indicate a signal of stopping, continuing or pausing in a sentence . English has a lot of these which you can use in your writing. The most common ones are commas and quotation symbols.

However, you might not be familiar with using brackets at all. Some people mainly utilize the parenthesis because it’s much easier to identify when to use it. Brackets do somehow serve a purpose in any writing.

Whether you’re writing an essay or marketing content, you’ll find brackets handy. They serve a purpose that will help you save time explaining things through your work. You can convey the meaning of a word or thought you’re sharing easily through it.

By reading this brief article, you will discover the purpose of a  square bracket .

What is a Square Bracket?

This punctuation is usually used in a sentence or paragraph with a quote written within . Usually, it’s utilized as an attempt to modify or further explain the statement. It’s done to cater to common readers who might not understand a high language level in writing.

Punctuation is also used to reword a term mentioned in the statement, so that most readers can comprehend its meaning. Authors can also use a square bracket in any form of writing.

“Then Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon [a Northern Italian river].”

3 Common Mistakes when Using a Square Bracket

Confused as another mark.

Sometimes, authors mistakenly use this as a parenthesis. Note that both punctuations have different uses and may affect your message conveyance through a word. So, here’s the distinction between them:

“I fell from the podium (while I was performing) and went straight to the ground.”

“I fell from the podium [a small stage] and went straight to the ground.”

Notice that the first passage tries to insert a short description of what was happening using the parenthesis. The parenthetical phrase tries to complement why the writer was on the podium. It’s usually used to clarify relevant things that aren’t mentioned in the sentence.

Meanwhile, the second sentence used the enclosure to explain a podium. It’s different from the previous sentence since it doesn’t emphasize the event. However, it purports to let the reader know what the preceding word means.

Prejudiced as a Mathematical Icon

Another reason writers don’t use this enclosure as often is that they think it portrays a mathematical expression. This is called by the same name but with different purposes. Some authors disregard this due to the reason of instead getting too algebraic.

Thought as Too Formal

Other commentaries would surmise that using this enclosure would cause the sophistication of a simple text. Also, when common readers see it within a text, they’ll get overwhelmed by the article’s structure. Unknowingly, it’s essential to write effectively.

Instead, some authors don’t clarify things anymore, even if it’s necessary. Ignoring such purpose of this enclosure would affect your readers’ comprehension of your text. Suppose these two sentences below:

The Ambassador Extraordinary-Plenipotentiary arrived yesterday.

Common readers wouldn’t understand what an ambassador extraordinary-plenipotentiary is. Also, what distinction does it have from a regular ambassador? Hence, the need to use a square bracket.

The Ambassador Extraordinary-Plenipotentiary [an ambassador with full representation of a head of state] arrived yesterday.

Now you know what a square bracket means and the different mistakes you should avoid when using it. Make sure to take note of everything you learned from this article so that you can add more tips to your writing expertise. English Grammar [a set of structure and vocabulary rules in English] is indeed fun to study!

Pam is an expert grammarian with years of experience teaching English, writing and ESL Grammar courses at the university level. She is enamored with all things language and fascinated with how we use words to shape our world.

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▶️ Common English Idioms - Download NOW!

Brackets are symbols that we use to contain "extra information", or information that is not part of the main content. Brackets always come in pairs—an "opening" bracket before the extra information, and a "closing" bracket after it. There are two main types of bracket: round () and square []. British English and American English define them differently, as you see below.

Round Brackets or Parentheses

British English (  ) = round brackets or brackets American English (  ) = parentheses

Round brackets are basically used to add extra information to a sentence. Look at these examples:

• explain or clarify
• Tony Blair (the former British prime minister) resigned from office in 2007.
• indicate plural or singular
• Please leave your mobile telephone(s) at the door.
• add a personal comment
• Many people love parties (I don't).
• The matter will be decided by the IOC (International Olympic Committee).

Some grammarians believe that (whenever possible) we should use commas. Some grammarians believe that, whenever possible, we should use commas.

Remember that the full stop, exclamation mark or question mark goes after the final bracket (unless the brackets contain a complete sentence). Look at these examples:

• My car is in the drive (with the window open).
• I just had an accident with our new car. (Sssh! My husband doesn't know yet.)
• The weather is wonderful. (If only it were always like this!)
• The party was fantastic (as always)!
• Do you remember Johnny (my brother's friend)?
• Johnny came too. (Do you remember Johnny?) We had a great time.

Square Brackets or Brackets

British English [  ] = square brackets American English [  ] = brackets

We typically use square brackets when we want to modify another person's words . Here, we want to make it clear that the modification has been made by us, not by the original writer. For example:

• The witness said: "He [the policeman] hit me."
• The two teams in the finals of the first FIFA Football World Cup were both from South America [Uruguay and Argentina].
• It is [a] good question.
• They will not be present [my emphasis].
• He "love[s] driving." (The original words were "I love driving.")

We also sometimes use square brackets for nesting, for example:

• Square brackets can also be nested (using square brackets [like these] inside round brackets).
• Index of Punctuation Marks
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How do I indicate that material in square brackets is part of the original text?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

Normally, when you quote from a source, your reader is to assume that any styling, such as italics or punctuation in the quotation, is in the original text. But, as the MLA Handbook (sec. 1.3.6) explains, square brackets are used to indicate material you have added. Thus, if square brackets are in the original, provide an explanation in parentheses after the quotation, as shown in the following example:

“He wanted to have [his] cake and eat it too” (square brackets in the original).

MLA Handbook . 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

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The Evening

Gunmen killed dozens at a moscow concert hall.

Also, Princess Kate announced that she has cancer. Here’s the latest at the end of Friday.

By Matthew Cullen

Several camouflage-clad gunmen opened fire today at a popular concert hall on the outskirts of Moscow, killing at least 40 people and wounding more than 100, Russia’s top security agency said, according to state news agencies. Here’s the latest .

More than a third of the venue, which was set to hold a sold-out performance by the rock band Piknik, caught on fire. Emergency services tried to rescue people from the roof, which was collapsing, according to a state news agency.

There was no report of who might be responsible for the attack, but state media said that there were up to five perpetrators. The attack at the concert venue, Crocus City Hall, in the suburb of Krasnogorsk, could be the deadliest in Russia in decades.

In videos filmed inside the hall, audience members are heard screaming, and there are multiple gunshots. Other videos filmed from a highway outside of the building show parts of it on fire producing heavy smoke.

A White House official said there was no indication that Ukraine was involved. On March 7, the U.S. Embassy in Moscow issued an alert warning of a possible attack by “extremists.”

Russian authorities said they had opened a criminal investigation into a terrorist act and dispatched investigators. Russia tightly regulates firearm possession and mass shootings are rare.

Princess Kate has cancer

After months of wild speculation about her absence from public life, Catherine, Princess of Wales, announced in a video message today that she had been diagnosed with cancer and began chemotherapy .

Her announcement followed King Charles’s revealing his cancer diagnosis and treatment last month. Like the king, Catherine, 42, did not specify what kind of cancer she has. She asked the public to respect her desire for privacy.

“This of course came as a huge shock,” Catherine said, “and William and I have been doing everything we can to process and manage this privately for the sake of our young family.”

Trump gained $3 billion, and maybe a lifeline

Donald Trump’s struggling social media company merged today with a publicly traded shell entity , potentially giving him a fresh source of cash to pay his mounting legal bills.

Shares of the company could begin trading on Monday, with a total expected valuation of around $5 billion. Given that Trump owns more than 60 percent of it, his net worth would increase by about $3 billion.

My colleague Matthew Goldstein, who is covering the merger, said the deal could give Trump a way to prevent New York State from seizing his assets . Trump is facing a Monday deadline to cover a $454 million penalty from his civil fraud case, and he has been unable to secure enough cash or a bond to do so.

Under the merger agreement, major shareholders aren’t allowed to sell or use their shares as collateral for at least six months. But Trump’s allies are likely to make up the majority of the company’s board.

“I think the most likely scenario is that they will lift the restriction so that he can pledge the stock,” Matthew told me. Trump could then appeal the New York ruling without selling off his real estate.

The House passed a spending bill, spurring a G.O.P. mutiny

The House today passed a $1.2 trillion spending bill to fund the government through September and avert a partial shutdown. The legislation is now being considered by the Senate, where lawmakers have just a few hours to pass the bill before funding lapses .

In the process of securing enough votes for passage, which included negotiations with Democrats, House Speaker Mike Johnson infuriated the Republican Party’s right wing. During the House vote, Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene of Georgia filed a motion to oust the speaker , though she said she would not seek an immediate vote to remove him.

More top news

Middle East: Russia and China vetoed a U.S.-backed U.N. resolution calling for “an immediate and sustained cease-fire” in Gaza.

Ukraine: A large-scale Russian attack damaged power plants and caused blackouts for more than a million Ukrainians.

Congress: Representative Mike Gallagher said he would resign in April , bringing House Republicans’ majority down to one.

Covid: Scientists are working on better understanding the virus’s evolution so they can be ready for what might happen next .

Obama: A set of oral histories revealed that Barack Obama feared he would have a one-term presidency as a result of the battle to pass the Affordable Care Act.

Fashion: Pierpaolo Piccioli is leaving his role as Valentino’s creative director after 25 years.

Music: Joni Mitchell returned to Spotify , two years after she left to protest what she called “lies” about Covid vaccines in podcasts.

TIME TO UNWIND

How far will caitlin clark go.

Iowa’s sharpshooting superstar, Caitlin Clark, is the most exciting player in women’s college basketball. But most experts think her team’s path to the Final Four is just too challenging . Whether Clark and her teammates can defy expectations and make a title run in her final year is likely to be the biggest story line of the tournament.

Iowa’s first game is tomorrow afternoon. Elsewhere in the bracket, Middle Tennessee upset Louisville and No. 1-seeded South Carolina won by 52 points. Here’s the latest .

A lifelong pursuit of action nirvana

The video game designer Hideaki Itsuno helped shape the fighting genre with his work on Street Fighter Alpha in 1995. He then spent the next few decades expanding combat to larger, more ornate spaces.

Today, Itsuno released his most ambitious video game yet , Dragon’s Dogma 2, which further refines his approach to action in an open fantasy world of dragons and adventure.

Dinner table topics

An adaptable home: This 400-square-foot New York City apartment can shift and change, depending on the time of day and what the occupants need.

Fashion king: Garments made as part of a collaboration between King Charles and two designers are on view at the royal Sandringham Estate.

Bracing for impact: A remote county in Maine is likely to be inundated with visitors during next month's eclipse. “Where are 20,000 people going to pee?”

A year unplugged: A 13-year-old left her phone behind to study at a school in the Australian wilderness. She stayed in touch with handwritten letters .

WHAT TO DO THIS WEEKEND

Cook: These skillet eggs are like a mash-up of shakshuka, eggs in purgatory and curry.

Control: The skills of a kidnapping negotiator with 15 years of experience can help you deal with a crisis.

Read: These new paperbacks include a deep dive into a public hospital and a thriller set in rural Arkansas.

Listen: Jon Pareles, our chief pop music critic, has a mixtape for your weekend.

Plan: Money can be a touchy subject, but “loud budgeting” could change that.

Compete: Take this week’s news quiz .

Play: Here are today’s Spelling Bee , Wordle and Mini Crossword . Find all our games here .

ONE LAST THING

A review tapped out by tom hanks.

Allie Millington’s debut novel, “Olivetti,” is a story about a troubled 12-year-old boy whose mother goes missing. But because much of it is narrated by the unlikely character of a midcentury typewriter, we turned to Tom Hanks, who is a typewriter enthusiast.

The book, Hanks wrote, “captures the essence of why typewriters are such extraordinary creations, and why everyone should have one.” Check out his review .

And have a wondrous weekend.

Thanks for reading. I’ll be back on Monday. — Matthew

We welcome your feedback. Write to us at [email protected] .

A correction: Thank you, readers, for spotting a problem with a picture caption about March Madness in yesterday’s newsletter. Mississippi State was playing Michigan State, not the University of Michigan. We know the difference between Spartans and Wolverines and could have been clearer.