higher psychology coursework

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Higher Psychology - assignment

Assignment 2022 (all links open as pdf files), complete assignments, usage of technology and its effect on sleep.

Candidate 1 Evidence
Candidate 1 Commentary

The impact of false high estimates on the participants estimated guess of sweets in the jar

Candidate 2 Evidence
Candidate 2 Commentary

1. Introduction (Aims and Hypotheses)

Section 1 Candidate Evidence
Section 1 Commentary

2. Method (Design)

Section 2 Candidate Evidence
Section 2 Commentary

3. Method (Ethics)

Section 3 Candidate Evidence
Section 3 Commentary

4. Discussion

Section 4 Candidate Evidence
Section 4 Commentary

Assignment 2021 (All links open to PDF files)

Please view these materials in conjunction with the higher Psychology webinar recording from April 2021 , available within the 2021 section of the Webinars page.

Candidate Evidence 2021
Commentary 2021

Assignment 2019 (All links open as PDF files)

Investigating how age affects conformity, how does prelim stress correlate with winter illnesses.

Candidate 2 Evidence

Conformity Study - Sweets in a Jar

Candidate 3 Evidence

Correlation between screen time and quantity/quality of sleep gained

Candidate 4 Evidence
Candidates 1 to 4 Commentaries
Workshop - Candidate evidence and commentary
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Higher Psychology (Course Code: C863 76)

Scqf level 6 (24 scqf credit points).

Why study Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behaviour. Psychology is a research-based subject, and provides the opportunity to conduct practical research. This includes working with human participants in accordance with ethical standards.

This course develops your ability to analyse psychological explanations for individual and social behaviour. You will learn about some of the ways that thoughts and emotions can affect how we feel and behave.

Knowledge of human behaviour is a useful subject for your personal development as well as being relevant to many career paths, including education, medicine and law.

Career Pathways

To see what career areas this subject could lead to and the routes to get there, download and view these career pathways:

Administration and Management
Arts, Social Sciences and Languages
Communications and Media
Health and Medicine
Social, Caring and Advisory Services

What do I need to get in?

Entry is at the discretion of the school or college, but you would normally be expected to have achieved:

National 5 Biology
National 5 Psychology

What will I study?

The course consists of three areas of study.

Individual behaviour

analyse individual behaviour, investigate topics and learn how these topics can be explained using psychological theories and research evidence
evaluate and apply theories to show an understanding of individual human behaviour.

Social behaviour

analyse how interaction with others shapes social behaviour
investigate psychological explanations for social behaviour
use research evidence to analyse how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by their social environment
apply psychological knowledge and understanding to explain examples of everyday social behaviour.
understand and apply the research process and research methods used in psychology
develop the skills required to conduct and evaluate psychological research.
develop numerical skills and an understanding of psychological terminology.

How will I be assessed?

The course assessment has two components totalling 120 marks :

Component 1: question paper – worth 60 marks (scaled up to 80 marks for the 2022-23 session) (consisting of section 1 - Individual behaviour and section 2 - Social behaviour)
Component 2: assignment – worth 40 marks.

For the assignment component, you will research a topic you have studied and produce a psychological report.

Both the question paper and the assignment are set and externally marked by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA).

The grade awarded is based on the total marks achieved across course assessment.

The course assessment is graded A-D.

Study Materials

SQA Past Papers Psychology Higher
SQA Understanding Standards Psychology

What can I go on to next?

If you complete the course successfully, it may lead to:

other qualifications in Psychology, social sciences, social studies or related areas.

Further study, training or employment in:

Which jobs are related to this subject?

Psychology - Related Careers

Where can my parents find out more?

Your school will give your parents an Options or Choices information booklet, which has detailed information on the curriculum and the individual subjects or courses you can study. It will also invite them along to a Parents’ Information Evening.

They can also read the information leaflet(s):

Nationals in a Nutshell - Psychology (Higher)

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Higher Psychology Course Support

Notes

This document may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no profit is

derived from reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged. Additional copies of

these Course Support Notes can be downloaded from SQA’s website: www.sqa.org.uk.

Please refer to the note of changes at the end of this document for details of changes from previous version

(where applicable).

April 2012, version 1.0

Contents

Course Support Notes

Introduction 4

General guidance on the Course 5

Approaches to learning and teaching 12

Equality and inclusion 22

Appendix 1: Reference documents 24

Appendix 2: Higher Psychology Glossary of terms 25

Appendix 3: Ethical practice in student research — Psychology 26

Administrative information 30

Unit Support Notes — Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) 31

Introduction 32

General guidance on the Unit 33

Approaches to learning and teaching 34

Approaches to assessment 42

Equality and inclusion 44

Appendix 1: Reference documents 46

Administrative information 47

Unit Support Notes — Psychology: Research (Higher) 48

Introduction 49

General guidance on the Unit 50

Approaches to learning and teaching 52

Equality and inclusion 59

Appendix 1: Reference documents 61

Administrative information 62

Unit Support Notes — Psychology: Social Behaviour (Higher) 63

Introduction 64

General guidance on the Unit 65

Approaches to learning and teaching 67

Approaches to assessment 71

Equality and inclusion 73

Appendix 1: Reference documents 75

Administrative information 76

Introduction

These support notes are not mandatory. They provide advice and guidance on

approaches to delivering and assessing the Higher Psychology Course. They are

intended for teachers and lecturers who are delivering the Course and its Units.

They should be read in conjunction with the Course Specification, the Course

Assessment Specification and the Unit Specifications for the Units in the Course.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 4

General guidance on the Course

Aims

This Course is designed to introduce learners to psychology as the scientific

study of human behaviour. Learners will develop knowledge and understanding

of psychological explanations for human behaviour and develop research skills

used in practical psychological research. Research skills include the skill of

research as a review of literature and evidence, and research as a scientific

method of enquiry.

The Higher Psychology Course is designed to develop learners’ understanding of

the study of human behaviour through the application of psychological topics,

concepts, theories and approaches. Learners will develop skills in investigating

and evaluating existing evidence and also develop the ability to plan and carry

out psychological research.

The Course aims to enable learners to develop:

knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories,

approaches and terminology and the ability to use thinking skills when

analysing, evaluating and applying knowledge and understanding of

psychology

understanding of the role of research evidence in explaining human

behaviour

investigation skills to select, organise, interpret and evaluate information

ability to plan and carry out psychological research using appropriate

methods and according to ethical and scientific standards

communication and numeracy skills used in psychology

Learners use appropriate psychological concepts, theories, research methods

and evidence to investigate and analyse internal and external influences on

human behaviour in a range of different contexts.

Progression into this Course

Entry to this Course is at the discretion of the centre. However, learners would

normally be expected to have attained the skills and knowledge required by one

or more of the following or by equivalent qualifications and/or experience:

National 5 Psychology Course

National 5 Biology Courses or relevant component Units

Social Studies or Sciences Courses or relevant component Units at SCQF

level 5

In addition a level of maturity and independent thought will be required for the

Higher Psychology Course and it is recognised that life experience can be a valid

preparation. Successful completion of a broad general education would prepare

learners to further develop the skills required to investigate psychological

approaches to investigating the human mind and social behaviour.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 5

Centres wishing to establish the suitability of learners without prior qualifications

may benefit from carrying out a diagnostic review of prior life and work

experience. This approach may be particularly useful for adult returners to

education.

Skills, knowledge and understanding covered

in the Course

Information about skills, knowledge and understanding is given in the Psychology

Course Support Notes.

This section provides further advice and guidance about skills, knowledge and

understanding that could be included in the Course.

Note: teachers and lecturers should refer to the Course Assessment Specification

for mandatory information about the skills, knowledge and understanding to be

covered in this Course as the Course assessment will be based on this.

The Higher Psychology Course develops skills, knowledge and understanding

which have a wide ranging application in learning, life and work contexts. The

skills, knowledge and understanding may be developed in each of the Course

Units, however greater emphasis will be given to developing some of the above

points in particular Units. (See table overleaf.)

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 6

Plenty of opportunities within the Unit

Many opportunities within the Unit

Some opportunities within the Unit

Skills, knowledge and

understanding

Analyse and evaluate

psychological concepts,

theories and approaches

and evidence

Use investigation skills to

select, organise, interpret,

analyse and evaluate

evidence in psychology

Research Unit

Individual

Behaviour

Unit

Social Behaviour

Learners at Higher may be introduced to a range of different

approaches before focusing on particular approaches and

theories. Approaches that must be considered include the

biological and cognitive approaches to explaining human

behaviour. Developmental, humanistic, behaviourist or

psychodynamic approaches offer interesting alternative

explanations for the learner to consider. Approaches may

be introduced in a way that provides a historical overview of

the development of psychology as a science.

Analysis and evaluation should focus on the features of

approaches and their strengths and weaknesses. Concepts

and terminology may be explained in the context of

theoretical approaches where this is possible.

Because there is scope for personalisation and choice in

this Course, it is possible to select topics of particular

interest to the learner or appropriate to the local situation.

The learner should initially be guided towards a range of

resources and gradually encouraged to source their own

resources for discussion. For classroom based activities

these may include examples of behaviour from publications,

websites, media reports and accounts of observed

behaviour. Learners should be given guidance that when

selecting evidence to use to explain behaviour the

explanations must be supported by valid and reliable

research evidence.

Skills of analysis and evaluation are developed at this level.

Analysis involves giving a detailed account of the main

features of an approach, concept, topic or issue including

the relationship between the features; and identifying and

comparing the strengths and weaknesses of the features.

Apply knowledge and

understanding of

psychology to analyse and

explain human behaviour

Evaluation involves the ability to examine in detail the value,

quality and importance of an approach or theory in

comparison with another to explain behaviour. Evaluation

also includes identifying strengths, weaknesses, similarities

and differences to form a conclusion.

When explaining human behaviour learners will use their

knowledge and understanding of psychology. Analysis

involves giving a detailed account of the main features of an

approach, concept, topic or issue in considering alternative

explanations and offering a reasoned explanation that is

supported by theoretical evidence.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 7

Understand the research

process, including the

ability to evaluate methods

and explain ethical and

scientific standards

Use research evidence to

Interpret descriptive

statistics in psychological

research

Use communication skills to

present information,

including a report on

psychological research

Teachers and lecturers have a key role in guiding learners

to work in accordance with ethical and scientific standards.

At Higher, learners will develop skills in planning and

conducting research. Learning and teaching should

reinforce the ethical principles of research as stated in the

British Psychological Society guidelines.

Learners are supported to draw on classic and

contemporary research evidence to explain behaviour.

Interpreting descriptive statistics should include learning

about mode, median, mean, central tendency and range.

Learners will develop skills in interpreting information from a

variety of sources including charts and graphs.

Learners can consolidate and improve on communication

methods where they are confident and also develop or try

out new methods. Information can be presented in a variety

of formats, for example summarising and presenting

information as an information leaflet, poster or short video

clip, or writing a longer piece such as an essay or report to

develop the ability to structure and develop a piece of work.

Learners will write a Psychological report in the Higher

Course assignment. Oral communication skills may be

developed through discussion or when presenting findings.

Technology may be used to support communication skills.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 8

Progression from this Course

This Course or its Units may provide progression to:

qualifications in psychology, social science, social studies or related areas at

SCQF level 7

further study, training or employment

Other progression pathways are also possible including progression to other

qualifications at the same or different levels.

Psychology also has applications in life such as contributing to wellbeing and in

work related fields such as health and social welfare, commercial, professional

and managerial jobs, marketing teaching and the media.

Hierarchies

Hierarchy is the term used to describe Courses and Units which form a

structured sequence involving two or more SCQF levels.

It is important that any content in a Course and/or Unit at one particular SCQF

level is not repeated if a learner progresses to the next level of the hierarchy. The

skills and knowledge should be able to be applied to new content and contexts to

enrich the learning experience. This is for centres to manage.

The Higher Psychology Course has been constructed to facilitate a hierarchical

arrangement with the National 5 Psychology Course. While Units have the same

titles and structures, the level of demand is progressive in the degree of difficulty

and complexity from one level to the next.

A differentiated approach may assist teachers/lecturers to plan activities and

experiences. Activities covering the Higher Psychology Course could be covered

with National 5 learners receiving more teacher support; learners at Higher

levelshould be able to take an active role in their learning.

Differentiation between levels could also be evident via support provided. At

National 5 level, there may be a mix of group work/teacher-led sessions plus

some individual learning. At Higher level, learners could be given individual tasks

and take on more responsibility for their own learning. Learners might provide

evidence relating to evaluating and drawing conclusions from learning. Learners

working at different levels may benefit from access to differentiated learning

materials to allow for independent work while the teacher is teaching/providing

support to others within the class.

In Higher Psychology, learners will study topics in greater depth and work with

more complex concepts and theories. At SCQF level 6, learners develop their

knowledge of the stages of the research process and carry this out to

demonstrate their understanding of the process and ethical standards for

research.

Psychology deals with complex subject issues. At SCQF level 6, learners are

challenged to recognise that there may be numerous and often varied

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 9

explanations for behaviour. The Higher Psychology Course offers opportunities to

analyse and evaluate theories, approaches and research evidence. Developing

skills of analysis and evaluation should be stimulating and satisfying for learners;

however, learners will benefit from teacher guidance and support as they explore

the complexity of human behaviour. The following table outlines the level.

Higher Psychology Course

Psychology: Research

Learners should be able to evaluate the research process in psychology.

At SCQF level 6 this will involve explaining the stages of the research process,

evaluating research and sampling methods and explaining the use of ethical

guidelines. Data handling will involve calculating and presenting data using

descriptive statistics.

There is scope for personalisation and choice when selecting research topics.

Participation in research is expected to form part of the learning and teaching in

this Unit. Teachers/lecturers should ensure that any research is carried out with

appropriate permission and supervision and in accordance with British

Psychological Society guidelines.

Psychology: Social Behaviour

Learners should be able to analyse topics relating to human social behaviour.

At SCQF level 6 this will involve explaining concepts or theories associated with a

topic and evaluating psychological research evidence that contributes to

psychological understanding of the topic. Learners will be able to apply their

understanding to explain everyday behaviour.

There is scope for personalisation and choice when selecting topics, approaches

and related theories and concepts to explain social behaviour. For those doing

the Course assessment, a minimum of two topics must be studied, one of which

is conformity and obedience. Learners will be able to evaluate research

evidence and refer to this when explaining everyday behaviour. The research

studies for the topic of conformity and obedience are Mori, K, and Arai, M (2012)

and Milgram, S (1963).

Psychology: Individual Behaviour

Learners should be able to analyse topics relating to individual behaviour.

At SCQF level 6 this will involve explaining a topic for individual behaviour using

relevant concepts and theories, evaluating the use of approaches and their

related theories and applying psychological knowledge and understanding to

support wellbeing.

and related theories to explain individual behaviour. For those doing the Course

assessment, two topics will be studied, one of which is mandatory. The

mandatory topic is sleep, dreams and sleep disorders. Learners will be able to

evaluate at least four different approaches, two of which are mandatory. The

mandatory approaches to be applied to the topic of sleep, dreams and sleep

disorders are the biological and cognitive approaches.

The research study for sleep, dreams and sleep disorders is Dement & Kleitman

(1957) and Van der Werf et al. (2009). See below.

Dement, W. and Kleitman, N. (1957). The relation of eye movements during sleep

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 10

to dream activity: an objective method for the study of dreaming. Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 53, 339-46.

Van der Werf, Y.D., Altena, E., Schoonheim, M.M., Sanz-Arigita, E.J., Vis, J.C.,

De Rijke, W. and Van Someren, E.J.W. (2009). Sleep benefits subsequent

hippocampal functioning. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 122-123.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 11

Approaches to learning and

teaching

Mode of delivery

There are three Units in the Higher Psychology Course. The level of demand in

each Unit corresponds with the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework

at level 6.

The three Units in the Course are:

Psychology: Research (Higher)

Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher)

Psychology: Social Behaviour (Higher)

(6 SCQF credit points)

The Course assessment also has a value of 6 SCQF credit points.

The learning and teaching for Units could be approached in a variety of ways.

Units may be delivered in any order. They may be delivered sequentially or

concurrently. The following diagram illustrates some alternative models to

delivering the Units.

Research

Social

The first model introduces the research process at an early stage and enables

understanding of the importance of psychological research to be consolidated

and applied when moving on to the Individual Behaviour and Social Behaviour

Units.

The second model introduces topics in Social Behaviour and then Individual

Behaviour. Understanding of topics from social and individual psychology can be

used to enable personalisation and choice of contexts for investigating behaviour

within the Research Unit.

Individual Behaviour

The third model allows understanding of the research process to be developed

concurrently with learning from the other Units. Learning in the Research Unit is

extended, offering learners a longer period of time to refine their research skills.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 12

Teaching approaches should support Curriculum for Excellence’s four capacities

to enable each learner to develop as a successful learner, a confident individual,

a responsible citizen and an effective contributor.

Psychology readily lends itself to a variety of learning and teaching methods,

including candidate-centred problem-solving activities, pair and group discussion,

analysis of research scenarios, analysis of real-life applications of theory,

experimental demonstrations, questionnaire design, games and quizzes, webbased

activities, as well as formal presentation. Stimulus materials such as visual

aids and familiar situations may be used to stimulate interest and discussion.

Learners should be gradually encouraged, as far as possible, to be co-creators of

their own learning by finding information to discuss in the library, online, in

newspapers, magazines and journals and to generally show initiative, wherever

appropriate. These resources can be used to stimulate discussion and to provide

opportunities for teachers/lecturers to emphasise the importance of using valid

and reliable psychological evidence to support explanations.

The integration of theory with practical activities reinforces and applies

knowledge, understanding and skills in meaningful contexts. Care should be

taken during each learning activity to ensure learners are aware of what they

have learned and are encouraged to consider other applications for these skills,

knowledge and understanding in learning, life and work.

The benefits of co-operative learning, peer support and peer feedback can be

substantial and should be encouraged and can be supported by the use of

technology (ICT).

Each of the Units in the Course offers opportunities for personalisation and

choice. For learners preparing for Course assessment, there are mandatory

topics that must be studied. The mandatory topics offer scope for links to be

made with other topics that may be studied within the Unit or with topics in other

Units. For example, in the Individual Behaviour Unit, the topic of sleep, dreams

and sleep disorders may be linked to an optional topic such as memory or stress.

It may also be linked with the mandatory topic of conformity and obedience in the

Social Behaviour Unit. Topics selected can also provide a focus for learning and

teaching within the research Unit.

Ethical practice is essential in psychology. Some topics may be sensitive for

individual candidates, based on stages of development or personal experiences,

and discretion should be used. Care should be taken in learning and teaching

and sensitivity should be shown, for example, in discussions which may relate to

health, relationships or emotions. Teachers and lecturers should be alert to any

signs of discomfort or distress. Such concerns are particularly relevant to delivery

methods involving classroom research demonstrations, and teachers/lecturers

should be familiar with two sources of ethical guidance: the BPS Code of Ethics

and Conduct , at www.bps.org.uk; and the ATP Guide to Ethics for Teachers

and Students of Psychology at Pre-Degree Level

Table 2 provides further detail about the aims of the Higher Psychology Course.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 13

Table 2

Stimulate the learner’s interest in

knowing and understanding

psychological concepts, theories,

approaches and terminology.

Develop and use thinking skills when

analysing, evaluating and applying

knowledge and understanding of

psychology.

Develop understanding of the role of

research evidence in explaining human

behaviour.

Develop investigation skills to select,

organise, interpret and evaluate

information.

Develop the ability to plan and carry

out psychological research using

appropriate methods and according to

ethical and scientific standards.

Explanation

Learning in psychology encourages

learners to investigate human aspects

of behaviour and gain psychological

knowledge, understanding and skills.

This Course further enables learners to

develop the ability to think objectively

about human social and individual

behaviour. Links between

psychological knowledge and

understanding and its application will

enable learners to develop an

understanding of the role of psychology

in real-life contexts.

Skills of analysis and evaluation will be

developed to enable learners to

analyse different approaches to

explaining behaviour. Learners will also

develop and understand the

importance of considering strengths

and weaknesses of evidence and

explanations of behaviour used in

Learners will develop an understanding

of the need to support psychological

explanations for human behaviour

including using psychological research

evidence. Learners will be encouraged

to use best available evidence to

support their explanations.

As an evidence based subject,

psychology requires the skills of

selecting, interpreting and organising

appropriate information. Teachers and

lecturers can support learners to think

through and make decisions about

what is the most relevant information to

consider for the psychological topic

being studied. Learners will be guided

towards suitable sources of information

as they may not be aware that general

interest articles and websites can be

biased, inaccurate or incomplete.

Developing responsible attitudes to

research is aimed at safeguarding both

the learner and others. This Course

offers opportunities to plan and conduct

research under supervision, in

accordance with British Psychological

Society standards Code of Ethics and

Conduct.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 14

Develop communication and numeracy

skills used in psychology.

Supporting the development of

communication and numeracy skills

through psychology can increase the

learner’s confidence in their own ability

in these important skills. This may

include interpreting qualitative and

quantitative data. Learners also carry

out some calculations that are useful in

the study of psychology, for example

the calculation of mean, median, mode

and standard deviation.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 15

Developing skills for learning,

skills for life and skills for work

Learners are expected to develop broad generic skills as an integral part of their

learning experience. The Course Specification lists the skills for learning, skills for

life and skills for work that learners should develop through this Course. These

are based on SQA’s Skills Framework: Skills for Learning, Skills for Life and

Skills for Work and must be built into the Course where there are appropriate

opportunities. The level of these skills will be appropriate to the level of the

Course.

Literacy

1.2 Writing

2 Numeracy

2.3 Information handling

3 Health and wellbeing

3.1 Personal learning

5 Thinking skills

5.3 Applying

5.4 Analysing and evaluating

Skills for learning, skills for life and skills for work developed in the Higher are

illustrated overleaf.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 16

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 17

Approaches to assessment

The publication Building the Curriculum 5 sets out a framework for assessment

which offers guidance on approaches to recognising achievement, profiling and

reporting. A shared understanding of Assessment Standards and expectations is

essential. Research in assessment suggests that learners learn best, and

attainment improves, when learners:

understand clearly what they are trying to learn, and what is expected of them

are given feedback about the quality of their work, and what they can do to

make it better

are given advice about how to go about making improvements

are fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next, and know who can

give them help if they need it

(http://scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/09/20105413/54156)

A holistic approach to assessment is recommended where possible. This will

enrich the assessment process for the learners, avoid duplication of assessment

and provide more time for learning and teaching. Additionally it will allow centres

to manage the assessment process more efficiently.

Assessment practice tasks could be used as a valuable learning tool, not only to

prepare learners for the mode of assessment required for assessment, but also

to reinforce learning and inform remediation of less secure learning. Peer

assessment is a good, active example of assessment as well as giving valuable

experience of making value judgements.

Whatever the assessment approach used, it is important that the assessment

encourages personalisation and choice. Any reporting back method can be done

in a manner suitable for the learner — text based, audio/electronic presentation

or video evidence. There are many sources of assistive technology software

available to ease text-based tasks such as reading.

Assessment should meet the varying needs of all learners. It is important that

learners receive regular feedback on their performance.

Preparation for Course assessment

Each Course has additional time which may be used at the discretion of the

teacher or lecturer to enable learners to prepare for Course assessment. This

time may be used near the start of the Course and at various points throughout

the Course for consolidation and support or for preparation for Unit assessment,

and towards the end of the Course, for further integration, revision and

preparation and/or gathering evidence for Course assessment.

Information given in the Course Specification and the Course Assessment

Specification about the assessment of added value is mandatory.

The purpose of the Course assessment is to assess added value of the Course

as well to confirm attainment in the Course and to provide a grade. The added

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 18

value for the Course will address the key purposes and aims of the Course as

defined in the Course rationale.

The Higher Psychology Course assessment has two components: a question

paper and an assignment. Teachers and lecturers should refer to the Course

Assessment Specification for details of mandatory Course content and

assessment arrangements. Information on mandatory content should be shared

with learners to enable preparation for Course assessment. Evidence generated

through activities could provide opportunities for self-assessment, peerassessment

and teacher/lecturer feedback to give guidance and support

improvement.

In this Course, added value will focus on the following:

Question paper samples

skills, knowledge and

understanding from across

the Course

Higher

Psychology

Breadth and

application

Assignment to demonstrate

understanding in planning

and conducting a

investigation

Thinking skills are important in psychology and learners at this level should

develop their ability to analyse and evaluate approaches and theories in some

detail and to refer to specific psychological evidence when explaining behaviour.

The question paper will be carried out in controlled conditions within set time

limits. Opportunities to practice writing responses to questions within time

constraints will enable learners to understand the requirements of assessment.

For Course assessment, a research investigation will be carried out in

accordance with a given brief and the learner will work to the requirements of the

brief. Detailed information can be obtained in the Course Assessment

Specification.

To prepare for the assignment, learners will require opportunities to understand

what is involved in planning, conducting and reporting on a piece of psychological

research. This involves being able to write concisely in an approved format and

be able to provide references for sources used. The assignment may be

introduced at any time during the Course; however, learners should be given

time, guidance and support to develop skills, knowledge and understanding

required, before compiling assessment evidence.

Teachers and lecturers should work with learners to think about possibilities for

small-scale, classroom-based psychological research investigations when

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 19

studying topics in the Individual Behaviour and Social Behaviour Units. This will

help to make links between Units in the Course and help learners to prepare for

Course assessment.

Research carried out as part of learning and teaching should reinforce ethical

and scientific standards. The safety of learners and the general public is a

fundamental part of ethical research.

Combining assessment across Units

Each of the Units in the Higher Psychology Course has a single Outcome with a

set of coherent Assessment Standards designed to promote holistic assessment

within Units. It would be possible to combine learning, teaching and assessment

across Units, without duplicating the requirements of Course assessment.

Potential links between Outcomes and Assessment Standards of Units may be

established, which will provide opportunities for learners to develop skills and use

knowledge within one activity.

One approach would be to select an overall theme for the delivery of the Course

with topics that relate to each of the Units in the Course. For example a theme

such as ‘Psychology as Science’ is the idea that psychological knowledge should

be acquired through observation in which research is undertaken to test ideas

and hypothesis. This theme could be liked to topics in the Individual Behaviour

and Social Behaviour Units whilst drawing on skills and knowledge from the

Research Unit.

Other themes such as ‘Situational versus Individual explanations for behaviour’

may be of interest to learners.

A single assessment, such as a presentation, portfolio or extended piece of

written work, could be developed to enable learners to attain Assessment

Standards for all or some of the Units of the Course within this context. This may

offer additional coherence to the Course and be most appropriate where learners

have a particular career focus or interest.

Care must be taken to ensure that combined assessments provide appropriate

evidence for all Outcomes which they claim to assess. Assessors should ensure

that combining assessments does not increase the complexity of the assessment

task.

The use of technology can play an important role in the design and delivery of the

new National Courses by supporting integration and learner personalisation and

choice. While it is important not to introduce new, additional ICT skills or

knowledge, learners may be using ICT in working towards their assessment.

Learners can use skills developed in their broad general education to support

learning in psychology. Developing ICT skills will be important for learners to

benefit from a wide range of online resources and to enable them to use ICT in

presenting information.

In some circumstances it will be possible for learners to work cooperatively with

others to share experiences and information. This may be done using ICT and

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 20

may be particularly useful in supporting learners to participate in planning and

discussion which takes place in the Research Unit.

Communication skills are developed throughout the Course. The ability to follow

a standard psychological report writing format will be developed, however

learners should have the opportunity to develop other types of writing skills in this

Course. For example, learners may develop a blog or use a wiki to contribute to

planning and conducting research. Learners may contribute to a discussion forum

to analyse a video clip of human behaviour. Learners may develop their ability to

select important information and write this in a concise way to compile an

academic poster or use electronic media to present information.

It is not necessary for Unit assessment or combined Unit assessments to test the

mandatory topics that will be assessed in Course assessment. It is however

important that the Outcomes and Assessment Standards are clearly met.

Conditions of assessment

When the teacher/lecturer does not have direct evidence that the work is the

learner’s own, the teacher/lecturer will need to take steps to confirm that the

learner’s evidence was genuinely produced by them.

Authenticity

There are a number of techniques and strategies for ensuring that learner’s work

presented is their own. For more information, please refer to SQA’s Guide to

Assessment.

For guidance on assessment and re-assessment please refer to SQA’s Guide to

Assessment, available on SQA’s website.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 21

Equality and inclusion

The following guidance should support assessors to ensure that any issues

relating to equality and inclusion for learners undertaking the Psychology Course

are addressed:

Centres must take into account the needs of all learners who undertake the

There should be no unnecessary barrier for any learner studying this Course

or its individual Units.

Centres could involve learners in negotiating the topics they wish to study on the

Course. In this way, learners’ prior experience could be acknowledged and

issues, such as culture, could be taken into account.

The following are reasonable responses to adapting assessments in Psychology:

additional time allocation

scribe or reader

audio evidence

assistive technology

Learners undertaking this Course will be required to write psychological reports,

work with numerical data, and communicate psychological understanding.

If learners require support to overcome barriers, they may be supported by

scribes when writing psychological reports, and/or this could be done

electronically. Communication could be written, oral or diagrammatic.

Interpretation of numerical and statistical data/descriptive statistics is crucial to

the study of Psychology. Calculators may be used.

The topics and approaches covered in this Course may touch on controversial or

sensitive issues. For example, in discussions which may relate to health,

relationships or emotions, teachers/lecturers should be alert to any signs of

discomfort or distress. It is important that centres encourage an accepting,

positive attitude, and strongly discourage the use of language which shows

prejudice towards people who suffer from psychological disorders.

The activities and assessment in this Course are flexible. In order to fully support

learners with additional support needs, centres should select from among the

wide range of options, in order to find learning experiences which best suit the

profile of their learners.

It is recognised that centres have their own duties under equality and other

legislation and policy initiatives. The guidance given in these Course Support

Notes is designed to sit alongside these duties but is specific to the delivery and

assessment of the Course.

It is important that centres are aware of and understand SQA’s assessment

arrangements for disabled learners, and those with additional support needs,

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 22

when making requests for adjustments to published assessment arrangements.

Centres will find more guidance on this in the series of publications on

Assessment Arrangements on SQA’s website: www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/14977.html.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 23

Appendix 1: Reference documents

The following reference documents will provide useful information and

background.

Assessment Arrangements (for disabled candidates and/or those with

additional support needs) — various publications are available on SQA’s

website at: www.sqa.org.uk/sqa//14977.html.

Building the Curriculum 4: Skills for learning, skills for life and skills for work

Building the Curriculum 5: A framework for assessment

Course Specifications

Design Principles for National Courses

Guide to Assessment (June 2008)

Overview of Qualification Reports

Principles and practice papers for curriculum areas

SCQF Handbook: User Guide (published 2009) and

SCQF level descriptors (to be reviewed during 2011 to 2012):

www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/4595.html

SQA Skills Framework: Skills for Learning, Skills for Life and Skills for Work

Skills for Learning, Skills for Life and Skills for Work: Using the Curriculum

Tool

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 24

Appendix 2: Higher Psychology

Glossary of terms

This glossary is intended to clarify the meaning of action terms used in the

Assessment Standards of the Higher Psychology Course.

Please note that the meaning of terms differs across disciplines and levels. This

Glossary is designed for use with Higher Psychology.

Action terms used in Assessment Standards

Analyse:

Apply:

Describe:

Evaluate:

Explain:

Justify:

Examine in detail in order to give a detailed account of the main

features of a concept, topic or issue including the relationship

between the features; identify and compare strengths and

weaknesses of the features.

Make clear and appropriate use of detailed knowledge and

understanding in order to make a considered judgement and

demonstrate clear understanding of the concept, topic or issue.

A straightforward but clear and detailed account of the main

features of the concept, topic or issue.

Examine in detail in order to judge the value, quality and

importance of an item in comparison with another. Identify

strengths, weaknesses, similarities and differences and form a

conclusion.

Demonstrate detailed knowledge and understanding of the

concept in the response using appropriate psychological

terminology. Examples may be helpful to explain points.

Give a reasoned and clear account, supported by evidence, of

why a particular choice was made.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 25

Appendix 3: Ethical practice in

student research — Psychology

The British Psychological Society (BPS) publishes a Code of Ethics and Conduct

which can be found at www.bps.org.uk. These guidelines are designed to ensure

ethical research in psychology. When a student undertakes research, the

teacher, lecturer or supervisor takes responsibility for ensuring the ethical nature

of the student research.

This paper gives brief guidance for teachers on ethical practice in psychology and

suggestions for supervising learners. More in depth information can be found on

the British Psychological Society’s website.

Notes for teachers and lecturers

Teachers and lecturers are required to supervise student’s work and make

certain that it does not contravene the ethical guidelines of the British

Psychological Society (BPS).

The wellbeing of both students and research participants must be protected

at all times.

Students and participants between the ages of 16–18 years:

Permission should always be gained from:

Parents (in all cases)

The young person themselves (in all cases)

Teachers or carers (when research is outside the home)

Student researchers should be made aware of the potential for influencing young

people. They should not therefore involve people under 18 in any research topic

that is either illegal or age restricted, eg drug use, alcohol, smoking, violent or

sexually explicit material or sexual activity.

No participant under the age of 16 should be used in the Course

assessment, Research Investigation.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 26

Brief outline of BPS ethical guidelines

Consent: Participants should give informed consent to take part in any study. If

possible participants should be informed about the objectives of the research. If

giving this information would have an impact on the study (through demand

characteristics) then the participant should be advised of the objectives of the

study at the earliest opportunity and additional safeguards should be put in place

to maintain the participant’s welfare and dignity.

Informing participants means that the participants must know:

the aim of the project

the type of data being collected

the method

time commitment expected

the right to decline or withdraw at any point

opportunity to see final report and results

Deception: Participants should not be deceived. If any information is kept from

the participant in order to avoid demand characteristics in the research, they

should be given this information at the earliest opportunity.

Withdrawal: Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw from the

study at any time. This includes the participant being able to withdraw their data

after the research has been completed.

Protection: Participants have the right to be safe and free from physical and

mental harm and thus should not be endangered or harmed in any way, including

psychological harm such as stress, self-doubt, embarrassment, humiliation or

avoidable anxiety during the course of the research. The risk of harm should be

no greater than encountered in their normal daily lives. Researchers should

respect individual, cultural and role differences. Sensitive topics, eg illegal

activities, violence, sexual behaviour, abuse must be avoided.

Confidentiality: All information about participants obtained during the course of

the research is strictly confidential unless written permission is obtained from the

participant in advance and with their full understanding. The use of any

information obtained must comply with the Data Protection Act. The anonymity of

participants should be ensured whenever possible. If this is not possible for any

reason, participants should be advised before they agree to participate in the

Debriefing: Participants should be provided with full information about the

research as soon as possible and the researchers should discuss the

participant’s experience of the research to ensure that there are no negative

effects.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 27

Suggested guidelines for good practice

Discuss ethics and the need for ethical good practice before work begins.

Some good and bad examples can be helpful.

Check research plans before students start work on a project.

Create a checklist for the students’ research plans. This has the added

benefit of training learners in proper research protocol.

Review student work regularly.

Encourage discussion of ethical issues in the write up.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 28

Appendix 4: Suggested resources

The following list offer suggestions for resources for use within this Course and

will provide useful information and background as well as ideas for activities and

topics for discussion.

Association of Teachers of Psychology (ATP) www.theatp.org

Board games: Taboo and Balderdash – available from High Street stores or

Amazon.co.uk

British Psychological Society Code of Ethics and Conduct: www.bps.org.uk

Coolican H (1996) Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in

Psychology, London. Hodder & Stoughton

Flanagan, C. (1996) A resource pack for ‘A’ level Psychology, Hartshill Press.

(Available through Hodder & Stoughton)

Flanagan, C. (1998) Practicals for Psychology, London: Routledge

Gross R (2010) Psychology: the Science of Mind and Behaviour, London.

Hodder & Stoughton

Hill G: Oxford Revision Guides through Diagrams for AS level and A level

Psychology, Oxford. Oxford University Press

National Assessment Resource (NAR) is now available at

https://www.narscotland.org.uk.

Part 2: understanding research Video on Demand (VOD), ‘research in action’

and ‘research methods’ sections covers: introduction to research; research

investigation (procedure/sampling/variables/methodology); data collection

and analysis; ethics.

Research Investigation Guidelines (SQA) available from SQA’s website:

www.sqa.org.uk enter search: ‘Psychology Research Investigation

Guidelines’. Information available from several years gives a variety of

research topics to consider

www.about.com psychology research methods

www.learner.org/resources/series138.html

www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level → psychology → research methods

www.simplypsychology.org

www.uniview.co.uk/acatalog/psychology.html → various research, DVDs plus

video clips available

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 29

Administrative information

Published: April 2012 (version 1.0)

Superclass:

to be advised

History of changes to Course Support Notes

Course

details

Version Description of change Authorised

by

Date

This document may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes

provided that no profit is derived from reproduction and that, if reproduced in part,

the source is acknowledged. Additional copies can be downloaded from SQA’s

website at www.sqa.org.uk.

Note: You are advised to check SQA’s website (www.sqa.org.uk) to ensure you

are using the most up-to-date version.

Course Support Notes for Higher Psychology Course 30

Unit Support Notes — Psychology:

Individual Behaviour (Higher)

these Unit Support Notes can be downloaded from SQA’s website: www.sqa.org.uk.

(where applicable).

approaches to delivering and assessing the Psychology: Individual Behaviour

(Higher) Unit. They are intended for teachers and lecturers who are delivering

this Unit. They should be read in conjunction with:

the Unit Specification

the Course Specification

the Course Assessment Specification

the Course Support Notes

appropriate assessment support materials

If the Unit Support Notes have been developed for a Unit which is not part of a

Course, then it is only necessary to read them in conjunction with the Unit

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 32

General guidance on the Unit

This Unit is a mandatory Unit of the Higher Psychology Course and is also

available as a free-standing Unit and is designed to meet the needs of a broad

range of learners who may choose to study it.

The Psychology: Individual Behaviour Unit is designed to enable learners to

analyse individual behaviour. Learners will investigate topics and learn how these

topics can be explained using psychological approaches and theories. Learners

will evaluate approaches and theories and apply psychological knowledge to

show how an understanding of psychology can support individual wellbeing.

Learners who complete this Unit will be able to:

1 Analyse topics relating to individual behaviour

Progression into this Unit

Entry to this Unit is at the discretion of the centre. However, learners would

National 5 Psychology Course or relevant component Units

National 5 Biology Course or relevant component Units

social studies or sciences Courses or relevant component Units at

SCQF level 5

A level of maturity and independent thought will be required for the Higher

Psychology Course. It is recognised that life experience can be a valid

learners to further develop the skills required to conduct research in psychology.

experiences. This approach may be particularly useful for adult returners to

Skills, knowledge and understanding

Information about skills, knowledge and understanding for Higher Psychology is

given in the Higher Psychology Course Support Notes.

If this Unit is being delivered on a free-standing basis, teachers and lecturers are

free to select the skills, knowledge, understanding and contexts which are most

appropriate for delivery in their centres.

Further information is set out in the Course Assessment Specification.

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 33

Progression from this Unit

This Unit may provide progression to:

and managerial jobs, marketing, teaching and the media.

This Unit is designed to provide flexibility and choice for both the learner and

delivering centre. Approaches to learning and teaching should enhance

opportunities for all learners to achieve their full potential, whether working in a

whole-class, small group or supported self-study situation.

It is good practice to use a variety of learning and teaching methods so that

learners’ interest and motivation are maintained and individual preferences for

different learning styles are promoted. Throughout learning and teaching

activities, account should be taken of the prior knowledge that learners may have.

Tasks should be open to allow for personalisation and choice as well as enabling

learners to work at a suitable pace with appropriate support. Discussion groups

or personal investigation and research are excellent ways of promoting some

independence in learning. Learners have the opportunity to study individual

behaviour topics in this Unit, with scope for personalisation in the choice of

topics.

At this level, secondary sources such as textbooks will be more suitable than

original research articles. Many learners will be new to the terminology used in

psychology, and should be guided towards suitable sources of information; they

may not be aware that general-interest articles and websites are often biased,

inaccurate or incomplete. As a general guideline, it should be possible to obtain a

full research citation from the sources used.

Learners should be encouraged to contribute to their own learning and to present

their work using a range of sources of evidence. There are many possible

sources that can be referred to, including: textbooks, published articles and

research-based web articles.

Topics selected for individual behaviour studied are a matter of choice; however,

learners who are completing this Unit as part of the Higher Psychology Course

will need to study:

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 34

three psychological approaches; including biological and cognitive

approaches and one other approach

one mandatory topic, which is sleep, dreams and sleep disorders

The Course Assessment Specification sets out details of mandatory content and

assessment.

Learning and teaching approaches should support Curriculum for Excellence’s

four capacities to enable each learner to develop as a successful learner, a

confident individual, a responsible citizen and an effective contributor.

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 35

Suggested learning and teaching activities could include learners:

mind mapping of prior knowledge of the topic

holding a group or class debate based on which approach is best at

explaining a particular topic

using Venn diagrams on paper to note down similarities/overlaps and

differences between approaches

undertaking a ‘taboo’ activity where approaches/topics must be explained

without using certain key words

being involved in role-play activities where learners play the role of a major

theorist from an approach, and discuss current news issues

creating a set of cards with approaches and behaviours which learner can

pick from, and attempting to explain the behaviour/topic from the approach

watching videos/documentaries on the origins of the approaches

completing worksheets with gap-fills on the approaches/topics

creating visual displays, eg academic posters or 3D displays on one or more

approaches, showing the main researchers

using textbooks or internet to find evidence for/against the approaches

comparing the relative merits of the approaches in a presentation or essay

maintaining a sleep and dream diary for discussion and possible linkages with

known facts about sleep and dreams

Mandatory knowledge and understanding

This Unit develops an understanding of the different approaches to Psychology,

two of which should be studied for each topic.

Suitable approaches may include: behaviourist; biological; cognitive;

developmental; humanistic or psychodynamic. It may also be appropriate to

explain to learners that approaches may complement one another and so a

combination of approaches may be used, as in cognitive behaviour therapy.

Explanations of approaches should be appropriate to SCQF level 6. The

biological and cognitive approaches are mandatory for the Higher Course.

For the biological approach, learners need to know:

key historical research in the approach

the role of brain areas in behaviour

factors that affect brain function; eg how chemical stimulants, depressants, or

environmental factors such as noise

example(s) of how the topic being studied with the approach has been used

to improve wellbeing

For the cognitive approach, learners need to know:

features of the cognitive approach including information processing, schemas

and the computer analogy

the role of thought processes, including irrational thoughts or beliefs

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 36

Other approaches studied in the Unit should include an overview as follows:

basic principles of the approach

terminology associated with the approach

example(s) of how the approach has been used to improve wellbeing

The mandatory topic, which is sleep, dreams and sleep disorders must be

studied for Course assessment.

Learning for the topic of sleep and dreams includes:

explain the topic of sleep, dreams and sleep disorders using the biological

approach

— describe the role of the brain in sleeping, dreaming and disorders; factors that

affect brain function in relation to sleep, dreams and disorders, eg chemical

stimulants, depressants, or environmental factors such as noise

— explain ways that understanding of biological approaches and their related

theories can be used to enhance wellbeing for sleep, dreams and disorders

explain the topic of sleep, dreams and disorders using the cognitive approach

— describe to features of the cognitive approach including information

processing, schemas and the computer analogy; the role of thought

processes, including irrational thoughts or beliefs

— explain ways that understanding of cognitive approaches and their related

theories can be used to enhance wellbeing for sleep, dreams and disorders.

The mandatory research studies for sleep, dreams and sleep disorders are:

Dement & Kleitman (1957)1

Van der Werf et al. (2009)2

1 Dement, W. and Kleitman, N. (1957). The relation of eye movements during sleep to

dream activity: an objective method for the study of dreaming. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 53, 339-46.

2 Van der Werf, Y.D., Altena, E., Schoonheim, M.M., Sanz-Arigita, E.J., Vis, J.C., De

Rijke, W. and Van Someren, E.J.W. (2009). Sleep benefits subsequent hippocampal

functioning. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 122-123.

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 37

Overview of sleep, dreams and sleep disorders:

Sleep, dreams and

sleep disorders

Biological

processes

in sleep

Functions

of

sleep

Sleep disorders

Sleep

phases

Circadian

rhythms

Role in

thinking and

memory

Mental

health

deprivation

Insomnia

Psychological

effects and

support

Substance,

eg caffeine

Stress,

anxiety,

accidents

Optional topics — a second topic for learning and teaching should be

selected by the centre.

When choosing a topic relevant to the Individual Behaviour Unit,

teachers/lecturers should check that the topic can meet all of the requirements of

the Unit. Therefore, does the topic?:

provide scope for learners to achieve the Unit Outcome, ie ‘analyse aspects

of individual behaviour’

link to one or more psychological approaches

have a real-world application relevant to wellbeing that is supported by

research evidence

Optional topic suggestions:

Happiness

fixed/growth mind sets

stress

personality

psychopathology

intelligence

addiction

creativity

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 38

The following diagrams illustrate possible learning for some optional topics.

Psychopathology

Identifying

Anxiety

disorders

Definitions of

abnormal

Diagnosing

disorders using

DSM

Signs and causes

of OCD

Other anxiety

Forms of

therapy

Cognitive

behavioural

Medical

therapies

Challenging/

testing beliefs

Exposure

treatments eg

flooding

Homework and

diaries

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 39

Memory

The nature of

Organisation in

Encoding,

storage and

retrieval

aspects of

The working

memory model

Forgetting

Applications of

Eyewitness

testimony

Revision

strategies

Mnemonics

Elaborative

Rehearsal

Visual strategies

Stress

processes in stress

The fight or flight

response

Effect of stress on

physical health

The transactional

model of stress

mental health

management

differences in

Stress reduction

techniques

Stress inoculation

Meditation

Exercise

Unit Support Notes for Psychology: Individual Behaviour (Higher) Unit 40

Research studies used in topics should include a mixture of contemporary and

classic research.

Where appropriate links should be found between approaches and topics.

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Psychology Higher

Fees/funding, what is special about this course.

Psychology is defined as ‘the scientific study of the mind and behaviour’. As well as a basic interest in human behaviour, you should have a basic grasp of scientific principles and the ability to analyse and evaluate theories and research studies. Assessment will involve describing relevant knowledge, analysing and evaluating this knowledge in terms of its scientific content, practical applications, ethical considerations etc. You will design an experiment/non-experiment based on a SQA candidate brief and write up a research report. This is worth 40% of the final mark and is marked externally. There is also a requirement to complete one piece of practical coursework.

Entry requirements

Learners would normally be expected to have attained the skills, knowledge and understanding required by the following or by equivalent qualifications and/or experience:

National 5 Psychology course or relevant component units
National 5 Biology course or relevant component units
Social studies or social sciences courses at SCQF level 5 or relevant component units.

The main purposes of the course are to enable learners to develop an understanding of the psychological study of the human mind and behaviour in a range of contexts, and to enhance their ability to use evidence to explain behaviour.

The course develops learners’ understanding of psychology as the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. Psychology is a research-based subject, and it provides the opportunity to conduct practical research. This includes working with human participants in accordance with ethical standards.

Psychology: Research

This unit will to enable learners to understand the research process and research methods used in psychology. Learners will develop the skills required to conduct and evaluate psychological research. They will also develop numerical skills and an understanding of psychological terminology.

Psychology: Individual Behaviour

This unit enables learners to analyse individual behaviour. Learners will investigate topics and learn how these topics can be explained, using psychological approaches and theories. Learners will evaluate approaches and theories and apply psychological knowledge to show how an understanding of psychology can be applied.

Psychology: Social Behaviour

This unit enables learners to analyse how interaction with others shapes social behaviour. Learners will investigate psychological explanations for social behaviour, and will use research evidence to analyse how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by their social environment. Learners will apply psychological knowledge and understanding to explain examples of everyday social behaviour.

How will I study my course?

You will receive weekly taught sessions and work as instructed by your lecturer. There will also be directed self-study to be carried out in your own time.

Classes are delivered via video-conferencing.

How long will my course last?

Where can i study my course.

Local Centres

In most schools this course will start in June.

For the latest information on fees please see our fees policy .

What can I do on completion of my course?

This course may provide progression to:

HNC Social Sciences, or other qualifications in social studies, social sciences or related areas
further study, employment and/or training

Is there more information available online?

You can use the above QR code to connect directly to the course details.

This course is part of our schools-link senior phase programme and is embedded in your option choices at school. If this course is offered by your school speak to your Guidance Teacher and request an application form.

We are delighted that you are thinking about studying at UHI Argyll. UHI Argyll operates a fair and open admissions system committed to equality of opportunity and non-discrimination. We consider all applications on merit and on the basis of ability to achieve, without discrimination on grounds of age, disability, gender identity, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity status, race, religion and/or belief, sex, sexual orientation or socio-economic background. We welcome applications from all prospective students and aim to provide appropriate and efficient services to students with disabilities.

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Psychology Higher

Fees/funding, what is special about this course.

Psychology is a research-based subject, and provides the opportunity to conduct practical research. This includes working with human participants in accordance with ethical standards.

Entry requirements

While entry is at the discretion of the college, candidates will normally be expected to have the following or equivalent:

One National 5 pass in English, Psychology or a suitable alternative.

You will gain:

Knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, approaches and terminology;
The ability to use thinking skills when analysing, evaluating and applying knowledge and understanding the role of research evidence in explaining human behaviour;
Research skills to select, organise, interpret and evaluate information;
The ability to plan and carry out psychological research, using appropriate methods and according to ethical and scientific standard communication and numeracy skills used in psychology.

How will I study my course?

Face to face

How long will my course last?

Where can i study my course.

Fee information for part time Further Education courses

A Fee Waiver could be available to help with the payment of course fees depending on your personal circumstances, please check our Fee Waiver Policy to see if you are eligible.

Scottish students

Rest of UK and International students

Fees are payable on enrolment each academic year.

Please contact [email protected] if you have any further questions on fees.

If you wish to study part time there is a cost of approximately £360 per subject. Some applicants may be eligible for a fee waiver.

Funding - Tuition fees (uhi.ac.uk)

Additional costs

You will be required to purchase textbooks (approximately £20) as part of this course. If you are a full time student and are eligible for a bursary these costs will be covered.

What can I do on completion of my course?

Higher Psychology provides suitable preparation for entry to higher education courses in psychology or further study in other academic and vocational subjects. Examples are sciences or Social Science at HNC or degree level. The varied skills, knowledge and discipline offer students preparation for careers in research, teaching, chartered psychology (forensic, clinical, educational, occupational) or other employment.

Is there more information available online?

You can use the above QR code to connect directly to the course details.

Apply for Psychology Higher

We are delighted that you are thinking about studying at UHI Inverness. UHI Inverness operates a fair and open admissions system committed to equality of opportunity and non-discrimination. We consider all applications on merit and on the basis of ability to achieve, without discrimination on grounds of age, disability, gender identity, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity status, race, religion and/or belief, sex, sexual orientation or socio-economic background. We welcome applications from all prospective students and aim to provide appropriate and efficient services to students with disabilities.

PSYCH101: Introduction to Psychology

Course introduction.

Time: 46 hours
College Credit Recommended ($25 Proctor Fee) -->
Free Certificate

Course Syllabus

First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

"Psychology has a long past, but a short history." This statement by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer of psychological research, captures the history of psychology as a discipline. Although it is a relatively new, formal academic subject, psychology seeks to answer questions that have been around since the beginning of humanity.

In this unit, we review the history of psychology as a discipline. We explore its ancient philosophical, prescientific roots and recent reincarnation as a scientific field of study.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

What makes you "you"? This question gets to the heart of one of the longest-running debates in psychology: the nurture versus nature dispute, which asks whether humans are a product of their environment or of their biological makeup. While it is unlikely that we will ever conclusively answer this question, research has provided us with some important insights that will help you understand the arguments on both sides of the debate.

Early psychologists considered the brain a black box that controlled certain processes, although they did not know how to identify these processes or how the brain controlled them. This is no longer the case; now, scientists insist that the psychological mind and physiological body are fully integrated with one another. Today, knowledge of the biological origins of our psychological states is integral to the study of psychology.

In this unit, we explore biopsychology, which includes the role of genes, the structure and functions of neurons, the parts of the nervous system, and the endocrine system. Finally, we examine the role and function of sleep and the use of substances that may alter our states of consciousness.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

Our five senses – smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch – provide us with information about the world. We must convert this information into a form that is usable by the brain, so it can interpret what those sensations mean. The process of collecting information through the sense organs is known as sensation, and the process of making sense of that information is known as perception.

We usually think of sensation as a physiological process, whereas perception is psychological. Since sensation relies on the elements of information that are out in the world, we consider it a bottom-up process. Since perception relies on past experience and knowledge to aid in understanding, we call it a top-down process.

In this unit, we highlight vision and hearing because humans tend to rely most heavily on these senses. Most of the research on sensation and perception has focused on these two senses, so these are the senses we understand the most fully. We will wrap up with the remaining senses, plus a sense that may not seem like a sense – the sense of balance.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 2 hours.

Unit 4: Learning

Psychologists are concerned with how people learn from experience and create memories. During the first half of the 20th century, behaviorists focused on how animals and humans made associations between stimuli and between their own behavior and its consequences. In this unit, we draw from behaviorism to learn the basic principles of learning.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 10 hours.

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

Psychologists are concerned with how people create memories. During the second half of the 20th century, psychologists established the field of cognitive psychology, which explored topics such as decision-making and problem-solving; language acquisition and use; intelligence and creative thinking; memory formation, storage, and retrieval; In this unit, we draw from cognitive psychology and neuropsychology to learn the basic principles of cognitive psychology.

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

The physical, mental, and emotional changes an individual undergoes throughout the course of their lifetime raise a number of questions about who we are and how we develop as human beings. One question is whether our traits are stable or changeable throughout our lifetime; another is whether development is a continuous, gradual process or a set of discrete stages.

Although these questions remain unresolved, we impart some ways you can think critically about these issues in this unit. We also provide an overview of human development, from infancy to old age.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

In this unit, we focus on personality psychology, which studies how our personalities develop and how our experiences and circumstances shape who we are. We will examine some theories that explain why we behave and think in consistent ways and discover how psychologists assess personality traits.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

Today, we commonly think of psychology as a way to treat mental disorders. However, psychopathology , the field of study Sigmund Freud made famous, is the branch of psychology that addresses these disorders. Clinical psychologists have since refined the field, developing more sophisticated methods for diagnosis and treatment so clients can maintain a normal lifestyle.

Millions of people live with various types of mental illness and mental health problems, such as social anxiety , obsessive-compulsive disorder , drug addiction , and personality disorders . Treatment options include medication and psychotherapy.

In this unit, we explore different perspectives on psychological disorders and learn to identify characteristic symptoms for each. Think about all the factors that may contribute to and alleviate the major mental disorders discussed. What is the interplay between biology, social support systems, and other environmental factors in how human beings cope?

Unit 9: Social Psychology

Human beings are social animals. As psychologists, we acknowledge this fact by studying how our social environment impacts our emotional and mental functioning. This discipline is called social psychology – the focus of this unit. We will discuss the social behavior of individuals, groups, and entire societies, as well as how our relationships with these entities influence us as individuals.

Unit 10: Industrial and Organizational Psychology

In this unit, we investigate industrial and organizational psychology , also known as I/O psychology . This subfield is concerned with studying behavior in an organizational setting (such as in the workplace) and using principles of psychology to understand work behaviors. This is a rather new subfield within psychology, but it is growing quickly due to its interesting line of inquiry.

Psychologists divide the subfield of I/O psychology into industrial and organizational psychology – the terms are not interchangeable. Industrial psychology focuses on job analysis, such as describing and measuring a task or a job. As such, people specializing in industrial psychology are often tasked with writing job requirements, interviewing and hiring employees, training new employees, evaluating performance, and assuring that an organization abides by equality laws.

Organizational psychologists, on the other hand, are mostly concerned with the social aspects of work life. This includes determining how we ensure job satisfaction, examining the effectiveness of different leadership or management styles, exploring work-family balance options, and conducting diversity training.

Unit 11: Health and Stress Psychology

In this unit, we focus on health and stress in the workplace and in our everyday lives more broadly. First, we define stressors, and then we connect stress and illness. As you work through this unit, think about the stressors in your life and the coping mechanisms you use to handle them. How does the information presented here shed insight into how you handle stress? Is stress always negative?

Study Guide

This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walk through the learning outcomes, and list important vocabulary terms. It is not meant to replace the course materials!

Course Feedback Survey

Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses.

If you come across any urgent problems, email [email protected].

Certificate Final Exam

Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate .

Saylor Direct Credit

Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course . This course is eligible for college credit through Saylor Academy's Saylor Direct Credit Program .

The Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam requires a proctoring fee of $5 . To pass this course and earn a Credly Badge and official transcript , you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on the Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times , with a 14-day waiting period between each attempt.

We are partnering with SmarterProctoring to help make the proctoring fee more affordable. We will be recording you, your screen, and the audio in your room during the exam. This is an automated proctoring service, but no decisions are automated; recordings are only viewed by our staff with the purpose of making sure it is you taking the exam and verifying any questions about exam integrity. We understand that there are challenges with learning at home - we won't invalidate your exam just because your child ran into the room!

Requirements:

Desktop Computer
Chrome (v74+)
Webcam + Microphone
1mbps+ Internet Connection

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a Credly Badge and can request an official transcript .

Saylor Direct Credit Exam

This exam is part of the Saylor Direct College Credit program. Before attempting this exam, review the Saylor Direct Credit page for complete requirements.

Essential exam information:

You must take this exam with our automated proctor. If you cannot, please contact us to request an override.
The automated proctoring session will cost $5 .
This is a closed-book, closed-notes exam (see allowed resources below).
You will have two (2) hours to complete this exam.
You have up to 3 attempts, but you must wait 14 days between consecutive attempts of this exam.
The passing grade is 70% or higher.
This exam consists of 52 multiple-choice questions.

Some details about taking your exam:

Exam questions are distributed across multiple pages.
Exam questions will have several plausible options; be sure to pick the answer that best satisfies each part of the question.
Your answers are saved each time you move to another page within the exam.
You can answer the questions in any order.
You can go directly to any question by clicking its number in the navigation panel.
You can flag a question to remind yourself to return to it later.
You will receive your grade as soon as you submit your answers.

Allowed resources:

Gather these resources before you start your exam.

Blank paper

What should I do before my exam?

Gather these before you start your exam:
A photo I.D. to show before your exam.
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(optional) A glass of water.
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We will be recording your screen, so close any extra tabs!
Disconnect any extra monitors attached to your computer.
You will have up to two (2) hours to complete your exam. Try to make sure you won't be interrupted during that time!
You will require at least 1mbps of internet bandwidth. Ask others sharing your connection not to stream during your exam.
Take a deep breath; you got this!

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Higher Psychology

The central theme of the Higher Psychology course is to enable you to investigate psychological knowledge and research, which will promote your understanding of individual and social behaviour.

You will analyse and evaluate concepts, theories and approaches, and will draw on research evidence to explain human behaviour.

Qualification Breakdown

Higher Psychology SCQF Level 6:

Psychology: Research
Psychology: Individual behaviour
Psychology: Social behaviour

This course is very demanding in terms of written work, study at home and group work.

Course assessment: The purpose of the assignment is to assess your use of research and communication skills appropriate to psychology. This assignment requires learners to carry out their own primary research based on a brief provided by SQA and produce a psychological research report. The class will design the research in groups, collect data and analyse. Reports must be written up individually, but the tutor will give support.

Entry requirements

You must have:

Higher English at A or B level.

We might consider another subject with this same grade such as Higher History, Higher Modern Studies or Higher Geography (at A or B Level pass).

Target Year Group S6

Attendance Pattern

You will attend college on Tuesday and Thursday afternoons 13:30 - 16:00

Progression Pathways

On successful completion of the course, you will be given the opportunity of internal progression within Glasgow Clyde. You might go on to do:

HNC/D courses in social science

The level you might enter would depend on the level and relevance of your other qualifications

How to Apply

When you click on the Apply button you will be redirected to create an application account for your chosen Senior Phase course.

Use a personal email address and ensure your password is something that you will remember.
You will receive an email asking you to confirm your account. This will take you to the application form.
you will receive a link to the application portal within each email you receive - please use this link to track your application

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Transferring your study

Certificate

Widely recognised qualification.
Equivalent to the first third of an honours degree.
Study for interest or career development.
Shows that you can study successfully at university level.
Count it towards further qualifications such as a foundation degree, DipHE or honours degree.
Credits measure the student workload required for the successful completion of a module or qualification.

One credit represents about 10 hours of study over the duration of the course.

You are awarded credits after you have successfully completed a module.

For example, if you study a 60-credit module and successfully pass it, you will be awarded 60 credits.

Certificate of Higher Education in Psychology

If you’re interested in psychology and would like to learn more, or find out if it’s the right subject for you, this certificate could be the ideal starting point. You’ll learn about the different ways in which psychologists investigate the human mind and behaviour, and how psychological research addresses real-life issues – including ageing, crime, education, employment, forensic science, mental health, relationships and much more.

Gain an understanding of different areas of psychology, with the option to include childhood studies and child psychology
Gives you an opportunity to conduct a psychological study of your own
Develops valuable analytical and communication skills
Builds a solid foundation for further study

A nationally recognised qualification in its own right, this certificate of higher education is also equivalent to the first third of the BSc (Honours) Psychology (Q07) .

Find out more about Entry requirements

This certificate of higher education has one stage comprising 120 credits.

You’ll begin by choosing between an introduction to the social sciences, childhood studies or psychology and counselling, followed by a compulsory core psychology module.

Prepare for OU study with an Access module

Stage 1 (120 credits).

In Stage 1, you’ll be introduced to some of the big topics in psychology and the academic skills for successful study. You’ll start with one of three options – a core social science module covering criminology, sociology and other related areas; a broad introduction to psychology and counselling or interdisciplinary childhood studies. These will set the scene for the compulsory psychology module.

We regularly review our curriculum; therefore, the qualification described on this page – including its availability, its structure, and available modules – may change over time. If we make changes to this qualification, we’ll update this page as soon as possible. Once you’ve registered or are studying this qualification, where practicable, we’ll inform you in good time of any upcoming changes. If you’d like to know more about the circumstances in which the University might make changes to the curriculum, see our Academic Regulations or contact us . This description was last updated on 19 March 2024.

Accessibility

Our qualifications are as accessible as possible, and we have a comprehensive range of support services. Our Certificate of Higher Education in Psychology uses a variety of study materials and includes the following elements:

Online study – most modules are online; some have a mix of printed and online material. Online learning resources could include websites, audio/video, and interactive activities
Using and producing diagrams and screenshots
Finding external/third-party material online
Specialist software, such as SPSS software for statistical analysis
Mathematical and scientific expressions, notations and associated techniques
Practical work

Every module has its own Accessibility Statement with more detailed accessibility information – you’ll find these on individual module descriptions. Visit our Disability support page to learn about our services.

Learning outcomes, teaching and assessment

This qualification develops your learning in four main areas:

Knowledge and understanding
Cognitive skills
Practical and professional skills

The level and depth of your learning gradually increases as you work through the qualification. You’ll be supported throughout by the OU’s unique style of teaching and assessment – which includes a personal tutor to guide and comment on your work; top quality course texts; elearning resources like podcasts, interactive media and online materials; tutorial groups and community forums.

On completion

On successfully completing this course, we’ll award you our Certificate of Higher Education in Psychology.

If you intend to use your Open University qualifications to seek work or undertake further study outside the UK, we recommend checking whether your intended qualification will meet local requirements for your chosen career. Find out more about international recognition of Open University qualifications .

Regulations

As a student of The Open University, you should be aware of the content of the qualification-specific regulations below and the academic regulations that are available on our Student Policies and Regulations website.

There are no formal entry requirements for this qualification.

At The Open University we believe education should be open to all , so we provide a high-quality university education to anyone who wishes to realise their ambitions and fulfil their potential.

Even though there are no entry requirements, there are some skills that you'll need to succeed. If you're not quite ready for OU study we can guide you to resources that prepare you, many of which are free.

Answer a few quick questions to check whether you're ready for study success

How much time do I need?

Most of our students study part time, completing 60 credits a year .
This will usually mean studying for 16–18 hours a week .

Find out if you have enough time to study with our time planner

Preparing for study with an Access module

Students who start their study with an Access module are more likely to be successful when they advance to Stage 1 of their qualification. They’re specially designed to give you a gentle introduction to OU study, boost confidence in your study skills, and help you gain a broad overview of your chosen subject area.

You’ll also benefit from:

feedback from your tutor through regular one-to-one phone tutorials
support from a dedicated team throughout your study
detailed written feedback on your work.

Psychology, social science and wellbeing Access module

What you will study.

View full details of Psychology, social science and wellbeing Access module

Fees and funding in England

80% of our students pay nothing upfront by financing their studies with a student loan.

Tuition fee

Years of study.

Part-time study gives you the flexibility to balance other commitments with study.

You’ll study for around 16–18 hours a week.

Full-time study enables you to complete your course over a shorter time.

You’ll study for around 32–36 hours a week.

Because OU study is flexible, you don’t have to stick to just part-time or full-time study. You can choose to study more or less each year to suit you.

Most OU students study part-time.

Because OU study is flexible, you don’t have to stick to just part-time study. You can vary the amount of study you take on each year. That means you can gain your qualification in a timeframe that works for you.

1 year 2 years

Current fee per year in England

£7,272* £3,636*

How we worked out the cost

A certificate of higher education is worth 120 credits. The fee per year is based on studying 60 credits per year for 2 years. A certificate of higher education is worth 120 credits. The fee per year is based on studying 120 credits per year for 1 years.

Total fee for qualification at current prices

You’ll fund your modules as you study them – you won’t have to pay for your whole qualification up front

That’s 21% less than the cost of an equivalent qualification offered at most other universities in England.

*The fee information provided here is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. In England, fees are subject to the part-time fee limit, as set out in section C of the University's Fee Rules .

What are my funding options?

There are several ways to fund your study, often without paying anything upfront.

Student loan

The most common way for our students to fund their study.

A student loan is used by 80% of our students.
It’s not means-tested and there’s no age limit.
You don’t pay anything upfront. Student Finance England pay your fees directly to the OU for you.
You won’t pay back a penny until you earn over £25,000.
The amount you repay is tied to how much you earn. For example, if you earn £27,000 you’ll pay just £15.00 per month.

Other options

Open university student budget account (ousba).

Repay in monthly instalments while you study.

Credit/debit card or bank transfer

Pay before each module starts. You can also combine card or bank transfer payments with other payment methods.

More than 1 in 10 OU students are sponsored by their employer.

Enhanced Learning Credits (ELCs)

If you’re a serving member of the British Armed Forces (or you’ve recently left), you may be eligible to use ELCs to cover up to 100% of your course fees.

Which funding options could I be eligible for?

To find out what funding options are available you need to tell us:

how many credits you want to study
if you already hold a degree
if your household is in receipt of benefits
about your household income
if you are employed
if you are a member of the British forces overseas

How many credits are you planning to study per year?

Do you already hold a degree, was your previous degree in the same subject you wish to study now, was it achieved in the last 5 years, are you employed, are you a member of british forces posted overseas.

British Forces

If you have a BFPO address, you are only eligible for UK course fees if you are a currently serving member of the British armed forces and you're temporarily and unavoidably working abroad. Other students using BFPO addresses should contact us on +44 (0)300 303 5303 for UK fee eligibility to be assessed.

*The fee information provided above is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. For further information about the University's fee policy, visit our Fee Rules .

Other costs to think about

Your course fees cover your tuition, assessment and study materials, but there are still a few additional costs that can come with studying. If your income is less than £25,000 or you receive a qualifying benefit, you could get help with some of these costs after you start studying.

You’ll need a computer and the internet to access our learning resources and to participate in online tutorials.

Additional support

You may be eligible for:

help with study-related costs like set books and internet access
a free introductory Access module to build your confidence and skills
funding to study an OU qualification for free from our Carers’ Scholarships Fund if you are, or have recently been, an unpaid carer
a Carers’ Bursary towards study-related costs if you provide unpaid care to a friend or family member
a Care Experienced Bursary of £250 towards study-related costs if you’ve previously been, or are currently, in care
a Care Experienced Scholarship to study an OU qualification for free if you're care experienced and aged 25 and under
a Sanctuary Scholarship to study an OU qualification for free if you’ve been displaced from your homeland for political, economic, ethnic, environmental, or human rights pressures
funding from our Scholarship for Black Students to study an OU qualification for free if you identify as being from a Black background

If you have a disability

The Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA) is a government grant to cover study support costs if you have a disability. It’s not means-tested, and there’s no age limit. Visit our Supporting students with disabilities page to find out more.
If your disability is a result of being injured in, or due to, military service, you could be eligible for our Disabled Veterans’ Scholarship Fund .

Need more information?

Talk through your funding options with one of our advisors, save money with the open university.

Compare the cost of studying at the OU with other campus-based universities in England.

*Based on maximum chargeable fees for 24/25 academic year.

**The fee information provided here is valid for modules starting before 31 July 2025. Fees typically increase annually. In England, fees are subject to the part-time fee limit, as set out in section C of the University's Fee Rules .

How will I study this course?

With our unique approach to distance learning, you can study from home, work or on the move.

You’ll have some assessment deadlines to meet, but otherwise, you’ll be free to study at the times that suit you, fitting your learning around work, family, and social life.

For each of your modules, you’ll use either just online resources or a mix of online and printed materials.

Each module you study will have a module website with

a week-by-week study planner, giving you a step-by-step guide through your studies
course materials such as reading, videos, recordings, and self-assessed activities
module forums for discussions and collaborative activities with other students
details of each assignment and their due dates
a tutorial booking system, online tutorial rooms, and your tutor’s contact details
online versions of some printed module materials and resources.

If you have additional needs, we can also provide most module materials in alternative formats. Find out more about materials on our accessibility webpage .

See how our module websites work.

Tutor support

Student, Ffion, describes why she chose the OU and how she is using her degree to progress herself further in a career she loves.

You’ll have a tutor for each module, who will introduce themselves before the module begins.

Throughout the module, they will:

mark your assignments and give feedback to help you improve
guide you to learning resources
support you, whether with general study skills or help with a specific topic.

Tutorials usually take place online, and they’re always optional.

Online tutorials are live presentations with module tutors in dedicated online tutorial rooms and are sometimes recorded.

Our assessments are all designed to reinforce your learning and help you show your understanding of the topics. The mix of assessment methods will vary between modules.

Computer-Marked Assignments

Usually, a series of online, multiple-choice questions.

Tutor-Marked Assignments

You’ll have a number of these throughout each module, each with a submission deadline.
They can be made up of essays, questions, experiments or something else to test your understanding of what you have learned.
Your tutor will mark and return them to you with detailed feedback.

End-of-Module Assessments

The final, marked piece of work on most modules.
Modules with an end-of-module assessment won’t usually have an exam.
Some modules end with an exam. You’ll be given time to revise and prepare.
You’ll be given your exam date at least 5 months in advance.
Most exams take place remotely, and you will complete them at home or at an alternative location.
If a module requires you to take a face-to-face exam, this will be made clear in the module description, and you will be required to take your exam in person at one of our exam centres.

Progressing to a point where I felt more comfortable writing my assignments, and having my scores reflecting that, made me quite happy because it showed the hard work was being rewarded. Patrick ‘Ricky’ Skene, BSc (Hons) Sport, Fitness and Coaching

Other support and resources

Throughout your studies, you’ll have access to our subject-specific Student Support Teams.

They’ll help you with any general questions about your study and updates to your OU account.

To help with your studies, you’ll also have access to:

our online library, with high-quality online resources to support your study
other university libraries in the UK and Ireland
the online Help Centre, which has general information about OU study and support, along with study skills advice
free Microsoft Office 365 software
IT and computing support from our Computing Helpdesk.

Find out more about student support and being a part of the OU community.

Having a course that was really varied and studying in a style that worked for Nick, was key to him launching his own business and becoming an entrepreneur.

Skills for career development

Studying this qualification introduces the fundamental conceptual issues in psychology and the different ways in which psychological knowledge can be constructed. You'll learn how to use, evaluate and present evidence and data, and appreciate how psychologists use evidence-based research to contribute to debates on ageing, crime, education, employment, forensic science, mental health and relationships. You'll also develop many transferable and work-related skills that are highly valued by employers.

These include:

communication
accessing and interpreting information
constructing arguments
presenting and communicating information.
IT and data handling
application of learning to real world problems and situations
time management
independent learning.

Career relevance

Psychology students gain an impressive breadth of knowledge and skills that make them highly employable in a wide range of careers, such as:

advertising
career counselling
the health professions
human resources
police and social services.

Exploring your options

Once you register with us (and for up to three years after you finish your studies), you’ll have full access to our careers service for a wide range of information and advice. This includes online forums, website, interview simulation, vacancy service as well as the option to email or speak to a careers adviser. Some areas of the careers service website are available for you to see now , including help with looking for and applying for jobs. You can also read more general information about how OU study enhances your career .

In the meantime if you want to do some research around this qualification and where it might take you, we’ve put together a list of relevant job titles as a starting point. Some careers will require further study, training and/or work experience:

clinical psychologist
counselling psychologist
educational psychologist
social worker
advertising planner
marketing executive
human resources manager
counselling
retail management
forensic psychologist
health psychologist
occupational psychologist
sports and exercise psychologist.

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5 Types of Psychology Degrees

Psychology Degree Options and Jobs They Prepare You For

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Psychology degree options include those at the undergraduate and graduate levels . The five main types are an associate degree, a bachelor's degree, a master's degree, a PhD, and a PsyD.

A psychology degree can help prepare students for careers in various fields, including mental health, education, counseling, research, and applied fields. For students thinking about earning a psychology degree , it's important to understand what level of education they need to enter their chosen career path.

For some professions, a bachelor's degree might be sufficient. Other career paths might require a graduate degree. Here are the psychology degree types, how long each one takes to earn, and the career options available at each degree level.

Associate Degree in Psychology

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An associate degree in psychology is an undergraduate-level degree that usually takes two years to complete. Many community colleges offer an associate psychology degree option.

One possible job option with an associate degree in psychology is to work as a psychiatric technician in a state mental hospital. In some states, you may also qualify for certain social work jobs, such as a casework aide or an addictions counselor assistant.

Jobs available at the associate level are somewhat limited as most entry-level psychology professions require a bachelor's degree at the very minimum. Because of this, an associate degree is commonly used as a stepping stone toward earning a bachelor's.

Earning your associate psychology degree is a great way to gain a solid background in the field before moving on to more advanced studies.

Bachelor's Degree in Psychology

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A bachelor's degree in psychology is an undergraduate-level degree that often takes four years to complete. At many universities, students can choose between a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degree . Generally speaking, B.A. degrees tend to require more liberal arts general education courses, while B.S. degrees require more science general education courses.

According to one survey, only about 27% of people with a bachelor's in psychology end up working in a field closely related to their degree. A few common job titles for people with this type of degree include case manager, psychiatric technician, career counselor , and rehabilitation specialist. Bachelor's degree holders often find work in other areas , including sales, management, and teaching.

There is often a much wider range of job opportunities for those with a graduate psychology degree. However, a bachelor's degree serves as a solid basis for graduate study in psychology and does offer a selection of entry-level career options.

Master's Degree in Psychology

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A master's degree in psychology is a graduate-level degree that usually takes between two and three years beyond the bachelor's degree to complete. Like the bachelor's degree, students can usually choose between a Master of Arts (M.A.) or Master of Science (M.S.) in psychology.

Graduates with a master's degree can find jobs in a variety of areas, including mental health services, government agencies, and business fields. While there are some opportunities for teaching at colleges and universities, these positions tend to be limited and highly competitive.

A few job titles that a master's degree holder might find include marriage and family therapist , rehabilitative counselor, school counselor , and human resources manager.

Jobs with a master's level psychology degree are far more plentiful than those at the bachelor's level, which is why this is one of the most popular degree options. While some master's programs offer what is known as a terminal degree, or an end-level degree designed to prepare students for the workforce, other master's programs focus on preparing students for doctoral-level study.

Ph.D. in Psychology

A Ph.D. in psychology , or Doctor of Philosophy in psychology, is a doctoral-level degree that can take four to six years of graduate study to complete. The Ph.D. degree tends to take a more research-oriented approach but does include both theoretical and applied training.

There are a wide variety of specialty areas to choose from with this psychology degree. Your choice will largely depend on what you choose to do after you graduate.

If you're interested in working in psychotherapy or opening your own private practice, you might want to earn a Ph.D . in either clinical or counseling psychology. If you're interested in teaching, research, or an applied area, you might earn a Ph.D. in a specialty such as social, developmental, industrial-organizational, or experimental psychology .

Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.)

The Psy.D., or Doctor of Psychology, was created as an alternative to the traditional Ph.D. Psy.D. programs tend to be more focused on the professional practice of psychology.

Those who earn a Psy.D. in clinical or counseling psychology and pass the required licensing exams are qualified to diagnose and treat mental disorders, conduct psychological tests, and provide psychotherapy.

In most cases, the Psy.D. degree takes approximately four to seven years to complete. During this time, students receive extensive training in topics such as diagnosing mental illness , performing psychological assessments , and conducting clinical interventions.

Just as with the Ph.D. degree, Psy.D. students are required to complete a supervised practicum and internship in a clinical setting. The practicum usually involves working part-time under the supervision of a licensed psychologist, while the internship is a full-time position that lasts at least one year.

Once students have completed their required coursework, practicum, and internship, they can take the state and national licensing exams.

You have many options for which educational path to take in psychology. It's wise to explore which careers each psychology degree can open for you, investing your education dollars wisely to meet your career goals.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Field of degree: Psychology .

American Psychological Association. By the numbers: How do undergraduate psychology majors fare?

Bureau of Labor Statistics. How to become a psychologist .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Social Sciences incorporating ICS

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Psychology Higher (SCP)

Campus Milton Road Campus Sighthill Campus

Qualification SCQF Level 6

Study mode Part time

Duration 41 weeks

Start date Aug 2024

Course overview

Entry requirements.

Study options

Course enquiry form

This course is for S6 pupils who are still at school.

Higher Psychology will teach you how to explore the human mind and behaviour in a range of contexts. You will investigate human behaviour by analysing academic evidence. As Psychology is a research-based subject, this course will provide you with the opportunity to conduct your research.

If you are keen to find out why people behave and think in the way they do then this course is for you.

This course is academically challenging and requires the ability to study independently.

What you will learn

Research: Understand the research process and methods used in psychology and develop the skills needed to conduct and evaluate psychological research using numerical skills and psychological terminology.
Individual Behaviour: Analyse individual behaviour by investigating various topics and how they can be explained using psychological approaches and theories.
Social Behaviour: Examine how interactions with others shape everyday social behaviour. You will investigate psychological explanations for social behaviour and will use research evidence to analyse how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are influenced by their social environment.

You will learn why we spend a third of our lives sleeping, why adolescents are more likely to be night owls than morning larks, why sleep deprivation affects mental health, what your dreams mean and much more in this area of Individual Behaviour.

You will also learn why some people are more obedient than others, why some people change their thoughts and behaviour to match the majority, why we conform in some situations but not in others and much more in this area of Social Behaviour.

You may also study depression, prejudice or social relationships.

How the course is assessed

You will sit an examination that SQA marks.
You will conduct psychological research and submit a report to SQA.

Number of days per week

Two afternoons per week, Tuesday and Thursday 1.30 pm - 4.00 pm.
At our Sighthill campus, the Tuesday afternoon class will be online, and the Thursday afternoon class will be on-campus.
At our Milton Road campus, the Tuesday and Thursday afternoons will be on campus.
Higher English at Grade B and another relevant subject at Higher (Grade B) level e.g. History, Modern Studies, Biology.
This is an extremely demanding academic course and applicants need to ensure they can give the time and commitment required. They need to be able to work independently and juggle the demands of their school and college workload.

English Proficiency Requirements

Progression and articulation routes.

HNC Social Science

Study Options

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Best Undergraduate Psychology Programs

The undergraduate psychology program rankings were based solely on peer assessment surveys. To appear on these surveys, undergraduate psychology programs must have awarded a medium to large number of bachelor's degrees in psychology. Read the methodology »

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Stanford University

Stanford, CA

#1 in Psychology Programs (tie)
#1 in Psychology (tie)

The sunny campus of Stanford University is located in California’s Bay Area, about 30 miles from San Francisco. The private institution stresses a multidisciplinary combination of teaching, learning, and research, and students have many opportunities to get involved in research projects.

(fall 2022)

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University of California, Berkeley

Berkeley, CA

The University of California, Berkeley overlooks the San Francisco Bay in Berkeley, Calif. Students at this public school have more than 1,000 groups to get involved in, including more than 60 fraternity and sorority chapters.

(out-of-state)

Harvard University

Cambridge, MA

#3 in Psychology Programs (tie)
#3 in Psychology (tie)

Harvard University is a private institution in Cambridge, Massachusetts, just outside of Boston. This Ivy League school is the oldest higher education institution in the country and has the largest endowment of any school in the world.

University of California, Los Angeles

Los Angeles, CA

The University of California, Los Angeles is just five miles away from the Pacific Ocean. The public institution offers 5,000 courses, 140 bachelor's degree programs and 97 minors.

University of Michigan--Ann Arbor

Ann Arbor, MI

The university boasts of Ann Arbor, only 45 minutes from Detroit, as one of the best college towns in the U.S. Freshmen are guaranteed housing but not required to live on campus. Students can join one of the school’s more than 1,500 student organizations or 62 Greek chapters. Athletics play a central role at Michigan, including the football team’s fierce rivalry with Ohio State. Michigan also offers highly ranked graduate programs, including the Stephen M. Ross School of Business, College of Engineering, Law School and Medical School, in addition to the well-regarded School of Dentistry and Taubman College for Architecture and Urban Planning. The University of Michigan Hospitals and Health Centers is ranked among the top hospitals in the country.

Yale University

New Haven, CT

Yale University, located in New Haven, Connecticut, offers a small college life with the resources of a major research institution. Yale students are divided into 14 residential colleges that foster a supportive environment for living, learning and socializing.

Columbia University

New York, NY

#7 in Psychology Programs (tie)
#7 in Psychology (tie)

Columbia University has three undergraduate schools: Columbia College, The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS), and the School of General Studies. This Ivy League, private school guarantees students housing for all four years on campus in Manhattan’s Morningside Heights neighborhood in New York City.

Cornell University

Cornell University, a private school in Ithaca, New York, has 14 colleges and schools. Each admits its own students, though every graduate receives a degree from Cornell University. The university has more than 1,000 student organizations on campus.

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Champaign, IL

The University of Illinois is located in the twin cities of Urbana and Champaign in east-central Illinois, only a few hours from Chicago, Indianapolis and St. Louis. The school's Fighting Illini participate in more than 20 NCAA Division I varsity sports and are part of the Big Ten Conference. The university boasts one of the largest Greek systems in the country, and almost a quarter of the student body is involved. It’s not hard to find something to do on campus with more than 1,600 student organizations, including professional, political and philanthropic clubs. All freshmen are required to live on campus.

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, PA

Founded by Benjamin Franklin, the University of Pennsylvania is a private institution in the University City neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Students can study in one of four schools that grant undergraduate degrees: Arts and Sciences, Nursing, Engineering and Applied Sciences, and Wharton.

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More Schools in this List (Alphabetical)

Abilene Christian University

Abilene, TX

in Psychology Programs
in Psychology

Abilene Christian University is a Texas institution affiliated with the Churches of Christ. Students are required to attend daily chapel sessions and take Bible courses.

Adelphi University

Garden City, NY

Alabama A&M University

Founded in 1875, Alabama A&M University is a public institution.

American University

Washington, DC

Students at American University benefit from the school's location in the political hub of the nation. Washington, D.C., is a playground for the politically and socially oriented with its countless museums, restaurants, clubs and year-round events. The university, located in a suburban pocket of northwest Washington, is close to a stop on the D.C.-area Metrorail transit system. Rides downtown take about 15 minutes. Students at American have been rated among the most politically active in the nation, and there are more than 270 student clubs and organizations on campus. The school also has a sizable Greek system, with more than 25 fraternities and sororities.

Appalachian State University

Appalachian State University is a public school tucked in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina. Students at Appalachian have many programs, sports, and clubs to choose from, including the Appalachian Popular Programming Society, which plans campus events.

Arizona State University

Arizona State University’s Tempe campus offers more than 200 research-based programs in the arts, business, engineering and more. The campus is located just outside of Phoenix, in the suburb of Tempe, Arizona.

Arkansas State University

State University, AR

Arkansas State University offers more than 160 degree programs. At Arkansas State, students can get help with difficult classes through the Structured Learning Assistance program.

Arkansas Tech University

Russellville, AR

Founded in 1909, Arkansas Tech University is a public institution.

Auburn University

Auburn, Alabama, has been ranked one of the best places to live, and life at Auburn University can be similarly enjoyable for students. Football is a particularly big attraction in the fall, as fans support the Auburn Tigers with the help of school mascot Aubie the Tiger. The Tiger sports teams compete in the NCAA Division I Southeastern Conference, and the influx of football fans makes Auburn the fifth-largest city in the state on game days. Pep rallies are held in the downtown Toomer's Corner, and the area is covered in toilet paper by fans after every big victory. There are more than 500 student organizations on campus, and about 6,000 students are involved in the school's Greek system. Auburn freshmen ease into the college transition through Camp War Eagle, a two-day, overnight summer orientation program. Transition help continues on Hey Day, an annual effort to get students to wear name tags and say hello to one another. Freshmen do not have to live on campus; in fact, a dorm room isn't even guaranteed. Because of space restraints, first-year students are awarded on-campus living assignments on a first-come, first-served basis.

Auburn University at Montgomery

Montgomery, AL

Founded in 1967, Auburn University at Montgomery is a public institution. The school has 65.9% of its classes with fewer than 20 students, and the student-faculty ratio at Auburn University at Montgomery is 15:1.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Explaining the changes in procrastination in an act-based course – psychological flexibility and time and effort management as mediators.

1 HYPE Centre for Teaching and Learning, Faculty of Education, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
2 HAMK Edu Research Unit, Häme University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna, Finland

Introduction: The aim of our study is to explore the relationship between procrastination, time management skills and psychological flexibility and the changes in them during an Acceptance and Commitment therapy (ACT)-based course that included time management training. We also explored the effects of time management skills and psychological flexibility on procrastination. The study used an experimental design in an ACT-based well-being course that included time management training.

Methods: The participants were 109 students taking the course and 27 waiting list students. Analyses were conducted with Pearson correlation, mixed ANOVA and causal mediation analysis.

Results and discussion: Our results show that time management skills, psychological flexibility and procrastination were related to each other, and all changed during the course. In addition, change in both time management and psychological flexibility had an impact on the change in procrastination during the course. The results show that both time management and psychological flexibility influence the change in procrastination during an ACT-based course.

1 Introduction

University students experience academic procrastination frequently. Almost all students sometimes procrastinate during their studies, and approximately every second, a student regularly procrastinates ( Rothblum et al., 1986 ; Steel, 2007 ; Steel and Klingsieck, 2016 ). Recent research has shown that almost half of students can be classified into having severe procrastination, and of these students, 96% consider procrastination to be a problem ( Rozental et al., 2022 ). In addition, studies have shown that procrastination can lead to many negative consequences. It has been shown to be related to lower academic performance ( Steel et al., 2001 ), increased stress ( Sirois et al., 2003 ) and poorer mental health ( Stead et al., 2010 ) and have consequences for physical and psychological well-being ( Rozental et al., 2022 ). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the causes and ways to affect procrastination.

Many aspects can affect procrastination. Procrastination has traditionally been considered a form of self-regulation failure, as a weakness of will and low ability to organize one’s own studies (e.g., Senécal et al., 1995 ; Ferrari, 2001 ; Wolters, 2003 ; Steel, 2007 ). This was also found in a recent review study which concluded that most of the studies on procrastination have explored the effect of self-regulation on it ( Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). One part of self-regulation is time management, and one common theory is that procrastination results from a person’s inability to manage time ( Glick and Orsillo, 2015 ). But time management is only one aspect and does not explain the phenomenon. It has also been suggested that emotional regulation as a part of self-regulation should be taken into account when exploring factors that maintain and cause procrastination. For example, a review study showed that the ability to control and manage emotions is one central aspect studied in procrastination research ( Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). However, different frameworks of emotional regulation have mainly focused on modifying or regulating the emotions ( Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). One different way to explore ways to deal with emotions is psychological flexibility ( Hayes, 2004 ; Hayes et al., 2012a ), which emphasizes acceptance of emotions instead of changing or controlling them ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Recent studies concerning procrastination have brought up the importance of psychological flexibility in decreasing procrastination, and research suggests that procrastination results from a person’s psychological inflexibility ( Glick et al., 2014 ; Scent and Boes, 2014 ; Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ; Hailikari et al., 2022 ). However, research has explored different aspects effecting procrastination separately but there is lack of studies exploring different aspects effects together ( Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of an ACT-based course developing participants’ psychological flexibility and time management skills on procrastination. In addition, we explored the effects of time management and psychological flexibility on procrastination.

2 Theoretical background

Procrastination may be defined as ‘the voluntary delay of an intended and necessary and/or [personally] important activity, despite expecting potential negative consequences that outweigh the positive consequences of the delay’ ( Klingsieck, 2013 , p. 26). Procrastination may be defined as self-handicapping behavior that occurs when a person postpones a task they intend to complete, potentially leading to increased stress ( Steel, 2007 ). Procrastination is often conceptualized as a self-regulation failure, meaning that there is a gap between an individual’s intentions and actions ( Dewitte and Lens, 2000 ) rather than an intention to delay. Typical for procrastination is that it is needless, counterproductive, and accompanied by feelings of discomfort ( Schraw et al., 2007 ). Klingsieck (2013) further claims that typically procrastination is irrational, and people cannot control their procrastination even if they want to (see also Grunschel and Schopenhauer, 2015 ).

Most of the studies on procrastination have focused on academic procrastination – that is, procrastination of study-relevant activities of university students ( van Eerde and Klingsieck, 2018 ; Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). In the academic context, procrastination is often associated with several negative factors, such as lower academic performance ( Steel et al., 2001 ), increased stress ( Sirois et al., 2003 ), poorer well-being ( Kim and Seo, 2015 ) and poorer mental health ( Stead et al., 2010 ). There is no single factor that could fully explain the reason for procrastination. There are several different theoretical approaches providing explanations for procrastination behavior ( Klingsieck, 2013 ; Salguero-Pazos and Reyes-de-Cózar, 2023 ). In the academic context, individual motivational factors, such as motivation, self-regulation, time management and learning strategies, are the most relevant, as these factors may be addressed by pedagogical choices. Some of the other approaches focus more on, for example, personality traits and disorders, which are not so easily influenced by pedagogical choices but rather require more psychological expertise.

One different way to explore ways to deal with emotions is psychological flexibility ( Hayes, 2004 ; Hayes et al., 2012a ), which emphasizes acceptance of emotions instead of changing or controlling them ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Recent studies concerning procrastination have brought up the importance of psychological flexibility in decreasing procrastination, and research suggests that procrastination results from a person’s psychological inflexibility ( Glick et al., 2014 ; Scent and Boes, 2014 ; Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ; Hailikari et al., 2022 ). This highlights the need to develop skills in psychological flexibility to decrease procrastination: important is to develop one’s skills to accept negative and difficult feelings and emotions which may arise in difficult learning situations; and further, to take actions – meaning get to work – despite these difficult feelings.

2.1 Time management affecting procrastination

Procrastination is frequently viewed as a failure in self-regulation, characterized by a lack of willpower and an inability to organize one’s own studying ( Wolters and Brady, 2021 ). Recent studies suggest that procrastination often stems from an individual’s struggle to effectively manage their time ( Hailikari et al., 2021 ; Fentaw et al., 2022 ; Sefriani et al., 2022 ). Time and effort management skills encompass a university student’s capacity to establish goals, study in alignment with those goals, manage their time efficiently and prioritize tasks ( Entwistle, 2001 ). Studies have consistently demonstrated that these skills are crucial factors in promoting academic progress (e.g., Pintrich, 2004 ; Haarala-Muhonen et al., 2011 ; Rytkönen et al., 2012 ; Häfner et al., 2015 ; Asikainen et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, it has been shown that many higher education students encounter challenges in developing and enhancing time management skills during their studies ( Parpala et al., 2017 ).

Time management has been found to be related to procrastination. It has been shown that poor time management skills are positively related to procrastination behavior ( Wolters et al., 2017 ; Fentaw et al., 2022 ). In a study by Wolters et al. (2017) , time management skills had the strongest association with procrastination compared to other aspects such as motivation and metacognition factors. It also has been shown that procrastination can be decreased with time management training ( Häfner et al., 2014 ), and online studying, which has been increasing in university studies since the pandemic, can cause time management problems. Additionally, students’ beliefs about their self-regulation skills, such as time management, are related to procrastination ( Han et al., 2023 ).

People who fail to self-regulate their own behavior, especially when facing aversive tasks, often give into the short-term rewards and instant gratification that can come when avoiding a task ( Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 ). Thus, it is a matter of deficit in emotional regulation over long-term goals. Recent research suggests that, instead of being purely a self-regulation or time management problem, procrastination is strongly influenced by an inability to cope with negative emotions that arise in challenging situations ( Gagnon et al., 2016 ; Hailikari et al., 2021 ). One promising and effective skill for emotional regulation is psychological flexibility, and thus, it is necessary to consider it as a central factor influencing procrastination.

2.2 Psychological flexibility

One aspect affecting students’ procrastination is psychological flexibility ( Glick et al., 2014 ; Sutcliffe et al., 2019 ). Psychological flexibility describes people’s ability to direct their behavior and attention towards actions that are meaningful for them flexibly in the presence of negative thoughts and feelings ( Hayes et al., 2006 ; Chawla and Ostafin, 2007 ). Thus, people with high psychological flexibility can function according to what is really in line with their values or meaningful for them and by living a value-based life, accepting negative thoughts, emotions and sensations by taking on an observer perspective to them and opening up to them mindfully ( Bond et al., 2010 ). The origin of the concept comes from Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), which is one of the third-wave therapies focused on reducing experiential avoidance, which is an opposite process of psychological flexibility and can be regarded as psychological inflexibility ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Experiential avoidance means avoiding negative feelings, sensations, or thoughts in a way that it causes harm in the long run ( Hayes et al., 2012a ).

Psychological flexibility realizes though six overlapping processes: cognitive defusion, being present, self as context, acceptance, values and committed action ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Cognitive defusion is a core process underlying the third-wave therapies and represents the process where one learns to look at one’s thoughts from an observer’s perspective rather than letting the thoughts define their actions ( Hayes, 2019 ). Cognitive defusion thus means that one can look at feelings and thoughts as separate and not consider them as truths about oneself ( Hayes, 2019 ). Being present is an important process for cognitive defusion, as it means being able to focus on the present moment instead of living in the past or future and, thus, being in contact with events or thoughts as they occur, emphasizing noticing them as an observer instead of being judgmental towards them ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Being present is closely related to seeing oneself as a context or a container of emotions instead of being the emotions ( Hayes, 2019 ). That is to say, self as context includes seeing oneself as an observing self who is separate from the emotions and thoughts ( Hayes et al., 2012c ). Acceptance is the opposite of avoiding and running away from or fighting against difficult emotions and thoughts but instead actively accepting difficult emotions as they come without trying to change them ( Hayes et al., 2006 ).

Living a meaningful life is a core aim with developing psychological flexibility. Shifting the focus from short-term rewards involves really exploring one’s values and what is important to oneself. It is an important part of the development of psychological flexibility ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). People often can have different kinds of aims that they think they must do, such as for social acceptance, and do not really think about what is truly meaningful for themselves ( Hayes, 2019 ). The sixth aspect of flexibility, committed action, means that people take actions based on their values and what is meaningful for them with the help of the other five processes ( Hayes et al., 2006 ).

A total of 40 years of research has shown that ACT intervention targeted at increasing psychological flexibility has an important impact on improving well-being and life satisfaction as well as decreasing a wide range of psychological problems such as depression, anxiety and stress for different populations including university students (for review studies and meta-analyses, see Howell and Passmore, 2019 ; Bai et al., 2020 ; Gloster et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, the importance of psychological flexibility has been noticed in relation to university studies. It has been shown that psychological flexibility is positively related to positive emotions and progression in studying ( Asikainen et al., 2018 ; Hailikari et al., 2022 ). In addition, it is positively related to self-regulated learning ( Asikainen et al., 2018 ) and integration in studies ( Asikainen, 2018 ) and negatively related to self-handicapping strategies in studies ( Hailikari et al., 2022 ). These self-handicapping processes have been shown be related to psychological inflexibility, as studies have shown that psychological inflexibility such as avoiding negative emotions and thoughts is clearly related to experiences of procrastination ( Dionne, 2016 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 , 2019 ). In a study by Eisenbeck et al. (2019) they found that psychological inflexibility mediated between procrastination and several aspects comprising psychological distress, anxiety, depression and stress. They argued that psychological inflexibility is an underlying mechanism of procrastination as procrastination may result from not procrastinating students not only experiencing negative emotions but avoiding them ( Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ). ACT-based interventions promoting psychological flexibility have been shown to decrease procrastination ( Glick et al., 2014 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 , 2019 ). and to give longer-term effects than for example cognitive behavioral therapy-based interventions ( Wang et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, it has been suggested that approaches to increase psychological flexibility in order to reduce procrastination and enhance students’ wellbeing should be explored ( Sutcliffe et al., 2019 ). Thus, it is fair to suggest that the core aspect in psychological flexibility which is to make choices to act based on what is meaningful despite of the possible discomfort it may cause by accepting these negative feelings and thoughts is one of the main processes that could also effect procrastination as it includes the unnecessary postponement of activities which are related to a goal ( Knaus, 2000 ).

3 Research questions

Time management training as well as ACT-based training can have effects on procrastination, but few studies have explored these effects together. One study has shown that both psychological flexibility and time management skills explain procrastination ( Hailikari et al., 2022 ), but the study was done at one timepoint. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between procrastination, time management and psychological flexibility and the changes in them during an ACT-based course that includes time management training. We also explore the effects of time management skills and psychological flexibility on procrastination. Specific research questions are:

• How is procrastination related to psychological flexibility and time management?

• How does the ACT-based course affect students’ psychological flexibility, procrastination and time management?

• How do changes in psychological flexibility and time management mediate the effect between the course and changes in procrastination?

We expect that time management skills and psychological flexibility are related to procrastination based on previous research ( Glick et al., 2014 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 ; Hailikari et al., 2021 ). We expect that the ACT-based course, which includes time management training, has an impact on students’ time management skills ( Häfner et al., 2015 ), psychological flexibility ( Räsänen et al., 2016 ) and procrastination ( Gagnon et al., 2016 ). In addition, we expect that both psychological flexibility and time management skills have an effect on procrastination during the course ( Hailikari et al., 2021 ; Katajavuori et al., 2021 ).

4.1 Participants

The data were collected as part of an optional eight-week online course aiming to foster students’ well-being and studying. The course was organized in the fall of 2021 at the University of x, and students could get 3 ECTS for completing the course. The course was based on developing students’ psychological flexibility processes as well as study skills such as time management. The course included seven different themes comprising introduction materials, individual exercises and group discussion on a weekly basis. The themes included, for example, reflecting on one’s values, self-compassion, defusion, mindfulness and committed action (see Table 1 ). In addition, students did a time management exercise in which they were asked to monitor and record their time management for a week and reflect on what they learned from it. Students wrote a reflective learning report at the end of the course, reflecting on the course and how it affected their studying. Completing the course required submitting the assignments on time and participating to peer group meetings, and course was assessed on a pass-fail basis. The course was delivered and developed by the university lecturers working in the Centre × (reference).

Table 1 . The themes of the course.

The study was conducted in line with the Ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The participants were informed about the research. Filling in the questionnaire data was part of the course assignment where they filled out the questionnaires and got feedback on them in the beginning and at the end of the course but participating in the research was voluntary and a consent was collected for using their data in our research. Participation in the study did not affect course completion in any way, and students had the possibility to change their consent to participate in the study at any stage during the course. A total of 151 students completed the course. Of these 151 students, 109 answered both questionnaires in the beginning and at the end of the course and gave permission to use their answers in the research. Of these students, 94 were female and 15 were male. A total of 37% of the students were first-year students, 28% were second-year students, 16% were third-year students, 8% were fourth-year students and the rest started their studies before 2018. The ages ranged between 20 and 60 years (mean = 26.97, median = 24.99, Std = 7.08). The control group comprised 27 students on the waiting list to another similar course in the spring of 2022. Of these students, 23 were female and 4 were male. Total of 48% of the students were first-year students, 7% were second-year students, 11% were third-year students, 15% were fourth-year students and the rest started their studies before 2018. The ages ranged between 20 and 52 years (mean = 32.37, median = 28.46, Std = 10.12). These students in control group completed the questionnaires at the same time than the students who participated to the course. The students were from different faculties and disciplines from the university, they did not know each other and were not in contact during the course.

4.2 Instruments

Time and effort management was measured with the organized studying scale, which includes statements concerning students’ time and effort management behavior (four items) from the HowULearn questionnaire ( Parpala and Lindblom-Ylänne, 2012 ). Its scales are widely used and validated in Finnish and international contexts (e.g., Parpala et al., 2010 ; Rytkönen et al., 2012 ; Ruohoniemi et al., 2017 ; Postareff et al., 2018 ; Cheung et al., 2020 ). Time and effort management skills were measured with four items on a Likert scale from 1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree (e.g., ‘I am generally systematic and organized in my studies’). Psychological flexibility was measured with the compact questionnaire ( Francis et al., 2016 ), which has been widely used in different contexts ( Tatta et al., 2022 ; Eadeh et al., 2023 ; Zhao et al., 2024 ). The items used a seven-point Likert scale (0 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). Procrastination was measured with a short version of the pure procrastination scale (PPS) ( Svartdal and Steel, 2017 ) using a five-point Likert scale (five items, e.g., ‘In preparation for some deadlines, I often waste time by doing other things’). This short version of the original PPS has been proven to be a robust instrument to measure academic procrastination ( Svartdal and Steel, 2017 ).

4.3 Analysis

The relationship between psychological flexibility, procrastination and time and effort management was analyzed with the Pearson correlation. The change in psychological flexibility, time and effort management and procrastination was analyzed with a mixed ANOVA comparing the experimental and control group using the Time × group association. Change variables of the scales measuring procrastination, time management and psychological flexibility were conducted by subtracting the sum of the first measurement from the second measurement. The effects of the course on change in procrastination with psychological flexibility and organized studying as mediators was conducted with causal mediation analysis using Spss Process.

The correlational analysis showed that procrastination correlated negatively with time and effort management in the first ( r = −674, p < 0.001) and second ( r = −0.654, p < 0.001) measurements. A negative correlation between psychological flexibility and procrastination was found in the first (−0.394, p < 0.001) and second (−0.459, p < 0.001) measurements. In addition, time and effort management and psychological flexibility correlated positively with each other in the first ( r = 0.398, p < 0.001) and second ( r = 0.377, p < 0.001) measurements. Results of the correlation analysis can be seen in Table 2 .

Table 2 . Correlations between procrastination, organized studying and psychological flexibility in the beginning and at the end of the course.

The mixed ANOVA showed that time and effort management and psychological flexibility increased statistically significantly (Time × group) compared to the control group ( p = 0.011–0.030). In addition, procrastination decreased statistically significantly compared to the control group ( p = 0.015). The results from the mixed ANOVA analysis can be seen in Table 3 .

Table 3 . Results of the mixed ANOVA analysis.

The Hayes process Macro model 4 was applied to assess the direct, indirect and total effects between the treatment variable group and outcome variable change in procrastination with change in psychological flexibility and time and effort management as mediating variables. The analysis showed that the treatment variable group has statistically significant direct effects on the change in time and effort management ( p = 0.030) and change in psychological flexibility ( p = 0.011). The total effect of the model was 0.213 and the indirect effects from treatment to changes in procrastination through both change in psychological flexibility and time and effort management were statistical significant ( p < 0.005) (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . The effects on the course on change in procrastination through mediating variables change in psychological flexibility and time and effort management.

6 Discussion

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between procrastination, time and effort management and psychological flexibility and changes in them during an ACT-based course. We also explore the effects of change in time and effort management and psychological flexibility on procrastination.

The results of our study showed that time and effort management and psychological flexibility were both negatively related with procrastination. This finding is in line with previous studies that have shown that time and effort management skills and psychological flexibility are both associated with procrastination ( Ferrari, 2001 ; Wolters, 2003 ; Steel, 2007 ; Glick et al., 2014 ; Dionne, 2016 ; Gagnon et al., 2016 , 2019 ; Hailikari et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, the results of our study showed that there was a correlation between psychological flexibility and time and effort management skills. This finding is in line with previous studies that have found a negative correlation between psychological flexibility and time management ( Asikainen et al., 2019 ; Hailikari et al., 2022 ). In a study exploring profiles based on time management and psychological flexibility by Hailikari et al. (2022) , it was suggested that time management skills and psychological flexibility skills go hand in hand. In our course setting, both skills were supported, but a clear correlation was found both in the beginning and at the end of the course. Previous studies have shown that psychological flexibility is related to better self-regulation skills and better progression in studies ( Asikainen et al., 2018 ; Eisenbeck et al., 2019 ; LeJeune and Luoma, 2019 ; Hailikari et al., 2022 ); it is also positively related to time and effort management skills ( Hailikari et al., 2022 ).

The results of our study showed that, during an online ACT-based course that included time management skills, and psychological flexibility increased and procrastination decreased compared to the control group. Previous studies have shown that ACT-based interventions can increase psychological flexibility skills (e.g., Räsänen et al., 2016 ). This was evident in our online course, in which the group served as support for the individuals, and the teacher had a very small role. Previous studies have shown that peer-group-supported ACT-based interventions can support psychological flexibility ( Grégoire et al., 2022 ), but in this study, the peers were trained to lead the intervention. It seems that self-directed group discussion has an impact as well. In addition, previous studies have shown that time management skills can be increased by practicing with interventions ( Häfner et al., 2014 ). Although the time management training in this course centered on time usage follow-up for 1 week and reflection of time usage, it seems that it was enough to make an impact during the course. The positive and long-term effects of time management training have been found in earlier studies ( Green and Skinner, 2005 ; Wingren et al., 2022 ), but our study showed that the effects were reached already after a one-week follow-up. Time usage follow-up can add students’ perceived control over time, which has been found to be related to time management and well-being ( Chang and Nguyen, 2011 ).

In addition, there was impact on procrastination during the course, which was expected, as it has been shown that both time-management-based ( Häfner et al., 2014 ) and ACT-based interventions ( Gagnon et al., 2016 ) can decrease procrastination. The results suggest that, with an ACT-based course including time usage follow-up and reflection, it is possible to decrease students’ experiences of procrastination in their studies. Furthermore, the results of our study showed that both changes in time management and psychological flexibility have an impact on change in procrastination in this course. This indicates that reducing procrastination can be done not only by promoting time management skills but also by focusing on developing psychological flexibility skills. Psychological flexibility promotes value-based actions, despite all the negative emotions and feelings one might have, and decreases avoidance behavior ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Thus, psychological flexibility can help students’ time management by giving them tools to allow time for important aspects of life and to commit to one’s value-based goals.

The role of psychological flexibility in procrastination has also been shown in previous studies. It has been stated that procrastination may include the decreased ability to be present ( Glick et al., 2014 ), which is a central part of psychological flexibility ( Hayes et al., 2006 ). Previous studies have also shown that, for example, perfectionism, including a very critical assessment of one’s own behavior and performance, which is evident among university students, is related to procrastination ( Çapan, 2010 ; Ashraf et al., 2023 ). Psychological flexibility skills help one to accept difficult emotions and thoughts about oneself and can help to develop a less critical and more lenient attitude towards oneself, living life according to one’s own values instead of avoidance ( Hayes, 2019 ). This acceptance of difficult emotions and value-based actions instead of experimental avoidance are key aspects of psychological flexibility and are shown to be in the heart of procrastination, which is a problem of avoidance ( Dionne and Duckworth, 2011 ).

6.1 Limitations

There are some limitations that need to be taken into account concerning this study. Even though this course was optional for all the students in the university, it is likely that this study included a selected sample of students who were interested in improving their well-being and studying because this course was advertised as a course that especially aims to foster participants’ well-being. Thus, the generalization of the results should be considered carefully. The number of the participants could have been higher, and only two-thirds of the students who participated in this course participated in this research. It is possible that the group of participating students differed from those who did not give their consent form. In addition, the number of the students in the control group was very small. Unfortunately, we were unable to get more answers from the waiting list participants. This could have had an impact on the study results. However, there is evidence that reliable results can be obtained even though the control group is much smaller ( Hutchins et al., 2021 ) Furthermore, this study did not include a follow-up measurement; thus, it is not possible to say how permanent the changes concerning procrastination and the other measurements were. In the future, it is important to have a longitudinal setting to explore how permanent the benefits that can be gained during this intervention course are. In addition, future research should consider how the course affects study progression measured with earned credits. The present study included only self-reported measures.

6.2 Practical implications

In addition to improving students’ well-being and studying in several ways ( Asikainen et al., 2019 ; Katajavuori et al., 2021 ), an ACT-based intervention combined with time management training in the higher education context can be a beneficial way to diminish procrastination in the academic context. These kinds of courses are able to improve time management and psychological flexibility skills, which can be considered very important future working life skills as well. Different kinds of interventions have been delivered to students as part of counselling, but these kinds of courses could be implemented in curriculums. Furthermore, the skills for both time and effort management and psychological flexibility should be supported during higher education. It would be important that pedagogical awareness and pedagogical skills of the teachers would improve, and that practical teaching work would include guidance on breaking down goals and tasks. Furthermore, including formative assessment to teaching would make it possible for students to get feedback of their progression of studies and their performance and that way, help the students in their effort management. The teachers could also make it explicit that learning and completing the course may not always be nice but may include difficult feelings and emotions, which do not disappear by avoiding the assignments and are part of normal life and studying.

In addition, New approaches and ways to reduce procrastination has been called for ( Goroshit, 2018 ; Zacks and Hen, 2018 ), and one suggestion to enhance student well-being and reduce procrastination is to increase psychological flexibility among university students ( Sutcliffe et al., 2019 ). Based on our study, it seems that this kind of online intervention course could be one way to accomplish this.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

HA: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TH: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. NK: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Finnish Ministry of Education has funded this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: procrastination, psychological flexibility, time management, higher education, acceptance and commitment therapy

Citation: Asikainen H, Hailikari T and Katajavuori N (2024) Explaining the changes in procrastination in an ACT-based course – psychological flexibility and time and effort management as mediators. Front. Psychol . 15:1331205. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1331205

Received: 31 October 2023; Accepted: 16 April 2024; Published: 01 May 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Asikainen, Hailikari and Katajavuori. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Henna Asikainen, [email protected] ; Telle Hailikari, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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School of Thought Blog

Support for High-Quality High School Psychology Courses

High school psychology is a popular course that has the potential to benefit students in numerous ways. As the scientific study of the mind and behavior, psychology engages students in the scientific process and the course covers content directly applicable to students’ lives. A high-quality psychology course can:

Help students build essential life skills. Understanding the science of human behavior can help students improve their academic skills, work more effectively and collaboratively with others, and successfully navigate daily life challenges.
Prepare students for, and interest them in, a variety of careers. Psychology is a hub science broadly applicable to STEM disciplines, business, education, health, criminal justice, and mental health. A high-quality high school psychology course can prepare students for various growing career fields.
Improve mental health literacy. The course can provide accurate, science-based information about mental health, which is critical given the current student mental health crisis.
Promote cultural competence. The science of psychology can help students better understand the scope and variability of human behavior.

Despite these benefits, psychology can be a challenging course to teach. Often, social studies teachers, who may have limited or no educational background in psychology, are tasked with teaching the subject. There is considerable variability in who teaches psychology across schools, districts, and states, particularly since few states require teacher certification in this subject.

Teachers with minimal preparation in psychology may struggle to find the guidance and resources they need to design a quality course. Given how much psychology permeates our daily lives, it can be challenging for students (and teachers new to the discipline) to differentiate between common myths perpetuated by popular psychology and psychological knowledge supported by research.

Fortunately, help and support is available through the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA has a long history of supporting the teaching of high school psychology. Most importantly, the APA has developed, and maintained, curriculum standards for high school psychology that identify the core content that should be covered in a high-quality course. The third revision of the National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula was published in 2022. In addition to outlining learning targets for the course, the standards also provide integrative themes that teachers can weave throughout the course so that students recognize that “applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways,” and “ethical principles guide psychology research and practice,” among other cross-cutting themes.

The APA Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS) website also provides teachers with free information and resources to design and deliver a quality course. Notably, TOPSS offers a comprehensive set of free teaching resources directly linked to the National Standards. Other resources include:

A recently revised resource vetting rubric for teachers to use to evaluate the quality and appropriateness of activities or other resources for their course;
Videos highlighting the value of the course and on TOPSS resources (and TOPSS as a professional learning community) ;
The Psychology Teacher Network news digest for psychology educators;
An assessment guide for teachers , and more.

The APA TOPSS Committee is currently updating essential resources for new teachers, including pacing calendars and a handbook for teachers who are just getting started with the course. The TOPSS website is updated frequently. High school psychology teachers can join TOPSS to connect with a global community of educators; a link to join is available on the TOPSS website .

If your school offers a psychology course, I hope this post encourages you to support your teachers in aligning their course with APA’s National Standards . I also encourage you to share the TOPSS website with your psychology teacher(s) so they can access the many resources available to them.

If your school does not offer a psychology course, I hope this post helps you recognize the potential impact of this high-interest course and consider selecting or hiring a teacher with a psychology background. At the very least, I hope this post provides ideas for how you might support and onboard a teacher for this course.

I appreciate your leadership and encourage you to share the resources above with any psychology teacher at your school. Please contact me at [email protected] if you have any questions about the National Standards, or Sue Orsillo, PhD, from APA’s Center for Education in Psychology, at [email protected] if you have any questions about APA’s support of high school psychology.

About the Author

Tina Athanasopoulos, MA, CAS, is the associate principal for student services at John Hersey High School in Arlington Heights, IL (District 214). Previously, she taught both regular and AP Psychology. She also chaired the working group that developed the most recent revision of the National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula.

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