good thesis statement about gender roles

113 Gender Roles Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for gender roles essay topics? This field is hot, controversial, and really worth exploring!

• 🔝 Top 10 Gender Topics
• 📝 Gender Essay: Writing Tips
• 🏆 Gender Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

✍️ Gender Argumentative Essay Topics

❓ research questions about gender roles.

In your gender role essay, you might want to focus on the issues of gender equality in the workplace. Another exciting option is to write about gender stereotypes in education. Finally, you can elaborate on how traditional gender roles are changing.

In this article, you’ll find a list of gender argumentative essay topics, ideas for papers on gender and society, as well as top gender roles essay examples.

🔝 Top 10 Gender Roles Topics

• Gender stereotypes and the way they affect people
• Fighting gender stereotypes and sexism
• Gender equality in the workplace
• Gender stereotypes in education
• Gender schema theory
• Is gender socially constructed?
• Social learning theory and gender
• Gender roles and sexual orientation
• Body image and gender
• Social gender construction in the media

📝 Gender Roles Essay: Writing Tips

Essays on gender roles present students’ understanding of the similarities, differences, and aspects of gender roles in society.

Writing gender roles essays helps learners to understand the significance of topics related to gender roles and the changes in societal norms. Students should be highly aware of the problems associated with traditional gender roles. For example, there are many periods in world history, in which people did not have equal rights.

Moreover, some aspects of gender roles may be associated with discrimination. To make an essay on this problem outstanding, you should discuss the problem in detail and present your points clearly. A useful tip is to develop a good structure for your paper.

Before starting to work on the paper, you should select the problem that is most interesting or relevant to you.

Gender roles essay topics and titles may include:

• The history of gender roles and their shifts throughout the time
• Male and female roles in society
• Gender roles in literature and media
• How a man and a woman is perceived in current society
• The causes and outcomes of gender discrimination
• The problem of ‘glass ceiling’
• The problem of social stratification and its outcomes
• The revolution in the concept of gender

After selecting the issue for discussion, you can start working on the essay’s structure. Here are some useful tips on how to structure your paper:

• Select the topic you want to discuss (you can choose one from the list above). Remember to pay attention to the type of essay you should write. If it is an argumentative essay, reflect on what problem you would want to analyze from opposing perspectives.
• Gender roles essay titles are important because they can help you to get the reader’s attention. Think of something simple but self-explanatory.
• An introductory paragraph is necessary, as it will present the questions you want to discuss in the paper. Remember to state the thesis of your essay in this section.
• Think of your gender roles essay prompts. Which aspects of the selected problem do you want to focus on? Dedicate a separate section for each of the problems.
• Remember to include a refutation section if you are writing an argumentative essay. In this section, you should discuss an alternative perspective on the topic in 1-2 paragraphs. Do not forget to outline why your opinion is more credible than the alternative one.
• Avoid making the paragraphs and sentences too long. You can stick to a 190 words maximum limit for one paragraph. At the same time, make sure that the paragraphs are longer than 65 words. Try to make all sections of the body paragraphs of similar length.
• Check out examples online to see how you can structure your paper and organize the information. Pay attention to the number of paragraphs other students include.
• Remember to include a gender roles essay conclusion. In this paragraph, you will discuss the most important claims of your paper.
• Do not forget to add a reference page in which you will include the sources used in the paper. Ask your professor in advance about the types of literature you can utilize for the essay.

Do not forget that there are free samples on our website that can help you to get the best ideas for your essay!

Most Popular

Chatgpt and similar ai is not going to kill you, but ignoring it might.

13 days ago

How Should I Format My College Essay Properly

Reddit shares everyday uses for latest gpt-4o version.

12 days ago

What’s Your Monthly Income as a Full-Time Student with a Job? Reddit Reacts

The difference between duke vs prince, gender & sexuality studies thesis statement examples.

unsplash.com

Gender and sexuality studies is a multifaceted field examining issues related to identity, social structures, and power dynamics. Effective thesis statements in this domain should encapsulate clear and significant research inquiries. Below, find examples of both adept and poor thesis statements regarding gender and sexuality studies, with detailed explanations for their strengths and weaknesses.

Good Thesis Statement Examples

Specific and Clear Good: “This thesis investigates the influence of media representation on the self-esteem and body image of transgender youth in urban environments.” Bad: “Media affects the self-esteem of transgender individuals.”

The good example specifies the demographic (transgender youth), the research setting (urban environments), and the issues under investigation (self-esteem and body image), providing clarity and direction. In contrast, the bad example is vague and lacks defined variables.

Arguable and Debatable Good: “Despite advancements, women of color still face systemic barriers in academia, impacting their career progression and professional development.” Bad: “Women of color face challenges in academia.”

The good statement makes a clear, debatable claim about systemic barriers in academia for women of color, opening the floor for analysis and argumentation. The bad statement, while true, is generic and lacks a clear argument or focus.

Researchable and Measurable Good: “Through an analysis of queer representation in video games, this thesis explores how digital media can either challenge or perpetuate harmful stereotypes.” Bad: “Queer representation in video games is important.”

The good example offers specific areas for research (queer representation in video games) and measurable criteria (the challenging or perpetuating of stereotypes). The bad example, while positive, is broad and does not present clear variables for study.

Bad Thesis Statement Examples

Overly Broad: “Gender inequality is a significant problem in society.”

This statement, though true, is too broad, offering no particular aspect of gender inequality or specified societal area for examination.

Lack of Clear Argument: “Sexuality is complex and diverse.”

While accurate, this statement does not present a clear argument or focus for research, making it ineffective as a guide for scholarly inquiry.

Unmeasurable and Unresearchable: “Understanding gender is key to understanding humanity.”

Though philosophically insightful, this statement is broad, abstract, and provides no clear direction for empirical study or measurement.

Developing a robust thesis statement for research in gender and sexuality studies is vital for guiding your research and providing readers with insight into your study’s objectives and focus. Good thesis statements are clear, arguable, and researchable, serving as cornerstones for insightful academic exploration. Conversely, ineffective ones are usually too broad, lack clear arguments, and do not facilitate empirical analysis. By considering these examples and analyses, students can craft compelling thesis statements that provide a strong foundation for their research on the pressing and complex issues related to gender and sexuality studies.

Follow us on Reddit for more insights and updates.

Comments (0)

Welcome to A*Help comments!

We’re all about debate and discussion at A*Help.

We value the diverse opinions of users, so you may find points of view that you don’t agree with. And that’s cool. However, there are certain things we’re not OK with: attempts to manipulate our data in any way, for example, or the posting of discriminative, offensive, hateful, or disparaging material.

Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

More from Synthesis Thesis Examples & Samples

Sep 30 2023

Criminal Justice Reform Thesis Statement Examples

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Thesis Statement Examples

Sep 29 2023

Social Media & Society Thesis Statement Examples

Remember Me

What is your profession ? Student Teacher Writer Other

Forgotten Password?

Username or Email

Essay Service Examples Social Issues Gender Equality

Gender Equality Essay Thesis Statement

Introduction

Leave no one behind the project, community engagement officer.

• Proper editing and formatting
• Free revision, title page, and bibliography
• Flexible prices and money-back guarantee

Engagement plan

Gender equality, gender equity, division of labor.

Our writers will provide you with an essay sample written from scratch: any topic, any deadline, any instructions.

Cite this paper

Related essay topics.

Get your paper done in as fast as 3 hours, 24/7.

Related articles

Most popular essays

• Gender Equality
• Physical Education
• Teacher/Teaching

It has been claimed that sport plays a relatively minor role in the lives of women, as “women...

• Saudi Arabia

During recent decades, an increasing number of people throughout the world are becoming aware of...

• Gender Inequality/Gender Discrimination
• The Yellow Wallpaper

Giving women their rights was a great and serious issue in the past. Women were not treated...

Even though it is the 21st century, America is still not treating women and men as equals. There...

• The Story of An Hour
• Women’s Rights

During the 19th century, the role of women and men was sharply defined as a line that may never be...

• Gender Roles

Gender equality is an opportunity for all Americans to grow. Equality is a fundamental human right...

• Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation uniformity is considering guys to be females as being of equivalent status and...

An issue about gender equality has absorbed much attention from the society and has become a...

Here we will discuss women equality quotes and sayings. We would like to mention that women's...

Join our 150k of happy users

• Get original paper written according to your instructions
• Save time for what matters most

Fair Use Policy

EduBirdie considers academic integrity to be the essential part of the learning process and does not support any violation of the academic standards. Should you have any questions regarding our Fair Use Policy or become aware of any violations, please do not hesitate to contact us via [email protected].

We are here 24/7 to write your paper in as fast as 3 hours.

Provide your email, and we'll send you this sample!

By providing your email, you agree to our Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy .

Say goodbye to copy-pasting!

Get custom-crafted papers for you.

Enter your email, and we'll promptly send you the full essay. No need to copy piece by piece. It's in your inbox!

Gender Roles - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Gender roles refer to societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex. Essays might delve into the historical evolution of gender roles, their impact on society, and the challenges and implications of shifting gender norms in modern times. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Gender Roles you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Gender Roles in “A Doll House” by Henrik Ibsen

In Henrik Ibsen's A Doll House. Ibsen forces its readers and audience to question the different gender roles the two important characters have which are by society and how they were treated during the time of the 19th century. Gender has played a big role in history, literature and in people lives. There are expectations each gender has throughout their lives. The unique play which realistically tackles the issue of the woman question, double standards in gender roles, and money. […]

The Yellow Wallpaper Victorian Era Gender Roles

The Civil War had just recently come to a close bringing about many changes in American culture. The archaic class system had been shaken, leaving the wealthy and middle class void of social standards and in search of a new identity. In an act of desperation, Americans adopted European culture, a culture tyrannized by men, as their own. In the 1890s short story, The Yellow Wallpaper, Charlotte Perkins Gilman tells the story of a woman who is diagnosed with hysteria […]

Social Expectations Behavior of Men and Women

Gender roles are defined as the social expectations about the typical and appropriate behavior of men and women. Female gender roles include communal traits and behaviors, which focus on emotional sensitivity, interpersonal skills, and expressivity. Male gender roles include the expectation that boys and men exhibit traits that focus on self-orientation, independence, and assertiveness. There are exceptions in gender roles when it comes to occupational choice, cognitive skills, and hobbies. Society is torn when it comes to gender roles because […]

We will write an essay sample crafted to your needs.

Romeo and Juliet Gender Roles

The society of Verona had major differences among the way men and women should act. Men were expected to be masculine and carry themselves with honor and pride; while women were expected to please their men and hold their own opinions. However, Romeo and Juliet defied the standard gender roles that was put on them by their society. Men in Verona during this time induced a strong sense of power over women. Whereas, women were looked at as possessions who […]

Traditional Gender Roles Since the 1800’s and 1900’s

Traditional gender roles have and are changing dramatically over the years since the 1800's and 1900's. Roles you thought were strictly just for men or women have taken a turn and we are seeing roles adjust. Throughout this essay, I will discuss what were some traditional genders roles that men and women were accustom to, how they morph into today's roles, the policy's placed for these changes and most importantly the pros and cons it comes with it. Before I […]

Gender Inequality and Feminism

Gender inequality is a concept which has been occurring over a number of years and due to gender differences it fuels up gender inequality, which gave rise to gender socialization. Gender socialization is the process of learning gender roles which emerge from society and nowadays social media, throughout this process men and women learn their roles in society. The most common attribute we ascribe to women is that they can be vulnerable and sensitive, on the other hand, men hear […]

Gender Roles in “A Handmaids Tale” by Margaret Atwood

The concept of gender is one that has been a heated topic for many years. There are many different theories on what gender is, and how it should be used and treated in society. Judith Butler argues in her piece Performative Acts and Gender Constitution that gender is not something that one is born with, but it is instead a performance. She writes about the importance of identity, and the divide between sex, gender, and race. While many believe gender […]

Gender Roles in Marriage

Despite all of the changes the American society has endured, still the traditional roles of men and women in marriage triumph with the men reinforcing it and the women willingly accepting it due to the fact that it is seen as a part of the male dominating culture. The man is still considered the breadwinner of the family, and the female as the caretaker of the children and household. Meanwhile in the modern day and age both the husband and […]

The Role of Women and Stereotypes in the Greek Society in the Odyssey by Homer

The Odyssey is a classic poem by Homer ha revolves around the narrative of Odysseus an ancient Greek hero. Homer describes a full twenty-year journey that Odysseus spends fighting the Trojan War and traveling back to his family. The most significant theme is the nature and the role of women in Greek society. According to the story, men during the period were dominant and made most of the rules. However, Homer defies and illustrates the disparity in the role of […]

Gender Roles: Attitudes and Behavior

Over the years gender roles have had specific definitions created by society. Gender roles determine how males and females should think, speak, and dress. Also, gender roles can be defined as the behaviors and attitudes expected of male and female members of a society by that society. Gender roles are already developed before you are even born, you're are taught during childhood and usually goes on through adulthood. There is such a wide variation in modern gender roles that are […]

Perspective on Gender Roles and Identity in Family

Since the beginning of time, gender roles have been a major part of what made up the general rules of society. Gender roles can be seen in every aspect of living such as workplace, marriage, schools and the way society functions. As much as gender roles dominate in society, the rules of gender roles dominate even more in marriages. In heterosexual marriages, when men and women are married, gender roles are expressed more than in just regular societal situations. The […]

Domestic Violence and Traditional Feminist Philosophy and Beliefs

Throughout the country a majority of domestic violence programs are based off the traditional feminist philosophy and beliefs. The feminist approach is defined as an approach that aims to understand gender inequality(source). The approach examines women’s and men’s social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and politics with a goal to empower the oppressed (source). Although this belief is meant to be a positive movement for all women and fight against domestic violence it is not completely ethical to just use that […]

Gender Roles and Educational Differences Among Various Societies Around the World

Throughout history, it is has become evident that societies hold differing views towards men and women. While this may not always be intentional, people among various cultures are often looked upon differently and are set to different expectations due to their gender. When considering gender inequality, unequal rights to education is a problem faced by girls worldwide. Girls around the world are denied education daily due to child labor, early marriage, and conflict between nations. In Pakistan, Kenya, and even […]

Paradigms of Gender Roles in Stream of Consciousness and Grief

Written in response to not only the death of her parents, but also the impending death of the Victorian Era with the looming Modern era, the death of a generation in World War I, and the death of Western patriarchal gender roles; simply ascribing Virginia Woolf’s To The Lighthouse as a eulogy to the death of her parents would be the greatest understatement of the century. Following of course Woolf’s own understated treatment of death and time in the text. […]

Gender Roles on the Culture of American Medicine

Introduction Social constructs are embedded in the everyday lives of people. Constructs can range from a vast majority of things within different cultures throughout the world. Women have gone through a history of steps in order to get to a place where they can be equal to men and even now, there are gender differences between men and woman that are still prevalent today. Woman have gone a long way from the woman's suffrage movement since the 1800s. Women have […]

Gender Roles during the Great Depression and the Cold War

A role or behavior learned by a person as appropriate to their gender which is determined by the prevailing cultural norms is called a gender role. Both men and women have been told how to behave, dress, and even present themselves to the public. An example of gender roles in society is women are supposed to be feminine, graceful, polite, nurturing, emotional, take care of kids, cook, clean; while men are supposed to be muscular, aggressive, tall, take care of […]

Love in Henrik Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House”

Henrik Ibsen's controversial play, "A Doll House", conveys the story of a wife's struggle to obtain her self identity and freedom in escaping the social norms of an irrational system of the nineteenth-century. The protagonist of the play, Nora Helmer, represents dependency and submissiveness, which signifies the oppression of women...exemplifying the conventional feminine standard during the period. On the contrary, her husband, Torvald Helmer is characterized as an alpha male. He is fiercely assertive and independent, but even as a […]

Gender Roles and Identity in Children

Gender roles have always been a focused topic throughout cultural history. Theoretical and empirical work on family gender roles focuses on the process in which parents convey behavior to their children. The family unit and gender roles that are played can directly affect society. There are people who believe there is a role set for them. Traditional American culture has identified a male as the head of the house hold. He is to be considered the Breadwinner . The female […]

Changing Gender Roles in Marriage, Society, and Workplace

Abstract Gender roles play a significant role in our life because it shapes how we think about the society we live in and the people around us. Women have been stereotyped to take care of house business and in the upbringing of kids. Gone are the days this happened now women are taking over what's so-called men's work. Men fear to have a female Boss from what I've heard most men don't like when their Boss is a female they […]

Modernist Take on Gender Roles

Throughout history, the relationships between mother and daughter have been frayed by woman's liberation. Many mothers have an old fashioned, traditional opinion about what a woman should be in society. The short story "Girl", by Jamaica Kincaid, is an example of this particular relationship in action. The theme(s) in "Girl" strongly suggests that a woman should be domesticated and that there is a certain way that she should act, in addition to the role that she must fulfil according to […]

Yemen Presentation: Gender Roles and Statuses

Gender inequality is among the biggest problems in the country of yemen. It is socially accepted that women are nothing more than indulgent mothers, sisters, and wives who perform household duties while men are perceived as the providers responsible for the health and wellbeing of their families. Women in Yemen are plagued by disadvantages and discrimination due to their sex. In yemen culture, women do not have equal rights to men and they have always been considered inferior to men […]

Gender Identity & Roles

Abstract From birth, we as humans are grouped into two categories: male and female. Gender is the first and most basic way to define a person, not only in terms of physical attributions, but also through roles structured by culture and society. Gender roles are social constructs developed by cultures that put various expectations on each sex. They set a standard of what behavior is appropriate for a person according to whether they are male or female. These roles represent […]

Gender Roles in Hayes and Poe

Throughout history, women have battled discrimination and inequality inside and outside of the home. Women were generally seen as worthy only as housewives who took part in chores, such as cooking and cleaning. A woman's perspective did not hold any value, and she was not allowed to do what men were allowed to do, like vote or own land. According to unfpa.org, it says, Gender equality is the measurable equal representation of women and men...they have equal value and should […]

Shakespeare and Gender: Traditional Gender Roles

Shakespeare portrays gender in interesting ways throughout his work by defying traditional gender roles. Many women in Shakespearean plays are strong and rational while their male counterparts are lost, irrational and carried away by their emotions. Examples of this dynamic appear in Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth. It would appear Shakespeare believed gender to be a role that people could choose to play in a variety of ways. A comedy usually contained romantic couples whose story ended in marriage. The […]

Gender Roles in Things Fall Apart

The role of women has always been surrounded by controversy, some people believe women should get married, have children and take care of the household. Others believe women should have the choice between working a nine to five job, being a stay at home mom or both. Things Fall Apart was written by African writer Chinua Achebe in 1959, it came from the stories that Achebe’s mother used to tell him about the Igbo people. Things Fall Apart tells the […]

Gender Roles in Society Essay

Gender is a critical aspect of social inequality. Gender has been defined as a means to “serve to reduce assumed parallels between biological and psychological sex or at least make explicit any assumptions of such parallels (Unger 1976, p. 1086). Gender inequality is a prevalent issue in society as a whole, and America is no exception. It is a sociological construct which carves the path in which men and women will live their lives, affecting a broad range of choices […]

Men Succumb to Societal Pressures

Going off to college can be a pivotal moment in a young man’s life– he is away from home, has more independence, has to make new friends, etc. Once a young man is placed in a new environment surrounded by other men, they may feel obligated to “prove” themselves masculine through conventional masculine norms that may have adverse effects to their mental health. The fact that many men succumb to societal pressures to act anti-feminine, self-reliant, aggressive, etc., is important […]

Jane Eyre Gender Roles

The Victorian Era was a period of time where both women and men were treated differently based on their sexuality. Men were recognized as the superior ones in a household and the ones who did all the heavy labor. Women, on the other hand, were usually housewives that were constantly told what to do. Women never really had much of an opinion towards anything that went on in their lives, everyone pretty much expected them to listen to what they […]

A Doll’s House Gender Roles

Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House was a realistic prose drama written in 1879 that portrayed the social constraints women of the 19th century experienced in their daily lives. The controversial social themes in this work embodied the struggle of women to conform to humiliating societal expectations. In the play, the dynamic character Nora, who is first characterized as a trophy wife, begins to recognize the web of lies and deception prevalent in her household. Through the symbol of the tarantella […]

Gender Roles in the Great Gatsby

Looking at F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby through a feminist lens shows us how women in the twenties were portrayed within literature. Fitzgerald shows this by including gender roles, patriarchy controls, and double standards between the sexes. He shows these ideas though the lives of his characters such as Tom, Daisy, Nick, Jordan, George, and Myrtle. Fitzgerald is one of the best feminist writers of his time, he did not realize the impact that he would have on society.Throughout […]

Additional Example Essays

• Is Sexual Orientation Determined At Birth?
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace
• Victorian gender roles in The Picture of Dorian Gray
• Feminist Critique in Pygmalion
• My Favorite Food and Childhood Memories
• The Yellow Wallpaper Feminism
• Why Abortion Should be Illegal
• Death Penalty Should be Abolished
• Logical Fallacies in Letter From Birmingham Jail
• How the Roles of Women and Men Were Portrayed in "A Doll's House"
• Positive Effects of Social Media
• Importance Of Accountability

How to Write an Essay About Gender Roles

Understanding gender roles.

Before diving into an essay about gender roles, it is important to understand what gender roles are and their impact on society. Gender roles are the societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality. Begin your essay by explaining the concept of gender roles and their historical context. Discuss how gender roles have evolved over time and vary across different cultures and societies. It's also crucial to explore the ways in which these roles are perpetuated and challenged, including through media, education, and family dynamics.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on gender roles should be centered around a clear, concise thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about gender roles. For instance, you might explore the impact of gender roles on personal identity, analyze the role of media in shaping gender perceptions, or argue the need for a more fluid understanding of gender. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your topic.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

To support your thesis, gather evidence from a variety of sources, including sociological studies, historical texts, and current media examples. This might include research on the psychological impact of gender roles, historical analyses of gender in different cultures, or examples of gender representation in films and literature. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Be sure to consider different perspectives and address potential counterarguments.

Analyzing the Effects of Gender Roles

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the effects of gender roles on individuals and society. Discuss the consequences of strict gender roles, including stereotypes, discrimination, and limitations on personal and professional opportunities. Explore how gender roles affect both men and women, and consider the intersectionality of gender with other aspects of identity, such as race, class, and sexuality.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the importance of reevaluating and challenging traditional gender roles. You might also want to suggest areas for further research or action that could contribute to a more equitable understanding of gender.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and refine it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers, educators, or experts in gender studies to further improve your essay. A well-written essay on gender roles will not only demonstrate your understanding of the topic but also your ability to engage critically with societal norms and stereotypes.

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

• Utility Menu

Studies of Women, Gender, and Sexuality

• Mailing List
• Past Thesis Topics

• Concentration Requirements
• Junior Tutorial
• Senior Tutorial
• Undergraduate Secondary Field
• Career Paths
• Forms and Downloads

• Gender Roles Essay Writing
• A Step-by-Step Guide for Writing an A-Grade Gender Roles Essay

What Is a Gender Roles Essay?

How to structure a gender roles paper the right way, 6 simple tips for crafting a perfect essay on gender roles, essay on gender roles sample on the topic “how is the social gender formed”.

• Let's Conclude

A gender roles essay is a piece of writing where a student is expected to describe his/her understanding of gender roles that are specific to males and females. Both school and college teachers assign students to write this kind of paper to check how the modern generation treats the set of social and behavioral norms set by the generation of our ancestors.

Time passes and the gender roles change. If one is writing an essay on this topic, it is necessary to research how the set norms have changed in your society compared to other cultures. The topic of male/female gender roles has been discussed all over the world. It is still one of the most actual topics nowadays. In your work, you are supposed to tell about influences on the traditional attitudes to women (girls) /men (boys) in different cultures, society, at home as they may vary.

The major task of a student is to draw attention to the period of time when females didn’t have equal rights as males. In your essay, try to present evidence. Show that now the situation has improved but still one can witness discrimination of women at workplace, educational establishments, etc. Work about gender roles involves several aspects. You need to conduct social research based on interesting historical facts about a man’s life, his behavior and attitudes towards the woman playing different gender roles: the mother, wife, daughter.

Research the current situation on gender roles sharing your personal attitude to gender roles and the existing discrimination. Support gender role ideas. Have you been assigned to write a woman/man/children gender roles essay and you just have no idea on where to get started? Use this effective step-by-step essays guide. It is intended to be helpful for writing a paper on the role, which sex plays in the relationships between people living in one house. You’re expected to reveal the gender roles topic making it attractive to professors of the best educational institutions.

Before getting started with the gender roles paper, you need to have a clear picture of what a gender is. Most students mistakenly think that sex and gender have the same meaning. Is there any difference between sex and gender? The term “sex” refers to the biological features of a person while the gender means the role, which a person plays in a specific society.

In order to get an A-grade, check what you need to reveal in this type of essay.  The main idea of the gender roles essay is to check what a student thinks about cultural differences of the gender roles given to males/females on the birth day.

A teacher asks to write a gender roles paper expecting you to provide in-depth analysis of gender roles considering the economic, cultural, social sphere. Conduct research on gender roles giving sufficient evidence to prove your standpoint.

The topic of gender roles is broad and you need to choose an aspect for the deeper gender role research. Focus on the chosen problem writing a gender roles paper consisting of an introduction, the main body, and conclusion. The main principles will stay the same. A gender roles paper is a work about the problem of gender discrimination you should consider from different angles.

It should include careful gender research. Express your own thoughts on gender roles defined by the society the very 1-st day a girl or boy is born.

Writing a college/university gender research paper, you are expected to meet certain structural requirements not only concerning the number of pages. A well-structured logical gender roles paper can get an A-grade. Remember that at times when going to craft a gender essay, you need to check whether you know how to structure the gender roles text the right way. Have a closer look at must-have parts that affect  a gender roles essay’s quality:

• Introduction: The beginning of a gender essay should be interesting and eye-catching. It must be brief. A mistake many students make commonly is writing too long introductions making the reader bored. Don’t deprive readers of a wish to continue reading. Make your task to present the main idea of the further gender discussion. Introduce the topic in a way everyone would like to discover what is going to be next and Produce the best possible effect.

Imagine that this is a brand to sell. Write a gender paper introduction able to “sell” the rest of the work and give some facts/figures concerning the gender topic. Bear in mind that people like statistics. It is a good idea to start with gender figures starting your essay on gender roles with some intriguing question on gender roles everyone would like to answer.

• Thesis statement: Write a strong gender thesis statement at the end of an introduction. Craft a powerful sentence that consists of several words about gender roles and states the major ideas that will attract your target audience. Make it creative using various language means.
• The Main Body: Here, you are supposed to tell about the gender research conducted and the findings you have got. The work will be full if you research both positive/negative attitudes towards men/women due to their biological sex in the past and gender roles of a male/a female in the today's society, in the house environment. Provide your own understanding of the gender power. Find certain gender facts that will serve as convincing arguments for your standpoint and note that the number of gender paper paragraphs may slightly vary. Browse classification essay examples , they might help with your writing.

There are 3-4 paragraphs about the sex influence in all spheres of life.  To provide ideas on the traditional family roles, the household patterns of behavior, and the interconnection between the sex and the behavior, look for evidence of your thoughts.

• Conclusion: At the end, write a short paragraph with a brief paper summary. You are expected to set the major concept presented in the gender essay making it clear to the reader what position you occupy.

You should remember that the powerful conclusion is of the utmost importance. The reader may evaluate the entire work reading the last lines, it might matter a lot. Write the conclusion so that the reader doesn't have any additional questions on the topic. Finish only after making sure you have done a good job as finishing the main thought is a must.

• A bibliography list: Don't forget to place a list of references where you should provide all information sources that turned out to be useful for your research. Check all necessary formatting rules to write references the right way.

Every student knows that writing any kind of academic assignment is a time-consuming process. A gender assignment isn't an exception. It must be based on some facts, opinions of famous scientists. This doesn't mean there are no effective tricks that may help you to save time crafting an essay on gender roles. Check the list of the recommendations that can make your life easier helping to pass your essay on gender roles in the society with flying colors.

• Write an essay based on your own life experience. It is a good idea to think of your own life experience using it as a foundation as you can use examples of sexual discrimination your friends/acquaintances faced. The topic about roles of a man/a woman in the society provides freedom to express views or feelings towards gender roles determined by the society.  That's why you can benefit greatly from this opportunity to share your own life experiences.
• Check the availability of reliable information resources before choosing a topic. Haven't been assigned to write an essay on a certain issue? Then, you are free to choose any topic as the gender topic is broad.

For example, write about the influence of our society on the formation of boys/ girls’ behavior, explain why there is a discrimination between men/women at the workplace. Or you could explain how stereotyped sociaty is about driving skill and car knoledge dependong on gender, even though a lot of males use car manuals as much as females do to have an understanding about how vehicle works. When picking the topic, you should be guided by the main rule: choose the theme you are passionate about, the one, which can be researched successfully.

Include more facts, statistics, examples. Your essay will be more interesting if you include some facts that not everyone has heard about. Simply, look for the examples of the sex discrimination in different societies, search for the information in the media,  and give some numerical data to build trust. Check whether you understand all terms used in the text. Follow the informative essay format  to write such kind of a paper.

Assure that your essay contains in-depth analysis. Before submitting an essay, you are recommended to read it aloud to understand whether it sounds persuasive. If the research you have conducted is of the low quality, edit paragraphs to sound better and then leave your gender essay for 1-2 days before the submission. Read it once again to be sure it is well-researched. Hand it in if there is no need to add any kind of information.

Use grammar/plagiarism checkers: On the Internet, you’ll find many online software tools. They are aimed at helping writers to check whether the essay is of the high quality. Copy your essay’s text, check whether there are any grammar/spelling mistakes. If everything is fine, the next step is to check whether it is 100% unique or you’ve plagiarised somebody's thought with or without a special intention.  Make all necessary corrections before you demonstrate an essay to the teacher.

Make sure you have met all teacher's expectations concerning the essay style and formatting taking into account that there are many formatting styles - APA,  MLA format , Chicago, etc. You should ask your teacher which one it is better to give preference to. Check the requirements in the necessary styling guide and assure that you did everything the right way. If you lack time, then buy essay papers online composed by professional writers who can give a helping hand by editing/proofreading the work.

The formation of gender identity begins at an early age manifesting itself as a subjective feeling of belonging to baby-boys/baby-girls. Already at the age of three, kids start getting a kind of education on the gender role. Boys prefer to play with boys, girls - with girls. Joint games are present in the lives of both genders.

They are important for acquiring communication skills with each other. Preschoolers try to correspond to those ideas about the "right" behavior for the boy/ girl, which they learn from their family seeing at home - a place where they are living and are being raised.

For generations of girls, the image of both the woman, the main example of which is the mother, and the image of the man-father, is very important. For boys, the perception of the patterns of both male and female behavior is of the utmost importance.

Parents should give children the first example of an equal relationship between a husband and a wife, which largely determines their behavioral traits when dealing with people of two opposite sexes. While growing up, more importantly, it is essential for kids to get an idea of what equality is and which rights every member of the family has.

Up to 9-10 years, children are susceptible to the specific external impact of socialization. Close contact with peers of the opposite sex in school and other activities help the child to assimilate the behavioral gender status adopted in the modern society. Role-playing games that are taught in the kindergarten, with time become more difficult. Participation in them is important for children: they have the opportunity to choose the gender of the character in accordance with their own, they learn to match the gender role they have been shown.

Children represent men or women as individuals. They primarily reflect the acceptable stereotypes of gender behaviors adopted at home, in the families, and at school. They show those qualities that are considered in their environment feminine or masculine. In the prepubertal period (approximately 7-12 years old), children with very different personal qualities tend to unite in social groups in different ways, while avoiding representatives of the opposite sex.

During puberty, teenagers, as a rule, try to emphasize their gender qualities socially. In the list of those qualities which they begin to include communication with the opposite sex. An adolescent boy, trying to show his masculinity, shows determination, strength, but should actively care about girls.

The assimilation of gender roles and the development of gender identification is allowed as a result of the complex interaction of natural instincts, individual characteristics of a child and his/her environment, as well as actions in the society. If parents, knowing the norms of this process, do not impose their stereotypes on the child, but help him/her to reveal his/her individuality, then in adolescence/older age he/she will have less problems associated with puberty, awareness of the marriage, acceptance of his/her gender roles.

Let's Conclude

When crafting an essay on genders, you need to plunge into the history. Analyze whether the gender roles of men/ women have changed in a significant way or not. Provide your point of view on the basis of the public research available. Support your ideas with the good illustrative examples and refer to the works of the psychology/sociology, thinking over the scientists’ findings.

Stick to the correct essay structure that has been discussed in this article. Use the good quality sample as an example of the essay on the gender subject. If you follow all pieces of advice that are present here, you will enjoy the process of writing due to the fact that there are a lot of issues to concentrate the attention of your reader on.

For many years men have considered women slaves who were to do housework and take care of the family. Such discrimination led to suffragettism and gender equality. That’s why today many students choose this topic for their essay and try to refle their personal attitudes to equal rights of both gende...

Many college and university students find it hard to write a good women's rights essay because they have other education shores and social responsibilities. Simply listing the rights of a woman in the society isn’t enough. You need to research the history of relevant movements, choose interesting id...

If you are required to make the American dream essay, it's important to understand the goal of this paper. This term can be introduced in various perspectives. You can write about the free and happy nation that is proud to live in a great country. Or you may choose another view and tell the readers ...

• < Previous

Home > Honors College > Honors Theses > 1691

Honors Theses

Changing the script: an investigation of how gender roles and stereotypes influence women’s career choice in marketing.

Skylar Laine Read , University of Mississippi Follow

Date of Award

Spring 5-2021

Document Type

Undergraduate Thesis

Business Administration

First Advisor

Victoria Bush

Second Advisor

Melissa Cinelli

Third Advisor

Laurie Babin

Relational Format

Dissertation/Thesis

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how the portrayal of gender roles and stereotypes have influenced young women growing up and how this representation has affected women’s career choices—specifically in sales. This thesis will explore the evolution of the Disney Princess, how the gender roles of these characters have influenced young girls’ perception of their role models, career choices, and perceptions of themselves in the workplace. This exploration is done through three different studies. The first is a case study of three Disney Princesses and the portrayal of women in their respective eras. The second study consists of in-depth interviews with women in the workplace in order to obtain a better understanding of the gender biases and stereotypes affecting women in the workforce today. Finally, the third study conducts a survey of undergraduate college women at the University of Mississippi to measure their attitude towards leadership, gender equity in the workplace, and social media’s impact on their perceptions of sales as a career. After studying the evolution of the Disney Princess, it is evident that young girls’ perceptions of themselves and their image in society has progressively evolved and will continue to improve once there is more representation of female leaders in media. Primary research indicated that the women interviewed were not directly influenced by the princesses; instead, these heroines did inspire these women to be who they are along with assisting in forming their self-identity and identifying who they perceive to be their role model and the influence these role models had on women in the workplace. Primary research also suggested that although women have had a development of leadership skills and are more likely to be placed into leadership positions in the workplace, the depiction of women in leadership roles are underrepresented in the media and there is still need for an increase of women as leaders. More representation of female leaders in media, specifically film, will provide young girls growing up a better and more essential role model.

Recommended Citation

Read, Skylar Laine, "Changing the Script: An Investigation of How Gender Roles and Stereotypes Influence Women’s Career Choice in Marketing" (2021). Honors Theses . 1691. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/1691

Accessibility Status

Searchable text

Creative Commons License

Since May 03, 2021

Included in

Marketing Commons , Sales and Merchandising Commons

To view the content in your browser, please download Adobe Reader or, alternately, you may Download the file to your hard drive.

NOTE: The latest versions of Adobe Reader do not support viewing PDF files within Firefox on Mac OS and if you are using a modern (Intel) Mac, there is no official plugin for viewing PDF files within the browser window.

• Collections
• Disciplines

Advanced Search

• Notify me via email or RSS

Author Corner

• Submit Thesis

Additional Information

• Request an Accessible Copy

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

College essays

• Choosing Essay Topic
• Write a College Essay
• Write a Diversity Essay
• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, August 15). How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 11, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/thesis-statement/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples, how to write topic sentences | 4 steps, examples & purpose, academic paragraph structure | step-by-step guide & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Gender roles and intimate partner violence among female university students in Spain: A cross-sectional study

Andrea llano-suárez.

1 Central University Hospital of Asturias, Principality of Asturias Health Service, Oviedo, Principado de Asturias, Spain

2 Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Principado de Asturias, Spain

3 Healthcare Research Area, Health Research Institute of Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Principado de Asturias, Spain

Alberto Lana

Ángel gasch-gallén.

4 Department of Physiatry and Nursing, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

Ana Fernández-Feito

Associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting information files.

Traditional gender roles (GRs) have a considerable influence on relationships among couples. These can lead to negative health effects in women; however, their impact on intimate partner violence (IPV) has been less explored, especially among younger women.

To explore the association between traditional GRs and several indicators of IPV on a sample of Spanish female university students involved in heterosexual dating relationships.

A cross-sectional study involving female university students (n = 1,005) pursuing ten degrees (four Health Science degrees and six Social Sciences degrees). Data were collected using two validated scales: 1) the Questionnaire on the Gender Determinants of Contraception (COGANT), used to examine four traditional GRs (submissive, blind, and passive attitudes of female students, and male dominance), and 2) the Dating Violence Questionnaire-R (DVQ-R) scale, used to measure five types of IPV-behaviors (coercion, detachment, humiliation, sexual violence, and physical violence), perceived fear, entrapment, and abuse. Logistic and linear regressions were conducted to study the association between GR and a series of IPV indicators in dating relationships.

Traditional GRs were highly prevalent (57.0% submissive, 52.0% blind attitude, 75.7% passive, and 31.7% identified their boyfriend as being dominant). Up to 66.3% experienced some type of violent behavior. All GRs were significantly associated with IPV indicators. A submissive attitude in female students was the GR that was most strongly associated to total IPV-behavior (adjusted odd ratio [OR] = 3.18; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.29–4.42), followed by male dominance (OR = 2.79: 95% CI:1.71: 4.54). Both GRs were also highly associated with perceived fear, entrapment, and abuse.

Conclusions

A high presence of traditional GRs was found in the relationships held by female university students, which was significantly associated with IPV indicators. Universities must adopt policies for gender equality and raise awareness on dating violence.

Introduction

Patriarchy and gender roles.

Gender has been traditionally defined as being a social and cultural construct which determines aspects, such as the values, attitudes, and expectations that are considered appropriate for men and women [ 1 – 3 ]. Currently, gender refers to the self-concept developed for each person during personal growth; thereby, gender is considered a continuum construct that can change over time [ 4 ]. Gender roles (GRs) are instilled from childhood via the differential socialization and education of boys and girls, which takes place within the family environment, among friends and peers, and is conveyed by cultural conceptions in the arts, media, and religion [ 5 – 7 ].

Patriarchy is a system of social, economic, and political structures based on male dominance [ 8 ]. The configuration of GRs in a patriarchal society usually implies a series of demands to adapt to the expected role. In this way, pressure is exerted to maintain a system where men remain in power in the most valued spheres of life, whereas women are typically relegated to inferior or less visible positions. [ 1 , 9 ]. Obviously, GRs have an outstanding impact on the way in which intimate partner relationships are constructed [ 10 ]. According to traditional GRs, girls and young women are expected to configurate their attitudes and individual positions within the couple to respond to the demands of patriarchal society [ 3 , 10 ].

Association between gender roles and intimate partner violence

Traditional GRs are associated with social- and health-related problems, including undesired pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections [ 3 , 10 , 11 ]. However, it is important to improve the current knowledge regarding the impact of GRs on intimate partner violence (IPV). According to previous scientific literature, social expectations about women can reinforce the silencing of some female IPV victims, their unwillingness to share experiences of violence and their difficulty in recognizing indicators of IPV. [ 12 ]. This hampers the social recognition of abuse, favoring the approval of the aggressor’s behavior and making it more likely for the victim to remain in a violent relationship [ 6 , 13 ]. For example, women with low self-esteem, who are insecure or submissive are more likely to stay in a violent relationship compared to empowered women [ 14 ].

However, the association between traditional GRs and IPV may be different in dating relationships among young people, as IPV during early adulthood has singular characteristics compared to relationships during adulthood.

Firstly, although the prevalence of dating violence is very high -even two to three times higher than during adulthood [ 15 , 16 ]- young people often have difficulty recognizing themselves as being victims of abuse [ 15 , 17 – 19 ]. For example, some types of psychological violence, such as humiliation or coercion, usually goes unnoticed by victims unless their signs are very evident [ 20 – 22 ]. For young adults, it is also common to believe in certain myths of romantic love, assuming, for example, that it is normal to suffer for love [ 17 ], or that controlling behaviors and jealousy are part of falling in love [ 20 , 23 – 25 ].

Secondly, another differential characteristic of IPV in youth dating relationships is that IPV tends to be bidirectional, as a person can be both the aggressor and the victim, which also hinders the recognition of abuse [ 2 , 16 , 17 ].

Thirdly, considering that young people have been exposed to traditional GRs for less time than adults, their effect on IPV may be different. Moreover, younger people might be more flexible towards the expectations they have of masculinity and femininity [ 26 , 27 ]. It should also be noted that the characteristics of partner relationships during youth are not usually the same as in adulthood. This means that there is a greater chance that younger people do not live together or feel financially dependent on others [ 15 , 28 ]. Also, the predominant types of abuse during each age group are different, as subtler, and hidden forms of violence often occur among young people [ 29 , 30 ].

Finally, during youth, people are forming their own identities and dating expectations about relationships and patterns of partner attachment are formed [ 28 , 31 ]. Thus, certain dynamics emerge within the first dating relationships, such as forms of communication, the emergence and resolution of conflicts, or exploration of sexuality, among others, influencing how people relate in adulthood [ 5 , 16 , 28 , 32 ]. Therefore, there is a risk that young partners who are involved in violent dating relations may see abuse as a normal part of a relationship [ 17 , 33 ].

Gender roles and intimate partner violence in Spain

Over the last decade in Spain, previous research on GRs and stereotyping has identified several changes in how certain traits are viewed as typically masculine or feminine, which may be related to the dynamic character of the masculinity–femininity construct itself and the changing social roles of men and women [ 34 ]. Thus, young people have considered themselves as being more undifferentiated, both in their self-perception and in their social networks [ 35 ], as opposed to other age groups [ 36 ]. Nonetheless, it is important to closely monitor these issues, as other recent studies have highlighted clear disadvantages and social vulnerability in terms of the imposition of GRs among young women in Spain [ 37 ].

Regarding IPV, 39.7% of young women in Spain aged 16–24 years have suffered from some type of abuse throughout their lives, including psychological, physical and/or sexual violence [ 38 ]. The Spanish government has assumed the control of IPV as a matter of priority, based on its magnitude and consequences, identifying young women as a particularly vulnerable group [ 39 ]. In order to face IPV, various state measures have been developed, such as the creation of a Ministry of Equality, the declaration of a multi-state pact against male violence, the enactment of specific laws, the implementation of a national protocol for IPV prevention with coordinated actions for the health, police and judicial systems [ 40 ], and the inclusion of topics related to IPV and equality in the educational curriculum, among others. These measures have contributed towards generating an intense social rejection of IPV [ 41 ] that is reflected in the agenda of the media and in the regular celebration of social acts that condemn IPV. At the university level, programs are being developed for the primary and secondary detection of IPV [ 42 ]. Furthermore, strategies to reach gender equity and to deal with IPV have been progressively introduced throughout the educational curriculum and in numerous institutional and academic events in Spanish universities.

Purpose of the study

Studies examining the association between GRs and IPV during dating relationships are very limited, despite of the relevance of the topic. Furthermore, an examination of this association in Spain may provide consistency to previous research involving samples with different cultural and social characteristics. In addition, focusing the research question on university students may be relevant since the educational setting should encourage reflection on IPV and it can benefit from the study results. Moreover, the group of female university students was selected based on the need to explore the relationship between GRs and IPV in a sample of women at the end of their youth and in early adulthood.

The hypothesis was that the presence of certain traditional GRs (i.e., submissive, blind and passive attitudes among female university students and the perception of domination by their male partners) increases the risk of female IPV victimization during dating relationships. Thereby, the aim of our study was to explore the association between traditional GRs and several indicators of IPV on a sample of female university of Spain in the context of heterosexual dating relationships. Moreover, we examined whether the association between traditional GRs and IPV varied across strata defined by the type of bachelor’s degree, the family history of IPV and continuity with the relationship.

Materials and methods

Study design and participants.

A cross-sectional study was conducted on a sample of 1,005 female students enrolled in ten different Bachelor degrees of the University of *Blinded for peer review* (Spain). These Bachelor degrees included four Health Science degrees (Nursing, Physiotherapy, Medicine and Psychology) and six degrees from the department of Social Sciences (Law, Labor Relations and Human Resources, English Studies, Spanish Language and Literature, Early Childhood Educator, Primary Education). The inclusion criteria for this study consisted of the following: women over the age of 18 years, being involved in a heterosexual relationship for at least one month at some point in their life and having sexual intercourse. All participants provided written informed consent. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Principality of Asturias (Spain) (N° 140/177) and the Executive Board of the University of *Blinded for peer review* (Spain).

The University of *Blinded for peer review* is a public institution and the only university in the province of *Blinded for peer review*. Approximately half of the population in this province lives in an urban environment (i.e., cities with more than 50,000 habitants and with a density of at least 1.500 residents per km 2 ). Moreover, given that there is universal access to education, healthcare and unemployment and retirement pensions, there are no major social inequalities regarding access to health, education, employment, etc. The non-Spanish ancestry population is less than 4% and the Catholic religion is the predominant religious orientation (69%). Lastly, students with different cultural and religious identities (e.g., Roma people, Evangelical, Muslim, Protestant) are a minority at this university, since the general student body is largely homogeneous. The University of * Blinded for peer review* has developed a protocol for the prevention and procedure of action in cases of moral, sexual and/or by sex, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity, beliefs, or any other reason for harassment.

Data collection and study variables

To estimate the sample size required to conduct the study, the following parameters were set prior to recruitment: two-sided alpha of 0.05, statistical power of 0.90% and 10% percentage points of difference on IPV prevalence between groups defined by GRs. According to the results of a pilot study conducted on students from Nursing and Physiotherapy degrees (N = 203), the most frequent IPV indicator was detachment (54.7%), followed by coercion (39.9%), humiliation (25.1%), sexual (23.6%) and physical violence (8.4%). Under these assumptions, we estimated that at least 1.008 participants would need to be surveyed.

A convenience sampling method was used to recruit participants. Prior to recruitment and data collection, researchers met, reviewed, and rehearsed the procedure using standardized methods. First, participation was offered to all degree programs at the University of *Blinded for peer review*, however, we only included those in which the dean or one of the professors expressed interest. Thereafter, each professor dedicated a few minutes to the researchers during one of their lectures. Therefore, students could be studying in any of the four years of the Bachelor’s degree (six years, in the case of Medicine).

Recruitment of participants took place in the classrooms during the first trimester of 2018. The classroom was accessed either at the beginning or at the end of theoretical classes, and the subject of these classes was unrelated to the topic of study. The professors were not present during the administration of the questionnaire. After accessing the center, the study objectives and procedures were explained, inviting students to complete an anonymous self-administered questionnaire. Male students were offered the possibility of leaving the classroom or staying inside without talking to their female classmates while they completed the questionnaire. No data was collected from the students to facilitate their identification. Research staff explained to students that their participation was voluntary and confidential and solely consisted of responding honestly to the questionnaire. They were also informed that this study was independent of their academic activity and that non-participation would not have any negative effect on their academic grade. The students did not receive any financial compensation for their participation in the study. An e-mail address was included in the questionnaire to ask questions, send comments, or for students to inform of their intention to abandon the study.

Students were asked to reflect on their current dating relationship in the case that they have only been involved in one relationship, or in the most conflictive/shocking relationship if they had been involved in several relationships. The questionnaire gathered data on the respondents’ age, university studies, age of their first sexual intercourse, total number of dating relations, the continuity of the relationship with the selected partner, and IPV background in the family context. In addition, the questionnaire included two scales, the Questionnaire on the Gender Determinants of Contraception (COGANT scale) to evaluate the GR [ 10 ], and the Dating Violence Questionnaire-R (DVQ-R) to evaluate IPV [ 43 ].

The COGANT scale consists of 36 items grouped into four dimensions: relational dimension, female gender role, maternity, and care. This scale was developed by Yago Simón and Tomás Aznar in 2013 and was validated only for young Spanish women (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.86) [ 10 , 11 ]. The validation of the scale involved 200 young girls and women (14–24 years old) who attended a health promotion center. The items were formulated based on verbatim quotations from the young women on the dimensions related to sexual-reproductive behavior, mainly on heterosexual relationships, romantic relationships, care, and motherhood. The scores ranged from 36 to 108 points. In our sample, the Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.83.

In this study, only the relational dimension of the COGANT scale was used (18 items), which describes a woman’s attitude towards her partner (submissive, blind, and passive), as well as women’s observations regarding the partner’s attitude towards herself (male dominance), which were considered traditional GRs. Female students were asked whether they had ever said or thought the featured statements in the selected relationship during their lifetime (e.g., “If I lose him I have nothing, I’m nothing”) ( S1 Table ). Each item has three response options: “no”, “sometimes”, and “yes”, which are scored with 1, 2 and 3 points, respectively (after reverse scoring some of the items which run in the opposite direction). To compare the GRs with different numbers of items, weighted scores were obtained for each GR (1 to 3 points), where 1 indicates absence of GRs, and corresponds to a more egalitarian and autonomous attitude of female students, and 3 corresponds to a great influence of GRs and loss of autonomy. Therefore, the highest score indicates greater submissiveness, blinding or passiveness of the woman, or perceived dominance on behalf of the man. Lastly, for some analyses, these scores were transformed into categorical variables. Following the “zero tolerance” criteria, it was considered that a female student displayed a submissive, blind, or passive attitude, or perceived her partner as being dominant when the weighted score was >1point. Thus, a female student was deemed to be influenced by GRs when they answered "sometimes" or "yes" to at least one item within each GR.

The DVQ-R scale evaluates the IPV via 20 behaviors grouped into five types of violence: coercion, detachment, humiliation, sexual violence, and physical violence. This scale was validated by Rodríguez-Díaz et al. in 2017 using a sample of 6,138 adolescents and young adults, of whom 60.4% were females, and 24.2% were university students (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.85) [ 43 ]. In our sample, the Cronbach’s Alpha of DVQ-R scale was 0.94.

The items are based on a five-point Likert scale (1: “never” to 5: “almost always”), reflecting the frequency with which certain IPV behaviors occur. Each female student was asked for the frequency of occurrence of 20 violent behaviors (e.g.: “He criticizes, insults you, or yells at you”) in the selected relationship during their lifetime ( S2 Table ). The weighted scores were calculated for each type and for the total IPV score, therefore, the scoring ranged between 1 (absence of IPV) and 5 (maximum IPV). Following the “zero tolerance” criteria, it was considered that the woman suffered some kind of abuse when the weighted score was >1 point, i.e., if they acknowledged having suffered some type of violence "sometimes" or more frequently. In addition, the questionnaire gathers the self-perception of fear, entrapment, and abuse, based on dichotomous questions with yes/no responses.

Data analysis

Of the 3,591 female university students enrolled in the selected degrees, 1,218 were recruited for the study and completed the survey. Then, we excluded 4 female students who failed to fulfill the inclusion criteria and 209 who were lacking data on certain study variables. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 1,005 participants ( Fig 1 ). There were some differences between female university students included in the analytical sample and those who were excluded due to lacking data. Compared to included participants, those excluded were older, began sexual relations at an older age, had more dating partners and a lower frequency of continuity during problematic relationships ( S3 Table ).

An anonymized database was created, where a numerical code was assigned to each participant. Analyses were performed using the STATA v.15 statistical program (StataCorp, Collage Station). Only values of p<0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Qualitative variables were described using frequencies and proportions (%). Means and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated for the quantitative variables. The unpaired t-test (dichotomous variables) or analysis of variance ANOVA (more than two groups) was used to compare the mean GR scores, based on the participants’ characteristics.

For the main analyses, we used binary logistic regressions and reported odds ratios (OR) and their 95% CI. The explanatory variables were each GR, and outcome variables were the IPV indicators, based on a dichotomous model, and the self-reported perception of fear, entrapment, and abuse. These regressions were performed according to two models. The first model was adjusted for several potential confounders, which were selected after an extensive literature review and considering the social context of the study. Thereby, the model was adjusted by age (<20, 20–22, 23–25, >25 years), degree (Health Sciences, Social Sciences), age of the first sexual intercourse (<14, 15–17, 18–20, >20 years), number of partners (1, 2, 3, >3), continuity of the relationship with the selected partner (yes, no), and family history of IPV (yes, no). Subsequently, given that there were strong correlations between the scores of each GR ( S4 Table ), the second model was additionally adjusted for the remaining GRs (e.g., we adjusted by “blind attitude”, “passive attitude” and “male dominance” in the analyses that referred to “submissive” attitude).

As ancillary analyses, to verify the robustness of the results, the association between the weighted scores of the GRs and the weighted scores of the DVQ-R was also examined via linear regressions. Thus, we obtained regression coefficients and their 95% CI which expressed changes in the score for each dimension of the IPV, associated with the increase of 1-point in the GRs score.

Finally, given that the ability to recognize abuse can be highly relevant for the purpose of this study, we performed several additional analyses, stratified according to the variables which indirectly reflected the students’ capacity to identify abusive behaviors. Specifically, the linear regressions were repeated and stratified according to the type of degree, the family background of IPV, and the continuity of the relationship. We considered that the following subgroups of students theoretically had a greater ability to recognize IPV: health sciences students, due to their academic training in facing violence; students who have witnessed IPV in their family and those who have decided to end the dysfunctional relationship.

Characteristics of the female university students regarding gender roles and intimate partner violence

According to the “zero tolerance” criteria used in this study, 57.0% of students were submissive in the selected relationship, 52.0% had a blind attitude, 75.7% were passive and 31.7% perceived that their partner was dominant at some point during the selected relationship. Correlations between GR scores are shown in S4 Table . According to these results, all GRs were directly related to each other (p<0.001), notably, having a dominant partner was related with passive and submissive attitude of female students.

Regarding IPV indicators, 39.5% of the female students suffered coercion, whereas 56.0% reported detachment, 25.5% suffered humiliation, 21.3% experienced sexual violence, and 8.2% suffered physical violence at some point during the selected relationship. Overall, 66.3% suffered some type of IVP behavior. In addition, 9.3% acknowledged experiencing feelings of fear during the relationship, 24.2% felt entrapped, and 10% reported feeling abused.

Overall, the GRs included in this study (i.e., submissiveness, blinding, passivity, and male dominance) were associated with an earlier age of beginning sexual relations, a greater number of dating partners, the continuity of the problematic relationship, and having a family history of IPV ( Table 1 ).

GR: Gender role, CI: Confidence intervals; IPV: Intimate partner violence.

a p-values obtained from analysis of variance (ANOVA).

b p-values obtained from unpaired t-test.

A significant association between GRs and IPV was detected when the risk of suffering IPV was studied according to dichotomous GRs variables ( Table 2 ). The greatest contribution of GRs was for physical and sexual violence, as being submissive and perceiving the male partner as being dominant was associated with an increase up to fourfold in the risk of physical violence, whereas having a passive attitude was associated with a nearly threefold increase in sexual violence. Overall, according to fully-adjusted models, being submissive and perceiving the male partner as being dominant were the GRs which were most strongly associated with the risk of suffering IPV (OR: 3.18; 95%CI: 2.29–4.42 and OR: 2.79; 95%CI: 1.71; 4.54, respectively).

CI: Confidence intervals; GR: Gender role; IPV: Intimate partner violence.

a Model 1 adjusted for age, degree, age of the first sexual relationship, number of partners, continuity with the relationship and family history of IPV.

b Model 2 additionally adjusted for the complementary GR.

*p-value<0.05

**p-value<0.01

***p-value<0.001.

Analogously, male dominance was the GR which most contributed to a feeling of fear, of being trapped or which led to the acknowledgment of suffering abuse in the relationship ( Table 3 ). Regarding the attitudes of the female students in this study, submissiveness and passivity, in this order, were the GRs which most contributed to fear, entrapment and abuse. Blind attitude was not associated with IPV behaviors, nor with fear, entrapment or abuse in the fully-adjusted models.

CI: Confidence intervals; GR: Gender role.

a Model 1 adjusted for age, degree, age of the first sexual relationship, number of partners, continuity with the relationship and family history of intimate partner violence.

***p-value<0.00.

Similar findings were observed when exploring the associations between GRs and IPV using adjusted linear regressions. Thus, we found that a 1-point increment in the scoring of the GRs was invariably associated with increases in the score of any of the types of IPV. The dominance of the male partner was the GR which most clearly contributed to the total score of the IPV, given that, for each increase of 1-point in this GR, the IPV also increased 1-point on the total score of the DVQ-R scale (regression coefficient = 1.0; 95%CI: 0.9–1.1 and 0.64; 95%CI: 0.56–0.72, when adjusting for the remaining GRs) ( Table 4 ).

IPV: Intimate partner violence; GR: Gender role; CI: Confidence intervals.

Finally, in the additional analyses, the associations were maintained across all strata, although they were of greatest magnitude among female students who theoretically had a greater capacity to identify IPV. Specifically, female students of Health Sciences, with a family history of IPV and who decided to end the problematic relationship ( S5 Table ).

The aim of this study was to explore the association between GRs and IPV among a sample of Spanish female university students. According to the results of our cross-sectional study, GRs were directly associated with IPV indicators. Specifically, being submissive and perceiving their partner as being dominant were the GRs with the greatest explanatory power.

In our study, we observed a high percentage of female students with passive, submissive and blind attitudes, which seems to confirm the fact that, even today, traditional GRs and patriarchy still prevail [ 3 , 6 , 9 , 16 , 20 , 34 ]. Furthermore, one out of every three female students perceive their male partner as being domineering, suggesting that the historically established male role is perpetuated [ 5 , 16 , 44 ]. Other studies have also found that traditional GRs still exist in Spain, although they have considerably changed in the last decades. Moya and Moya-Garófano [ 45 ] have recently compared gender stereotypes in Spain in two different time periods (1985 and 2018). According to their analysis, people perceived an increase of men with female-linked GRs and vice-versa. These changes could be more evident in Spain than in other European countries, due to the unequal starting point in Spain [ 46 ].

Despite the efforts made in recent years by the political powers and by Spanish society to achieve gender egalitarianism, it is still necessary to develop initiatives to eliminate traditional GR and to mitigate their deleterious effects, especially among young couples. It is a priority to advocate for gender equality policies at all levels. The educational system, from childhood to university, must take an active role in the socialization and transmission of values that lead to the banishment of GR. However, the responsibility should not fall solely on the educational system; society, impelled by political powers, should strive to achieve equal relations between men and women. Comprehensive and cross-cutting action plans are needed to achieve this goal within a global framework of action with concrete recommendations, since, in many cases, isolated programs are implemented that have a limited effect (e.g., workshops on affective sexual education with a gender perspective). Regarding victimization, the percentage of female students who suffered some type of IPV was lower than other previous reports [ 15 , 18 , 21 , 47 ]. These findings may indicate a decline in the prevalence of IPV in recent years in Spain among young people, perhaps due to a positive effect of government measures to end IPV. In addition, there is currently greater awareness, sensitivity and/or visibility of this problem. Although IPV has always been considered an intimate problem affecting couples, it is increasingly seen as a social problem, which favors an attitude of rejection towards people who practice IPV. Detachment was the type of violence most frequently suffered by students. This was related to psychological violence, representing the most normalized and prevalent violence, which is also difficult to identify, as it is intangible and often occurs in a subtle manner [ 20 , 32 , 33 , 48 ]. Therefore, it should be emphasized that certain detached behaviors are also part of IPV, while reflecting unequal dating relationships. It is necessary to empower female students to be able to identify silent indicators of IPV early on, such as detachment.

In addition, an important percentage of female students in this study reported having suffered physical or sexual violence in their relationships. Physical violence appears to be more easily recognizable, as the percentage of female students who have suffered physical violence and those who identified themselves as having been abused was similar. This seemingly demonstrates that teenagers relate physical violence with abuse. However, sexual violence is often overlooked, as it is not identified as abuse, but rather as “going with the flow” or “indulging the intimate partner,” something which is normalized in relationships between young people. Many women do not feel like they are victims of sexual abuse, even when they have maintained an undesired sexual relationship, as they find it difficult to recognize the abuse [ 49 ].

The female students in our study reported feelings of fear to a lesser extent than other studies [ 50 ]. This may be because they associated fear with physical violence [ 18 ], as the percentages of both findings were similar. This is possibly because physical violence is the most obvious and the one that most endangers women’s safety. The other types of violence, as they are more discreet, go more unnoticed or are not acknowledged to the same extent. Furthermore, this study features young couples who typically do not have children, are not economically dependent, do not live together and are highly educated. This can reduce the conflicts, and thus, their experience of fear is lessened.

Following the aim of our study, we have observed that both the submissive attitude of female students and the perception of male dominance bear the greatest relation with suffering IPV. This seems to be based on the ideas of patriarchy and machoism which generate dominant men who typically subjugate women [ 51 ]. The dominance and control of men over women is something which is accepted and has been socially normalized for many decades [ 1 , 5 , 9 , 44 ]. In our study, the perception of male partners as being dominant generated the most violent and visible forms of abuse, and hence, the greatest alarm. However, subtler forms of domination are often invisible. It is important to note that female submissiveness and male dominance are usually interrelated, as dominant men tend to relate to submissive women, and vice versa, due to their traditional beliefs regarding GR. This means that female students can easily feel underestimated in these relations [ 35 , 52 ]. A recent study on 441 students form a Turkish Vocational School of Health Services found a statistically significant negative association between the score indicating equalitarian attitudes and the score for attitudes towards IPV (Pearson’s correlation coefficient = -0.67; p-value: 0,04) [ 53 ]. Therefore, students supporting traditional GRs could be more permissive with psychological and physical violence during dating relationships, which is in line with our findings. Additionally, a study on 759 Chilean university students also found that traditional GRs, defined by high stereotypical and low transcendent attitudes, predicted victimization by coercion, detachment, humiliation and physical violence among female students [ 54 ]. Although authors recognized the low explanatory power of GRs, their results are congruent with our findings, derived from analyses adjusted for several confounders.

The association between the weighted 1-point increment on the GR scale and the frequency of IPV is noteworthy, as this finding represents a change of approximately 20% (this scale ranges from 1 to 5 points). From the point of view of health consequences, our results have major clinical/social relevance for the lives of female students as this represents a moderate increase in the frequency of the violent behaviors that they suffer.

Implications for practice and/or policy

The kind of relationships that shape a submissive woman and a dominant male are usually explained by the impositions placed on the structure of gender dynamics, which favor and legitimize this standpoint, arising from a reproduction of traditional GRs [ 55 ]. Therefore, on a global scale, it is of upmost importance to encourage gender equality interventions from infancy in order to decrease the current differences [ 1 , 5 ]. To act on this matter, the gap between research and policy needs to be reduced. It is imperative to disseminate the results of research on GRs and IPV among stakeholders, especially educational, social, and health institutions.

Concerning the implications for university training, by implementing training based on gender equality, inequalities could be reduced. Such training could be conducted in group interventions addressing issues such as the analysis of the GRs present in relationships during youth, young female student’s empowerment, or training in the early detection of risk indicators for violence. Through these actions, students will not only adopt skills to detect violence, but they will also acquire skills to enhance communication and conflict resolution. This may lead to building healthier partner relationships and decreasing the contribution of GRs to the violent behaviors suffered by female students. Ultimately, reducing tolerance to violence, and most likely improving female student’s health at all levels (physical, sexual, and psychological), considering that several studies have shown that IPV negatively impacts a victim’s health [ 3 , 5 , 9 , 16 , 32 ].

Although our previous recommendations have been focused on female students, because they are our study population, it is important to remember that IPV is a problem involving the society at large, in which men are also responsible, and with whom it is necessary to take action [ 56 ]. Obviously, if interventions and policies were focused only on female students, rather than on the society at large, this would deepen sexism and such interventions would be doomed to failure. An in-depth exploration of GRs in socialization and their relationship with IPV in men seems to be a necessary starting point for designing interventions to enable more egalitarian relationships and eradicate IPV. In any case, it is well known that tolerance of IPV and traditional GRs work synergistically to increase the risk for the perpetration of dating violence among males [ 57 , 58 ]. As a society, we cannot turn our back on this problem, which implies an analysis of the roles and couple dynamics of young people which may perpetuate relationships based on gender inequality [ 59 ].

In general, this study invites a reflection on the implications of IPV against female students. From a broad perspective, a change is necessary in the information conveyed by the media, literature, music, and other agents as, currently, they continue to perpetuate traditional gender stereotypes and roles [ 5 , 6 , 60 ]. In the university environment, this reflects the need to include a mainstream gender perspective [ 61 ], raising awareness on IPV by implementing dedicated action plans. Concretely, university lecturers can be key drivers to achieve gender egalitarianism by incorporating this perspective into their teaching activity and into the curricular content as a transversal competence [ 62 ]. Moreover, universities should strongly contribute towards supporting healthy dating relationships, through the promotion of gender equality and female empowerment. In addition, greater collaboration with other pre-university educational institutions would be desirable, since GRs linked to dating relationships are first notable during adolescence. Both educational levels could collaborate in new lines of research related to GRs and IPV. Furthermore, it would be necessary to promote qualitative research to better understand how young people perceive the influence of GRs and their possible involvement in issues related to health and/or interpersonal relationships, not only between couples, but also between peers or at the family level.

Strengths and weaknesses

A main strength was the fairly large sample, including female students from several university degrees. Another strength was the selection of relevant confounders, such as the number of partners, continuity of the relationship and the history of IPV. Moreover, we performed various ancillary analyses, using different approaches, to verify the robustness of the results.

However, the study also had several limitations. First, the cross-sectional nature of the data collection hampers the establishment of directionality in the association between the variables under study. Thus, it would be desirable to design and conduct longitudinal studies from adolescence to adulthood to detect changes in the GRs and/or the prevalence of IPV with the participation of men and women of different sociodemographic characteristics, educational levels, and/or sexual orientations.

Second, only female students with heterosexual relationships were included in this study as the questionnaire on GRs is directed at these types of relationships. Therefore, we were unable to gather information on female students who were involved in other types of relationships. Moreover, given that the study was conducted on a sample of university students, findings cannot be extrapolated to other collectives. Despite this, we believe that these findings may help estimate what occurs among similar young samples of students at other universities. Nevertheless, we are aware of the importance of extending this research to young people of both sexes, with different sexual orientations, in a non-university environment (both pre-university students and those who opt for professional training and do not go to university), or other ethnic minorities.

Third, the fact that the female students were asked to base their answers on the most conflictive partner or the one that had marked them the most is a further limitation because, in the case of students who have had several partners, this choice is subjective. In addition, if this relationship occurred some time ago, the answers may be affected by a memory bias. The fact that no information was obtained regarding when this conflictive relationship took place does not allow us to establish differences between those that took place during adolescence and those that occurred during youth.

Fourth, overall, participation in this study was low, considering that the percentage of students who participated represented approximately 35% of the students enrolled in the degrees under study. This was mainly due to the low levels of attendance in some degrees (e.g., law degree). Moreover, there were some differences between female university students included in the study and those excluded due to lack of data. However, we believe that the large sample and the inclusion of students from several degrees and different fields of science allows us to establish a reliable association.

Fifth, we did not consider whether students had already attended classes or seminars about IPV in the degrees in which IPV is part of the curriculum, such as Medicine, Nursing, Psychology or Law. This is relevant because knowledge about IPV can modify the perception of the study variables.

Sixth, as the questionnaires were completed in the classroom, some female students may not have responded with complete honesty due to the presence of their male peers. Nonetheless, they were asked to remain silent, to answer truthfully and not to share information or comments with other students and/or friends. Moreover, in most cases, the questionnaire was administered at the end of the class, thereby male peers were almost never present in the classroom while the female students completed the form. In addition, the study could also be limited by a response bias, due to the possible tendency to respond inaccurately, especially in relation to indicators of sexual abuse. To reduce response bias, research staff insisted on the importance of obtaining honest answers and on the guarantee of anonymity.

Future studies addressing this topic may further the reduce response bias using online questionnaires to be completed at home, although this procedure could also reduce the response rate. Lastly, this study had a volunteer bias, meaning that the female students who did not wish to participate may be different to those who did. However, we believe that it is more likely that the volunteer nature of this study leads to an underestimation of the prevalence and association of these GR, rather than an overestimation.

The presence of GRs in the dating relationships of female university students from Spain was very high. Moreover, GRs were clearly associated with IPV indicators. The most determinant GRs were submissiveness on behalf of the women and perceiving the male partner as being dominant.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments.

We would like to thank Doctors Teresa Yago and Concepción Tomás for their contributions and for the use of the COGANT questionnaire.

Funding Statement

Authors: AL and AFF This work was supported by FIS grants PI18/00086 (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, State Secretary of R+D+I, and FEDER/FSE) https://www.isciii.es/QueHacemos/Financiacion/Seguimiento/Cofinanciacion_Union_Europea/Paginas/Fondos-Estructurales-(FEDER-FSE).aspx The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Data Availability

The improbable rise of three women who helped transform French fashion

Anne Higonnet’s “Liberty Equality Fashion” elevates the role of Juliette Récamier, Térézia Tallien and Joséphine Bonaparte in freeing women from confining styles.

Three incredible women — Juliette Récamier, Térézia Tallien and Marie Josèphe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie (who became Joséphine Bonaparte) — converged in Paris in the years leading up to the French Revolution. Known as the “Three Graces,” after goddesses popular as beauty ideals, they sailed through the upheavals that roiled France in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, battered by events but in fine personal style.

Anne Higonnet celebrates these women in “ Liberty Equality Fashion ,” a triple biography that examines how they emerged as unlikely leaders of French fashion from their outsider origins in Lyon, Spain and the French Caribbean. Weaving together tales of family, fortunes, clothes and friendship, the book is a breathless, sensationalist read, racing through twists and turns of their improbable yet true experiences.

All three women used clothes to transform themselves at a time when women’s clothing itself was transforming. The fashionable silhouette moved rapidly from geometric structured lines created by stays, petticoats and enormous skirts in crisp European silks, to lighter, softer, washable cotton fabrics, especially imported Indian muslin, worn with narrower skirts and increasingly higher waistlines. This style, which Higonnet terms “revolutionary dress,” became the dominant look for two decades.

Myriad cultural and economic influences came together to create a perfect storm in 1790s fashion: centuries of imported Asian textiles and their mutual influence on European luxury goods; colonization of Caribbean and Indian areas, leading to increasingly accessible cotton production; dress practices of colonial, Indigenous and enslaved people in warmer climates; neoclassical reappreciations of the ancient world; and more. This complex global story has fascinated dress and textile historians for decades, and there is a great deal of excellent scholarship on it, including Sonia Ashmore’s 2012 book, “Muslin,” Beverly Lemire and Giorgio Riello’s ongoing work, and exhibition catalogue books such as “Revolution in Fashion: European Clothing, 1715-1815” (1989), edited by Jean Starobinski.

Higonnet, a professor of art history at Barnard, traces some of these same interconnections while examining how fashion changed and the role each of the Three Graces played. Part of the book’s breathlessness comes from excited discovery of material new to Higonnet. Within fashion history fields though, her finds are well known.

For instance, what Higonnet cites as “crucial missing evidence” whose “loss had misled historians for more than two centuries” are 499 costume plates in the Morgan Library collection in New York, from the magazine Journal des Dames et des Modes. These plates, scattered decoratively in full color throughout Higonnet’s book, include many well-known images that have been used to illustrate fashion histories since at least 1965, especially Aileen Ribeiro’s 1988 book, “Fashion in the French Revolution” (which doesn’t feature in Higonnet’s source notes). Many plates were online long before the National Library of France digitized its complete collection by 2019. Describing these images as “a lost treasure trove” and the period as “a radical movement history had forgotten” is therefore a stretch. Statements like this undermine Higonnet’s claim that the book offers a “startling vision of fashion.” Instead, the book trips on its own conceptual hems. Higonnet’s argument is full contradictions and bold assertions that aren’t backed by evidence.

Central to the problem is that Higonnet mistakes correlation as causation. Yes, Juliette, Térézia and Joséphine wore the new style. They certainly didn’t concoct it “in one stroke” in 1794 and then spread it everywhere else. All the elements were long in place — as the earlier chapters show. The larger group of extreme female fashionistas dubbed the Merveilleuses also helped the style’s popularity within France. They get a single mention here. Higonnet falls into what could be called the Beau Brummell trap. Over the decades this Regency dandy has been cited as the cause of nearly every major contemporary menswear development. But he and the Three Graces are better used as exemplars. It would be more fruitful and accurate to consider why and how their style successfully encapsulated the wider fashion shifts of their age and the nature of their influence, instead of insisting they began it all.

Moreover, Higonnet’s narrowly French focus ignores other cultural influences, especially the changes created and spread by Britain’s tastemakers, Caribbean colonies and the East India Company. For example, while Higonnet touches on the long history of Indo-European textile cultural exchange, her argument forces the heroines’ Indian dress elements to be a singular innovation, not a product of centuries-old two-way traffic. Similarly, Orientalism influenced 18th-century fashion for decades; these three women didn’t suddenly adopt turbans inspired by one Parisian visit by Indian dignitaries in 1788. Higonnet further leaps to make masculine tailored elements long used in women’s woolen jackets and riding habits a new kind of androgynous gender challenge.

The evidence cited is sparse, used like steppingstones of facts joined by long jumps of conjecture, misinterpretation, exaggeration and speculation to mold them into the predetermined thesis. For instance, Higonnet asserts that “the revolutionary dress felt like miraculous relief. You were suddenly freed from constriction, load, and drag. You felt weightless and mobile [c]ompared to what you had been obliged to wear before.” Maybe, but we only have the author’s word for it, although there are plenty of firsthand accounts where women talk about their thoughts on these dress changes. The modern judgments and opinions on the clothing examined, combined with lack of subject familiarity, reinforce many tired fashion myths while claiming to destroy them.

Juliette, Térézia and Joséphine were gutsy, powerful women who survived and thrived in the most interesting of times with outstanding intelligence and style. They rightly deserve a biography that highlights them as strong individuals rather than accessories to men. To look at their intertwined lives together is an innovative and productive approach, and they couldn’t ask for a more passionate champion than Higonnet.

However, these women are compelling enough without recasting them as super-modern girl bosses. The claims of fashion liberation are made so insistently they deny agency to the masses of other women at the time also individually making choices about what clothing to wear. The dominant perspective of 21st-century assumptions further drowns out what history relates about women’s encounters with dress. It’s a joy to get to know the Three Graces better, but as fashion history, this book is as flimsy as muslin.

Hilary Davidson is a dress, textile and fashion historian and curator. Her books include “Dress in the Age of Jane Austen” and “Jane Austen’s Wardrobe.”

Liberty Equality Fashion

The Women Who Styled the French Revolution

By Anne Higonnet

W.W. Norton. 304 pp. $35

More from Book World

Love everything about books? Make sure to subscribe to our Book Club newsletter , where Ron Charles guides you through the literary news of the week.

Check out our coverage of this year’s Pulitzer winners: Jayne Anne Phillips won the fiction prize for her novel “ Night Watch .” The nonfiction prize went to Nathan Thrall, for “ A Day in the Life of Abed Salama .” Cristina Rivera Garza received the memoir prize for “ Liliana’s Invincible Summer .” And Jonathan Eig received the biography prize for his “ King: A Life .”

Best books of 2023: See our picks for the 10 best books of 2023 or dive into the staff picks that Book World writers and editors treasured in 2023. Check out the complete lists of 50 notable works for fiction and the top 50 nonfiction books of last year.

Find your favorite genre: Three new memoirs tell stories of struggle and resilience, while five recent historical novels offer a window into other times. Audiobooks more your thing? We’ve got you covered there, too . If you’re looking for what’s new, we have a list of our most anticipated books of 2024 . And here are 10 noteworthy new titles that you might want to consider picking up this April.

We are a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for us to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.