various stages of a research project

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case NPS+ Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research Research Tools and Apps

Research Process Steps: What they are + How To Follow

There are various approaches to conducting basic and applied research. This article explains the research process steps you should know. Whether you are doing basic research or applied research, there are many ways of doing it. In some ways, each research study is unique since it is conducted at a different time and place.

Conducting research might be difficult, but there are clear processes to follow. The research process starts with a broad idea for a topic. This article will assist you through the research process steps, helping you focus and develop your topic.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process steps and follow them. Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier for you:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:

• A preliminary survey
• Case studies
• Interviews with a small group of people
• Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process . It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables. In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field. 

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

• Exploration and Surveys
• Data Analysis
• Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

• Questionnaire

Secondary data categories are:

• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports
• An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

• The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and charts if any.
• Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section should include the study’s scope and limits.
• Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
• Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken up into sections that are easy to understand.
• Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text. It’s the final result.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

The research process involves several steps that make it easy to complete the research successfully. The steps in the research process described above depend on each other, and the order must be kept. So, if we want to do a research project, we should follow the research process steps.

QuestionPro’s enterprise-grade research platform can collect survey and qualitative observation data. The tool’s nature allows for data processing and essential decisions. The platform lets you store and process data. Start immediately!

LEARN MORE         FREE TRIAL

MORE LIKE THIS

Raked Weighting: A Key Tool for Accurate Survey Results

May 31, 2024

Top 8 Data Trends to Understand the Future of Data

May 30, 2024

Top 12 Interactive Presentation Software to Engage Your User

May 29, 2024

Trend Report: Guide for Market Dynamics & Strategic Analysis

Other categories.

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Uncategorized
• Video Learning Series
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

Research Process: 8 Steps in Research Process

The research process starts with identifying a research problem and conducting a literature review to understand the context. The researcher sets research questions, objectives, and hypotheses based on the research problem.

A research study design is formed to select a sample size and collect data after processing and analyzing the collected data and the research findings presented in a research report.

What is the Research Process?

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of whether it is applied research or basic research. Each research study will be unique in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place it is being undertaken.

Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of the problem, and thus, all traverse through certain primary stages, forming a process called the research process.

Understanding the research process is necessary to effectively carry out research and sequence the stages inherent in the process.

How Research Process Work?

Eight steps research process is, in essence, part and parcel of a research proposal. It is an outline of the commitment that you intend to follow in executing a research study.

A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is dependent upon the others.

One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6). One cannot write a report (step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7).

Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.

It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher during each stage stated above. A research process can be compared with a route map.

The map analogy is useful for the researcher because several alternatives exist at each stage of the research process.

Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and human resources in our research decision is our primary goal.

Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the term ‘iterative’ appearing within the oval-shaped diagram at the center of the schematic diagram.

The key to a successful research project ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and again to the identification of the research problems, methodology, data collection, etc., which leads to new ideas, revisions, and improvements.

By discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will often find that new research questions need to be added, variables to be omitted, added or redefined, and other changes to be made. As a proposed study is examined and reexamined from different perspectives, it may begin to transform and take a different shape.

This is expected and is an essential component of a good research study.

Besides, examining study methods and data collected from different viewpoints is important to ensure a comprehensive approach to the research question.

In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or formula for developing a successful research study, but it is essential to realize that the research process is cyclical and iterative.

What is the primary purpose of the research process?

The research process aims to identify a research problem, understand its context through a literature review, set research questions and objectives, design a research study, select a sample, collect data, analyze the data, and present the findings in a research report.

Why is the research design important in the research process?

The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions. It specifies the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing data, ensuring the study is structured and systematic.

8 Steps of Research Process

Identifying the research problem.

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research problem .

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the research process, from setting objectives to selecting the research methodology .

But the core question is: whether all problems require research.

We have countless problems around us, but all we encounter do not qualify as research problems; thus, these do not need to be researched.

Keeping this point in mind, we must draw a line between research and non-research problems.

Intuitively, researchable problems are those that have a possibility of thorough verification investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and collection of data. In contrast, the non-research problems do not need to go through these processes.

Researchers need to identify both;

Non-Research Problems

Statement of the problem, justifying the problem, analyzing the problem.

A non-research problem does not require any research to arrive at a solution. Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved through research.

It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management level. The answer to any question raised in a non-research setting is almost always obvious.

The cholera outbreak, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in many communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem.

Similarly, the reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential commodities following the announcement of the budget by the Finance Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a problem that needs research.

How is a research problem different from a non-research problem?

A research problem is a perceived difficulty that requires thorough verification and investigation through data analysis and collection. In contrast, a non-research problem does not require research for a solution, as the answer is often obvious or already known.

Non-Research Problems Examples

A recent survey in town- A found that 1000 women were continuous users of contraceptive pills.

But last month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women were using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4).

The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill, but none is doing so. The question is: why the discrepancy exists?

Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills from reaching town- A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus, although the problem situation exists, the reason for the problem is already known.

Therefore, assuming all the facts are correct, there is no reason to research the factors associated with pill discontinuation among women. This is, thus, a non-research problem.

A pilot survey by University students revealed that in Rural Town-A, the goiter prevalence among school children is as high as 80%, while in the neighboring Rural Town-A, it is only 30%. Why is a discrepancy?

Upon inquiry, it was seen that some three years back, UNICEF launched a lipiodol injection program in the neighboring Rural Town-A.

This attempt acted as a preventive measure against the goiter. The reason for the discrepancy is known; hence, we do not consider the problem a research problem.

A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the treatment with penicillin was not found to be effective. Do we need research to know the reason?

Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not sensitive to penicillin; therefore, this is not the drug of choice for this disease.

In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake any study to find out why penicillin does not improve the condition of cholera patients. This is also a non-research problem.

In the tea marketing system, buying and selling tea starts with bidders. Blenders purchase open tea from the bidders. Over the years, marketing cost has been the highest for bidders and the lowest for blenders. What makes this difference?

The bidders pay exorbitantly higher transport costs, which constitute about 30% of their total cost.

Blenders have significantly fewer marketing functions involving transportation, so their marketing cost remains minimal.

Hence no research is needed to identify the factors that make this difference.

Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be considered non-research problems:

• Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;
• Preferring admission to public universities over private universities;
• Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
• Traffic jams in the city street after office hours;
• High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.

Research Problem

In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a researcher.

A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy between a common belief and reality.

As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the following three conditions exist:

• There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have been.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or planned situation”;
• A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s) for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research question); and
• There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or problems.

The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible answer to the question about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist.

It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or administrative level.

Research Problem Examples

Research problem – example #1.

While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages have female school attendance rates as high as 75%, while some have as low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly equal attendance rate. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?

We may enumerate several reasons for this:

• Villages differ in their socio-economic background.
• In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion of the total population. Religion might play a vital role.
• Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may make this difference.

Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered a research problem, and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.

Research Problem – Example #2

The Government has been making all-out efforts to ensure a regular flow of credit in rural areas at a concession rate through liberal lending policy and establishing many bank branches in rural areas.

Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas has not yet been achieved, mainly because of improper credit utilization.

More than one reason is suspected for such misuse or misdirection.

These include, among others:

• Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors
• Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who exploit the rural people with this money
• Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.

Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus consider this problem as a researchable problem.

Research Problem – Example #3

Let’s look at a new headline: Stock Exchange observes the steepest ever fall in stock prices: several injured as retail investors clash with police, vehicles ransacked .

Investors’ demonstration, protest and clash with police pause a problem. Still, it is certainly not a research problem since there is only one known reason for the problem: Stock Exchange experiences the steepest fall in stock prices. But what causes this unprecedented fall in the share market?

Experts felt that no single reason could be attributed to the problem. It is a mix of several factors and is a research problem. The following were assumed to be some of the possible reasons:

• The merchant banking system;
• Liquidity shortage because of the hike in the rate of cash reserve requirement (CRR);
• IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure to the stock market;
• Increase in supply of new shares;
• Manipulation of share prices;
• Lack of knowledge of the investors on the company’s fundamentals.

The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. The researchers generally guide it;

• own intellectual orientation,
• level of training,
• experience,
• knowledge on the subject matter, and
• intellectual curiosity.

Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in choosing a research problem. Societal needs also guide in choosing a research problem.

Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related steps must be followed before a decision is taken to undertake a research study.

These include, among others, the following:

• Statement of the problem.
• Justifying the problem.
• Analyzing the problem.

A detailed exposition of these issues is undertaken in chapter ten while discussing the proposal development.

A clear and well-defined problem statement is considered the foundation for developing the research proposal.

It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to achieve with the study’s findings.

A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to formulate the research objectives, understand the background of the study, and choose a proper research methodology.

Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the importance of the problem.

In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as why the problem of the study is important, how large and widespread the problem is, and whether others can be convinced about the importance of the problem and the like.

Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two paragraphs that justify the importance of the problem.

As a first step in analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to accommodate the viewpoints of the managers, users, and researchers to the problem through threadbare discussions.

The next step is identifying the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.

Issues of Research Problem Identification

There are several ways to identify, define, and analyze a problem, obtain insights, and get a clearer idea about these issues. Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this.

The purpose of the exploratory research process is to progressively narrow the scope of the topic and transform the undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.

The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies for gaining insights into the problem. It is accomplished through such efforts as:

Pilot Survey

A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the study to serve as a guide for the large study. A pilot study generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.

This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data analysis, which gathers background information.

Case Studies

Case studies are quite helpful in diagnosing a problem and paving the way to defining the problem. It investigates one or a few situations identical to the researcher’s problem.

Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a small group of people, may also be conducted to understand and define a research problem .

Experience Survey

Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of identifying and defining the research problem.

It is an exploratory research endeavor in which individuals knowledgeable and experienced in a particular research problem are intimately consulted to understand the problem.

These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an interview with them is popularly known as the Key Informant Interview (KII).

Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been researched so far.

Such a review provides exposure to a larger body of knowledge and equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.

Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his study and those of the others.

A review of previous documents on similar or related phenomena is essential even for beginning researchers.

Ignoring the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.

Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?

Suppose the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic or related topics . In that case, he will be in a much better position to assess his work’s significance and convince others that it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in questioning the others’ methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

• It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
• It helps the researcher discover what others have learned and reported on the problem.
• It enables the researcher to become familiar with the methodology followed by others.
• It allows the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of investigation.
• It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies, contradictions, and inconsistencies in the findings.
• It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
• It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
• It will help the researcher consider including variables in his research that he might not have thought about.

Why is reviewing literature crucial in the research process?

Reviewing literature helps avoid duplicating previous work, discovers what others have learned about the problem, familiarizes the researcher with relevant concepts and theories, and ensures a comprehensive approach to the research question.

What is the significance of reviewing literature in the research process?

Reviewing relevant literature helps formulate the problem, understand the background of the study, choose a proper research methodology, and develop coherence between the study’s results and previous findings.

Setting Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the problem leading to research objectives .

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, delineate the type of information that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. A well-formulated, testable research hypothesis is the best expression of a research objective.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

Step #4: Choosing the Study Design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research questions .

It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to conduct their study;

• experiment,
• secondary data study, and
• observational study.

The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four methods depends primarily on four factors:

• The type of problem
• The objectives of the study,
• The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and
• The resources are available for the study.

Deciding on the Sample Design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.

It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included.

Such a complete enumeration is referred to as a census.

A population is the total collection of elements we wish to make some inference or generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods followed in selecting a sample from the population and the estimating technique vis-a-vis the formula for computing the sample statistics.

The fundamental question is, then, how to select a sample.

To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types;

• probability sampling , and
• non-probability sampling .

Probability sampling ensures every unit has a known nonzero probability of selection within the target population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed.

The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling.

The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling , stratified random sampling , cluster sampling , and systematic sampling . They have been classified by their representation basis and unit selection techniques.

Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage sampling and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling .

Multistage sampling is most commonly used in drawing samples from very large and diverse populations.

The PPS sampling is a variation of multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number of elements are sampled within each cluster.

Collecting Data From The Research Sample

Data gathering may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and personnel.

With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection also varies .

The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview .

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered questionnaires . Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected .

Other means of data collection include secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.

Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions , Key Informant Interview ( KII), and observational studies.

Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data . Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.

Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates the processing of the data. The personal computer offers an excellent opportunity for data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in light of the research questions.

Further, based on his analysis, the researcher determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical techniques to very complex multivariate analyses depending on the study’s objectives, the research design employed, and the nature of the data collected.

As in the case of data collection methods, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be suitable for another.

Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal or research proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, offer, and a statement of intent or commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential client or sponsor .

The proposal will be prepared to keep the sequence presented in the research process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and program managers to make a decision.

There are various research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles , papers for presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, thesis, and so on. The results of a research investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media channels to reach different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the occasion, and the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s perspective.

A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a research report should contain sections on:

• An executive summary;
• Background of the problem;
• Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Discussion;
• Conclusions and
• Recommendations.

The study results can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals published by academic institutions and reputed publishers both at home and abroad. The report should be properly evaluated .

These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can submit their manuscripts adhering to the policies and format for possible publication of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for researchers to publish their work online.

The researchers have conducted many interesting studies without affecting actual settings. Ideally, the concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real world.

Although researchers are often not in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute by including in their research reports a few recommendations regarding how the study results could be utilized for policy formulation and program intervention.

Why is the dissemination of research findings important?

Dissemination of research findings is crucial because the results of a research investigation have little utility if not communicated to others. Dissemination ensures that the findings reach relevant stakeholders, policymakers, and program managers to inform decisions.

How should a research report be structured?

A research report should contain sections on an executive summary, background of the problem, literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.

Why is it essential to consider the target audience when preparing a research report?

The style and organization of a research report should differ based on the target audience, occasion, and research purpose. Tailoring the report to the audience ensures that the findings are communicated effectively and are relevant to their needs.

Key Steps in the Research Process - A Comprehensive Guide

Embarking on a research journey can be both thrilling and challenging. Whether you're a student, journalist, or simply inquisitive about a subject, grasping the research process steps is vital for conducting thorough and efficient research. In this all-encompassing guide, we'll navigate you through the pivotal stages of what is the research process, from pinpointing your topic to showcasing your discoveries.

We'll delve into how to formulate a robust research question, undertake preliminary research, and devise a structured research plan. You'll acquire strategies for gathering and scrutinizing data, along with advice for effectively disseminating your findings. By adhering to these steps in the research process, you'll be fully prepared to confront any research endeavor that presents itself.

Step 1: Identify and Develop Your Topic

Identifying and cultivating a research topic is the foundational first step in the research process. Kick off by brainstorming potential subjects that captivate your interest, as this will fuel your enthusiasm throughout the endeavor. 

Employ the following tactics to spark ideas and understand what is the first step in the research process:

• Review course materials, lecture notes, and assigned readings for inspiration
• Engage in discussions with peers, professors, or experts in the field
• Investigate current events, news pieces, or social media trends pertinent to your field of study to uncover valuable market research insights.
• Reflect on personal experiences or observations that have sparked your curiosity

Once you've compiled a roster of possible topics, engage in preliminary research to evaluate the viability and breadth of each concept. This initial probe may encompass various research steps and procedures to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the topics at hand.

• Scanning Wikipedia articles or other general reference sources for an overview
• Searching for scholarly articles, books, or media related to your topic
• Identifying key concepts, theories, or debates within the field
• Considering the availability of primary sources or data for analysis

While amassing background knowledge, begin to concentrate your focus and hone your topic. Target a subject that is specific enough to be feasible within your project's limits, yet expansive enough to permit substantial analysis. Mull over the following inquiries to steer your topic refinement and address the research problem effectively:

• What aspect of the topic am I most interested in exploring?
• What questions or problems related to this topic remain unanswered or unresolved?
• How can I contribute new insights or perspectives to the existing body of knowledge?
• What resources and methods will I need to investigate this topic effectively?

Step 2: Conduct Preliminary Research

Having pinpointed a promising research topic, it's time to plunge into preliminary research. This essential phase enables you to deepen your grasp of the subject and evaluate the practicality of your project. Here are some pivotal tactics for executing effective preliminary research using various library resources:

• Literature Review

To effectively embark on your scholarly journey, it's essential to consult a broad spectrum of sources, thereby enriching your understanding with the breadth of academic research available on your topic. This exploration may encompass a variety of materials.

• Online catalogs of libraries (local, regional, national, and special)
• Meta-catalogs and subject-specific online article databases
• Digital institutional repositories and open access resources
• Works cited in scholarly books and articles
• Print bibliographies and internet sources
• Websites of major nonprofit organizations, research institutes, museums, universities, and government agencies
• Trade and scholarly publishers
• Discussions with fellow scholars and peers
• Identify Key Debates

Engaging with the wealth of recently published materials and seminal works in your field is a pivotal part of the research process definition. Focus on discerning the core ideas, debates, and arguments that define your topic, which will in turn sharpen your research focus and guide you toward formulating pertinent research questions.

• Narrow Your Focus

Hone your topic by leveraging your initial findings to tackle a specific issue or facet within the larger subject, a fundamental step in the research process steps. Consider various factors that could influence the direction and scope of your inquiry.

• Subtopics and specific issues
• Key debates and controversies
• Timeframes and geographical locations
• Organizations or groups of people involved

A thorough evaluation of existing literature and a comprehensive assessment of the information at hand will pinpoint the exact dimensions of the issue you aim to explore. This methodology ensures alignment with prior research, optimizes resources, and can bolster your case when seeking research funding by demonstrating a well-founded approach.

Step 3: Establish Your Research Question

Having completed your preliminary research and topic refinement, the next vital phase involves formulating a precise and focused research question. This question, a cornerstone among research process steps, will steer your investigation, keeping it aligned with relevant data and insights. When devising your research question, take into account these critical factors:

Initiate your inquiry by defining the requirements and goals of your study, a key step in the research process steps. Whether you're testing a hypothesis, analyzing data, or constructing and supporting an argument, grasping the intent of your research is crucial for framing your question effectively.

Ensure that your research question is feasible, given your constraints in time and word count, an important consideration in the research process steps. Steer clear of questions that are either too expansive or too constricted, as they may impede your capacity to conduct a comprehensive analysis.

Your research question should transcend a mere 'yes' or 'no' response, prompting a thorough engagement with the research process steps. It should foster a comprehensive exploration of the topic, facilitating the analysis of issues or problems beyond just a basic description.

• Researchability

Ensure that your research question opens the door to quality research materials, including academic books and refereed journal articles. It's essential to weigh the accessibility of primary data and secondary data that will bolster your investigative efforts.

When establishing your research question, take the following steps:

• Identify the specific aspect of your general topic that you want to explore
• Hypothesize the path your answer might take, developing a hypothesis after formulating the question
• Steer clear of certain types of questions in your research process steps, such as those that are deceptively simple, fictional, stacked, semantic, impossible-to-answer, opinion or ethical, and anachronistic, to maintain the integrity of your inquiry.
• Conduct a self-test on your research question to confirm it adheres to the research process steps, ensuring it is flexible, testable, clear, precise, and underscores a distinct reason for its importance.

By meticulously formulating your research question, you're establishing a solid groundwork for the subsequent research process steps, guaranteeing that your efforts are directed, efficient, and yield productive outcomes.

Step 4: Develop a Research Plan

Having formulated a precise research question, the ensuing phase involves developing a detailed research plan. This plan, integral to the research process steps, acts as a navigational guide for your project, keeping you organized, concentrated, and on a clear path to accomplishing your research objectives. When devising your research plan, consider these pivotal components:

• Project Goals and Objectives

Articulate the specific aims and objectives of your research project with clarity. These should be in harmony with your research question and provide a structured framework for your investigation, ultimately aligning with your overarching business goals.

• Research Methods

Select the most appropriate research tools and statistical methods to address your question effectively. This may include a variety of qualitative and quantitative approaches to ensure comprehensive analysis.

• Quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, experiments)
• Qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups)
• Mixed methods (combining quantitative and qualitative approaches)
• Access to databases, archives, or special collections
• Specialized equipment or software
• Funding for travel, materials, or participant compensation
• Assistance from research assistants, librarians, or subject matter experts
• Participant Recruitment

If your research involves human subjects, develop a strategic plan for recruiting participants. Consider factors such as the inclusion of diverse ethnic groups and the use of user interviews to gather rich, qualitative data.

• Target population and sample size
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Recruitment strategies (e.g., flyers, social media, snowball sampling)
• Informed consent procedures
• Instruments or tools for gathering data (e.g., questionnaires, interview guides)
• Data storage and management protocols
• Statistical or qualitative analysis techniques
• Software or tools for data analysis (e.g., SPSS, NVivo)

Create a realistic project strategy for your research project, breaking it down into manageable stages or milestones. Consider factors such as resource availability and potential bottlenecks.

• Literature review and background research
• IRB approval (if applicable)
• Participant recruitment and data collection
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Writing and revising your findings
• Dissemination of results (e.g., presentations, publications)

By developing a comprehensive research plan, incorporating key research process steps, you'll be better equipped to anticipate challenges, allocate resources effectively, and ensure the integrity and rigor of your research process. Remember to remain flexible and adaptable to navigate unexpected obstacles or opportunities that may arise.

Step 5: Conduct the Research

With your research plan in place, it's time to dive into the data collection phase. As you conduct your research, adhere to the established research process steps to ensure the integrity and quality of your findings.

Conduct your research in accordance with federal regulations, state laws, institutional SOPs, and policies. Familiarize yourself with the IRB-approved protocol and follow it diligently, as part of the essential research process steps.

• Roles and Responsibilities

Understand and adhere to the roles and responsibilities of the principal investigator and other research team members. Maintain open communication lines with all stakeholders, including the sponsor and IRB, to foster cross-functional collaboration.

• Data Management

Develop and maintain an effective system for data collection and storage, utilizing advanced research tools. Ensure that each member of the research team has seamless access to the most up-to-date documents, including the informed consent document, protocol, and case report forms.

• Quality Assurance

Implement comprehensive quality assurance measures to verify that the study adheres strictly to the IRB-approved protocol, institutional policy, and all required regulations. Confirm that all study activities are executed as planned and that any deviations are addressed with precision and appropriateness.

• Participant Eligibility

As part of the essential research process steps, verify that potential study subjects meet all eligibility criteria and none of the ineligibility criteria before advancing with the research.

To maintain the highest standards of academic integrity and ethical conduct:

• Conduct research with unwavering honesty in all facets, including experimental design, data generation, and analysis, as well as the publication of results, as these are critical research process steps.
• Maintain a climate conducive to conducting research in strict accordance with good research practices, ensuring each step of the research process is meticulously observed.
• Provide appropriate supervision and training for researchers.
• Encourage open discussion of ideas and the widest dissemination of results possible.
• Keep clear and accurate records of research methods and results.
• Exercise a duty of care to all those involved in the research.

When collecting and assimilating data:

• Use professional online data analysis tools to streamline the process.
• Use metadata for context
• Assign codes or labels to facilitate grouping or comparison
• Convert data into different formats or scales for compatibility
• Organize documents in both the study participant and investigator's study regulatory files, creating a central repository for easy access and reference, as this organization is a pivotal step in the research process.

By adhering to these guidelines and upholding a commitment to ethical and rigorous research practices, you'll be well-equipped to conduct your research effectively and contribute meaningful insights to your field of study, thereby enhancing the integrity of the research process steps.

Step 6: Analyze and Interpret Data

Embarking on the research process steps, once you have gathered your research data, the subsequent critical phase is to delve into analysis and interpretation. This stage demands a meticulous examination of the data, spotting trends, and forging insightful conclusions that directly respond to your research question. Reflect on these tactics for a robust approach to data analysis and interpretation:

• Organize and Clean Your Data

A pivotal aspect of the research process steps is to start by structuring your data in an orderly and coherent fashion. This organizational task may encompass:

• Creating a spreadsheet or database to store your data
• Assigning codes or labels to facilitate grouping or comparison
• Cleaning the data by removing any errors, inconsistencies, or missing values
• Converting data into different formats or scales for compatibility
• Calculating measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Determining measures of variability (range, standard deviation)
• Creating frequency tables or histograms to visualize the distribution of your data
• Identifying any outliers or unusual patterns in your data
• Perform Inferential Analysis

Integral to the research process steps, you might engage in inferential analysis to evaluate hypotheses or extrapolate findings to a broader demographic, contingent on your research design and query. This analytical step may include:

• Selecting appropriate statistical tests (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA, regression analysis)
• As part of the research process steps, establishing a significance threshold (e.g., p < 0.05) is essential to gauge the likelihood of your results being a random occurrence rather than a significant finding.
• Interpreting the results of your statistical tests in the context of your research question
• Considering the practical significance of your findings, in addition to statistical significance

When interpreting your data, it's essential to:

• Look for relationships, patterns, and trends in your data
• Consider alternative explanations for your findings
• Acknowledge any limitations or potential biases in your research design or data collection
• Leverage data visualization techniques such as graphs, charts, and infographics to articulate your research findings with clarity and impact, thereby enhancing the communicative value of your data.
• Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or subject matter experts to validate your interpretations

It's important to recognize that data interpretation is a cyclical process that hinges on critical thinking, inventiveness, and the readiness to refine your conclusions with emerging insights. By tackling data analysis and interpretation with diligence and openness, you're setting the stage to derive meaningful and justifiable inferences from your research, in line with the research process steps.

Step 7: Present the Findings

After meticulous analysis and interpretation of your research findings, as dictated by the research process steps, the moment arrives to disseminate your insights. Effectively presenting your research is key to captivating your audience and conveying the importance of your findings. Employ these strategies to create an engaging and persuasive presentation:

• Organize Your Findings : 

Use the PEEL method to structure your presentation:

• Point: Clearly state your main argument or finding
• Evidence: Present the data and analysis that support your point
• Explanation: Provide context and interpret the significance of your evidence
• Link: Connect your findings to the broader research question or field
• Tailor Your Message

Understanding your audience is crucial to effective communication. When presenting your research, it's important to tailor your message to their background, interests, and level of expertise, effectively employing user personas to guide your approach.

• Use clear, concise language and explain technical terms
• Highlight what makes your research unique and impactful
• Craft a compelling narrative with a clear structure and hook
• Share the big picture, emphasizing the significance of your findings
• Engage Your Audience : Make your presentation enjoyable and memorable by incorporating creative elements:
• Use visual aids, such as tables, charts, and graphs, to communicate your findings effectively
• To vividly convey your research journey, consider employing storytelling techniques, such as UX comics or storyboards, which can make complex information more accessible and engaging.
• Injecting humor and personality into your presentation can be a powerful tool for communication. Utilize funny messages or GIFs to lighten the mood, breaking up tension and refocusing attention, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of humor in communication.

By adhering to these strategies, you'll be well-prepared to present your research findings in a manner that's both clear and captivating. Ensure you follow research process steps such as citing your sources accurately and discussing the broader implications of your work, providing actionable recommendations, and delineating the subsequent phases for integrating your findings into broader practice or policy frameworks.

The research process is an intricate journey that demands meticulous planning, steadfast execution, and incisive analysis. By adhering to the fundamental research process steps outlined in this guide, from pinpointing your topic to showcasing your findings, you're setting yourself up for conducting research that's both effective and influential. Keep in mind that the research journey is iterative, often necessitating revisits to certain stages as fresh insights surface or unforeseen challenges emerge.

As you commence your research journey, seize the chance to contribute novel insights to your field and forge a positive global impact. By tackling your research with curiosity, integrity, and a dedication to excellence, you're paving the way towards attaining your research aspirations and making a substantial difference with your work, all while following the critical research process steps.

Sign up for more like this.

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Table of Contents

Research Process

Definition:

Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.

Research Process Steps

Research Process Steps are as follows:

Identify the Research Question or Problem

This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.

Conduct a Literature Review

Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research is not duplicating previous work.

Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Objectives

Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through the research.

Design a Research Plan and Methodology

This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used.

Collect and Analyze Data

This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods, including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the results.

Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions

After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not. The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and discuss the implications of the findings.

Communicate the Results

Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research report should provide a detailed account of the research process, including the research question, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include recommendations for further research in the area.

Review and Revise

The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their findings, and consider areas for improvement.

Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to participants or their communities.

Dissemination and Application

The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions, develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.

Research Process Example

Following is a Research Process Example:

Research Question : What are the effects of a plant-based diet on athletic performance in high school athletes?

Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic performance, and high school athletes.

Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance in high school athletes.

Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a plant-based diet.

Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.

Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and those who do not.

Step 6 : Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations or potential biases in the study design.

Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss potential implications and future research directions.

Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.

Applications of Research Process

The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research process include:

• Scientific research: The research process is widely used in scientific research to investigate phenomena in the natural world and develop new theories or technologies. This includes fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
• Social sciences : The research process is commonly used in social sciences to study human behavior, social structures, and institutions. This includes fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics.
• Education: The research process is used in education to study learning processes, curriculum design, and teaching methodologies. This includes research on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational policy.
• Healthcare: The research process is used in healthcare to investigate medical conditions, develop new treatments, and evaluate healthcare interventions. This includes fields such as medicine, nursing, and public health.
• Business and industry : The research process is used in business and industry to study consumer behavior, market trends, and develop new products or services. This includes market research, product development, and customer satisfaction research.
• Government and policy : The research process is used in government and policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs, and to inform policy decisions. This includes research on social welfare, crime prevention, and environmental policy.

Purpose of Research Process

The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:

• Identify gaps in existing knowledge: By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers can identify gaps in existing knowledge and develop research questions that address these gaps.
• Collect and analyze data : The research process provides a structured approach to collecting and analyzing data. Researchers can use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and interviews, to collect data that is valid and reliable.
• Test hypotheses : The research process allows researchers to test hypotheses and make evidence-based conclusions. Through the systematic analysis of data, researchers can draw conclusions about the relationships between variables and develop new theories or models.
• Solve problems: The research process can be used to solve practical problems and improve real-world outcomes. For example, researchers can develop interventions to address health or social problems, evaluate the effectiveness of policies or programs, and improve organizational processes.
• Generate new knowledge : The research process is a key way to generate new knowledge and advance understanding in a given field. By conducting rigorous and well-designed research, researchers can make significant contributions to their field and help to shape future research.

Tips for Research Process

Here are some tips for the research process:

• Start with a clear research question : A well-defined research question is the foundation of a successful research project. It should be specific, relevant, and achievable within the given time frame and resources.
• Conduct a thorough literature review: A comprehensive literature review will help you to identify gaps in existing knowledge, build on previous research, and avoid duplication. It will also provide a theoretical framework for your research.
• Choose appropriate research methods: Select research methods that are appropriate for your research question, objectives, and sample size. Ensure that your methods are valid, reliable, and ethical.
• Be organized and systematic: Keep detailed notes throughout the research process, including your research plan, methodology, data collection, and analysis. This will help you to stay organized and ensure that you don’t miss any important details.
• Analyze data rigorously: Use appropriate statistical and analytical techniques to analyze your data. Ensure that your analysis is valid, reliable, and transparent.
• I nterpret results carefully : Interpret your results in the context of your research question and objectives. Consider any limitations or potential biases in your research design, and be cautious in drawing conclusions.
• Communicate effectively: Communicate your research findings clearly and effectively to your target audience. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that your findings are understood and valued.
• Collaborate and seek feedback : Collaborate with other researchers, experts, or stakeholders in your field. Seek feedback on your research design, methods, and findings to ensure that they are relevant, meaningful, and impactful.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and...

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

• Research Guides

6 Stages of Research

• 1: Task Definition
• 2: Information Seeking
• 3: Location & Access
• 4: Use of Information
• 5: Synthesis
• 6: Evaluation

Ask a Librarian

Browse our FAQ, Chat Live with a Librarian, Call, Text, Email, or Make an Appointment.

We are here to help!

Ask the Right Questions

The scope of an investigation determines how large or small your investigation will be. Determining the scope of an investigation is the critical first step in the research process because you will know how far and how deep to look for answers. This lesson will teach you how to develop a research question as a way to determine the scope of an investigation.

Click the image to open the tutorial in a new window.

Keyword(s):  5W Criteria, Ask the Right Questions, Guided Inquiry, Information Literacy, Library, New Literacies Alliance, Research as Inquiry, Research Question

Purpose of this guide

The purpose of this guide is to walk you through the 6 stages of writing an effective research paper. By breaking the process down into these 6 stages, your paper will be better and you will get more out of the research experience. 

The 6 stages are:

• Task Definition (developing a topic)
• Information Seeking (coming up with a research plan)
• Location & Access (finding good sources)
• Use of Information (Reading, taking notes, and generally making the writing process easier)
• Synthesis (coming up with your own ideas and presenting them well)
• Evaluation (reflection)

This research guide is based on the Big6 Information Literacy model from  https://thebig6.org/

Task Definition

The purpose of task definition is to help you develop an effective topic for your paper. .

Developing a topic is often one of the hardest and most important steps in writing a paper or doing a research project. But here are some tips:

• A research topic is a question, not a statement. You shouldn't already know the answer when you start researching.
• Research something you actually care about or find interesting. It turns the research process from a chore into something enjoyable and whoever reads your work can tell the difference. 
• Read the assignment before and after you think you have come up with your topic to make sure you are answering the prompt. 

Steps to Developing a Topic

• Assignment Requirements
• General Idea
• Background Research
• Ask Questions
• Topic Question

Read your assignment and note any requirements.

• Is there a required page length?
• How many sources do you need?
• Does the paper have to be in a specific format like APA?
• Are there any listed goals for the topic, such as synthesizing different opinions, or applying a theory to a real-life example?

Formulate a general idea.

• Look at your syllabus or course schedule for broad topic ideas.
• Think about reading assignments or class lectures that you found interesting.
• Talk with your professor or a librarian. 
• Check out social media and see what has been trending that is related to your course. 
• Think about ideas from popular videos, TV shows, and movies.
• Read The New York Times  (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Watch NBC Learn (FHSU students have free access through the Library)
• Search your library for relevant journals and publications related to your course and browse them for ideas
• Browse online discussion forums, news, and blogs for professional organizations for hot topics

Do some background research on your general idea.

• You have access to reference materials through the Library for background research.
• See what your course notes and textbook say about the subject.
• Google it. 

Reference e-books on a wide range of topics. Sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, key concepts, key thinkers, handbooks, atlases, and more. Search by keyword or browse titles by topic.

Over 1200 cross-searchable reference e-books on a wide variety of subjects.

Mind map it.

A mind map is an effective way of organizing your thoughts and generating new questions as you learn about your topic. 

• Video  on how to do a mind map. 
• Coggle Free mind mapping software that is great for beginners and easy to use.
• MindMup Mindmup is a free, easy to use online software that allows you to publish and share your mind maps with others.

Ask Questions to focus on what interests you.

Who?   What?   When?   Where?   Why?

We can focus our ideas by brainstorming what interests us when asking who, what, when where, and why:

Research Question:  Does flexible seating in an elementary classroom improve student focus?

Write out your topic question & reread the assignment criteria.

• Can you answer your question well in the number of pages required? 
• Does your topic still meet the requirements of the paper? Ex: is the question still about the sociology of gender studies and women?
• Is the topic too narrow to find research? 

Developing a Topic Tutorial

The following tutorial from Forsyth Library will walk you through the process of defining your topic. 

• Next: 2: Information Seeking >>
• Last Updated: May 15, 2024 2:43 PM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/6stages

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

3 The research process

In Chapter 1, we saw that scientific research is the process of acquiring scientific knowledge using the scientific method. But how is such research conducted? This chapter delves into the process of scientific research, and the assumptions and outcomes of the research process.

Paradigms of social research

Our design and conduct of research is shaped by our mental models, or frames of reference that we use to organise our reasoning and observations. These mental models or frames (belief systems) are called paradigms . The word ‘paradigm’ was popularised by Thomas Kuhn (1962) [1] in his book The structure of scientific r evolutions , where he examined the history of the natural sciences to identify patterns of activities that shape the progress of science. Similar ideas are applicable to social sciences as well, where a social reality can be viewed by different people in different ways, which may constrain their thinking and reasoning about the observed phenomenon. For instance, conservatives and liberals tend to have very different perceptions of the role of government in people’s lives, and hence, have different opinions on how to solve social problems. Conservatives may believe that lowering taxes is the best way to stimulate a stagnant economy because it increases people’s disposable income and spending, which in turn expands business output and employment. In contrast, liberals may believe that governments should invest more directly in job creation programs such as public works and infrastructure projects, which will increase employment and people’s ability to consume and drive the economy. Likewise, Western societies place greater emphasis on individual rights, such as one’s right to privacy, right of free speech, and right to bear arms. In contrast, Asian societies tend to balance the rights of individuals against the rights of families, organisations, and the government, and therefore tend to be more communal and less individualistic in their policies. Such differences in perspective often lead Westerners to criticise Asian governments for being autocratic, while Asians criticise Western societies for being greedy, having high crime rates, and creating a ‘cult of the individual’. Our personal paradigms are like ‘coloured glasses’ that govern how we view the world and how we structure our thoughts about what we see in the world.

Paradigms are often hard to recognise, because they are implicit, assumed, and taken for granted. However, recognising these paradigms is key to making sense of and reconciling differences in people’s perceptions of the same social phenomenon. For instance, why do liberals believe that the best way to improve secondary education is to hire more teachers, while conservatives believe that privatising education (using such means as school vouchers) is more effective in achieving the same goal? Conservatives place more faith in competitive markets (i.e., in free competition between schools competing for education dollars), while liberals believe more in labour (i.e., in having more teachers and schools). Likewise, in social science research, to understand why a certain technology was successfully implemented in one organisation, but failed miserably in another, a researcher looking at the world through a ‘rational lens’ will look for rational explanations of the problem, such as inadequate technology or poor fit between technology and the task context where it is being utilised. Another researcher looking at the same problem through a ‘social lens’ may seek out social deficiencies such as inadequate user training or lack of management support. Those seeing it through a ‘political lens’ will look for instances of organisational politics that may subvert the technology implementation process. Hence, subconscious paradigms often constrain the concepts that researchers attempt to measure, their observations, and their subsequent interpretations of a phenomenon. However, given the complex nature of social phenomena, it is possible that all of the above paradigms are partially correct, and that a fuller understanding of the problem may require an understanding and application of multiple paradigms.

Two popular paradigms today among social science researchers are positivism and post-positivism. Positivism , based on the works of French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), was the dominant scientific paradigm until the mid-twentieth century. It holds that science or knowledge creation should be restricted to what can be observed and measured. Positivism tends to rely exclusively on theories that can be directly tested. Though positivism was originally an attempt to separate scientific inquiry from religion (where the precepts could not be objectively observed), positivism led to empiricism or a blind faith in observed data and a rejection of any attempt to extend or reason beyond observable facts. Since human thoughts and emotions could not be directly measured, they were not considered to be legitimate topics for scientific research. Frustrations with the strictly empirical nature of positivist philosophy led to the development of post-positivism (or postmodernism) during the mid-late twentieth century. Post-positivism argues that one can make reasonable inferences about a phenomenon by combining empirical observations with logical reasoning. Post-positivists view science as not certain but probabilistic (i.e., based on many contingencies), and often seek to explore these contingencies to understand social reality better. The post-positivist camp has further fragmented into subjectivists , who view the world as a subjective construction of our subjective minds rather than as an objective reality, and critical realists , who believe that there is an external reality that is independent of a person’s thinking but we can never know such reality with any degree of certainty.

Burrell and Morgan (1979), [2] in their seminal book Sociological p aradigms and organizational a nalysis , suggested that the way social science researchers view and study social phenomena is shaped by two fundamental sets of philosophical assumptions: ontology and epistemology. Ontology refers to our assumptions about how we see the world (e.g., does the world consist mostly of social order or constant change?). Epistemology refers to our assumptions about the best way to study the world (e.g., should we use an objective or subjective approach to study social reality?). Using these two sets of assumptions, we can categorise social science research as belonging to one of four categories (see Figure 3.1).

If researchers view the world as consisting mostly of social order (ontology) and hence seek to study patterns of ordered events or behaviours, and believe that the best way to study such a world is using an objective approach (epistemology) that is independent of the person conducting the observation or interpretation, such as by using standardised data collection tools like surveys, then they are adopting a paradigm of functionalism . However, if they believe that the best way to study social order is though the subjective interpretation of participants, such as by interviewing different participants and reconciling differences among their responses using their own subjective perspectives, then they are employing an interpretivism paradigm. If researchers believe that the world consists of radical change and seek to understand or enact change using an objectivist approach, then they are employing a radical structuralism paradigm. If they wish to understand social change using the subjective perspectives of the participants involved, then they are following a radical humanism paradigm.

To date, the majority of social science research has emulated the natural sciences, and followed the functionalist paradigm. Functionalists believe that social order or patterns can be understood in terms of their functional components, and therefore attempt to break down a problem into small components and studying one or more components in detail using objectivist techniques such as surveys and experimental research. However, with the emergence of post-positivist thinking, a small but growing number of social science researchers are attempting to understand social order using subjectivist techniques such as interviews and ethnographic studies. Radical humanism and radical structuralism continues to represent a negligible proportion of social science research, because scientists are primarily concerned with understanding generalisable patterns of behaviour, events, or phenomena, rather than idiosyncratic or changing events. Nevertheless, if you wish to study social change, such as why democratic movements are increasingly emerging in Middle Eastern countries, or why this movement was successful in Tunisia, took a longer path to success in Libya, and is still not successful in Syria, then perhaps radical humanism is the right approach for such a study. Social and organisational phenomena generally consist of elements of both order and change. For instance, organisational success depends on formalised business processes, work procedures, and job responsibilities, while being simultaneously constrained by a constantly changing mix of competitors, competing products, suppliers, and customer base in the business environment. Hence, a holistic and more complete understanding of social phenomena such as why some organisations are more successful than others, requires an appreciation and application of a multi-paradigmatic approach to research.

Overview of the research process

So how do our mental paradigms shape social science research? At its core, all scientific research is an iterative process of observation, rationalisation, and validation. In the observation phase, we observe a natural or social phenomenon, event, or behaviour that interests us. In the rationalisation phase, we try to make sense of the observed phenomenon, event, or behaviour by logically connecting the different pieces of the puzzle that we observe, which in some cases, may lead to the construction of a theory. Finally, in the validation phase, we test our theories using a scientific method through a process of data collection and analysis, and in doing so, possibly modify or extend our initial theory. However, research designs vary based on whether the researcher starts at observation and attempts to rationalise the observations (inductive research), or whether the researcher starts at an ex ante rationalisation or a theory and attempts to validate the theory (deductive research). Hence, the observation-rationalisation-validation cycle is very similar to the induction-deduction cycle of research discussed in Chapter 1.

Most traditional research tends to be deductive and functionalistic in nature. Figure 3.2 provides a schematic view of such a research project. This figure depicts a series of activities to be performed in functionalist research, categorised into three phases: exploration, research design, and research execution. Note that this generalised design is not a roadmap or flowchart for all research. It applies only to functionalistic research, and it can and should be modified to fit the needs of a specific project.

The first phase of research is exploration . This phase includes exploring and selecting research questions for further investigation, examining the published literature in the area of inquiry to understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of interest.

The first step in the exploration phase is identifying one or more research questions dealing with a specific behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest. Research questions are specific questions about a behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest that you wish to seek answers for in your research. Examples include determining which factors motivate consumers to purchase goods and services online without knowing the vendors of these goods or services, how can we make high school students more creative, and why some people commit terrorist acts. Research questions can delve into issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth. More interesting research questions are those that appeal to a broader population (e.g., ‘how can firms innovate?’ is a more interesting research question than ‘how can Chinese firms innovate in the service-sector?’), address real and complex problems (in contrast to hypothetical or ‘toy’ problems), and where the answers are not obvious. Narrowly focused research questions (often with a binary yes/no answer) tend to be less useful and less interesting and less suited to capturing the subtle nuances of social phenomena. Uninteresting research questions generally lead to uninteresting and unpublishable research findings.

The next step is to conduct a literature review of the domain of interest. The purpose of a literature review is three-fold: one, to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry, two, to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and three, to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. Literature review is commonly done today using computerised keyword searches in online databases. Keywords can be combined using Boolean operators such as ‘and’ and ‘or’ to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a shortlist of relevant articles is generated from the keyword search, the researcher must then manually browse through each article, or at least its abstract, to determine the suitability of that article for a detailed review. Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology. Reviewed articles may be summarised in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organising frameworks such as a concept matrix. A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature (which would obviate the need to study them again), whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of the findings of the literature review. The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions.

Since functionalist (deductive) research involves theory-testing, the third step is to identify one or more theories can help address the desired research questions. While the literature review may uncover a wide range of concepts or constructs potentially related to the phenomenon of interest, a theory will help identify which of these constructs is logically relevant to the target phenomenon and how. Forgoing theories may result in measuring a wide range of less relevant, marginally relevant, or irrelevant constructs, while also minimising the chances of obtaining results that are meaningful and not by pure chance. In functionalist research, theories can be used as the logical basis for postulating hypotheses for empirical testing. Obviously, not all theories are well-suited for studying all social phenomena. Theories must be carefully selected based on their fit with the target problem and the extent to which their assumptions are consistent with that of the target problem. We will examine theories and the process of theorising in detail in the next chapter.

The next phase in the research process is research design . This process is concerned with creating a blueprint of the actions to take in order to satisfactorily answer the research questions identified in the exploration phase. This includes selecting a research method, operationalising constructs of interest, and devising an appropriate sampling strategy.

Operationalisation is the process of designing precise measures for abstract theoretical constructs. This is a major problem in social science research, given that many of the constructs, such as prejudice, alienation, and liberalism are hard to define, let alone measure accurately. Operationalisation starts with specifying an ‘operational definition’ (or ‘conceptualization’) of the constructs of interest. Next, the researcher can search the literature to see if there are existing pre-validated measures matching their operational definition that can be used directly or modified to measure their constructs of interest. If such measures are not available or if existing measures are poor or reflect a different conceptualisation than that intended by the researcher, new instruments may have to be designed for measuring those constructs. This means specifying exactly how exactly the desired construct will be measured (e.g., how many items, what items, and so forth). This can easily be a long and laborious process, with multiple rounds of pre-tests and modifications before the newly designed instrument can be accepted as ‘scientifically valid’. We will discuss operationalisation of constructs in a future chapter on measurement.

Simultaneously with operationalisation, the researcher must also decide what research method they wish to employ for collecting data to address their research questions of interest. Such methods may include quantitative methods such as experiments or survey research or qualitative methods such as case research or action research, or possibly a combination of both. If an experiment is desired, then what is the experimental design? If this is a survey, do you plan a mail survey, telephone survey, web survey, or a combination? For complex, uncertain, and multifaceted social phenomena, multi-method approaches may be more suitable, which may help leverage the unique strengths of each research method and generate insights that may not be obtained using a single method.

Researchers must also carefully choose the target population from which they wish to collect data, and a sampling strategy to select a sample from that population. For instance, should they survey individuals or firms or workgroups within firms? What types of individuals or firms do they wish to target? Sampling strategy is closely related to the unit of analysis in a research problem. While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be taken to avoid a biased sample (e.g., sample based on convenience) that may generate biased observations. Sampling is covered in depth in a later chapter.

At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all of the decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and the rationale behind each decision. This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to study and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ along with hypotheses to be tested, how you intend to measure constructs, what research method is to be employed and why, and desired sampling strategy. Funding agencies typically require such a proposal in order to select the best proposals for funding. Even if funding is not sought for a research project, a proposal may serve as a useful vehicle for seeking feedback from other researchers and identifying potential problems with the research project (e.g., whether some important constructs were missing from the study) before starting data collection. This initial feedback is invaluable because it is often too late to correct critical problems after data is collected in a research study.

Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and how to collect data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research execution phase. This includes pilot testing the measurement instruments, data collection, and data analysis.

Pilot testing is an often overlooked but extremely important part of the research process. It helps detect potential problems in your research design and/or instrumentation (e.g., whether the questions asked are intelligible to the targeted sample), and to ensure that the measurement instruments used in the study are reliable and valid measures of the constructs of interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the target population. After successful pilot testing, the researcher may then proceed with data collection using the sampled population. The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the research method employed.

Following data collection, the data is analysed and interpreted for the purpose of drawing conclusions regarding the research questions of interest. Depending on the type of data collected (quantitative or qualitative), data analysis may be quantitative (e.g., employ statistical techniques such as regression or structural equation modelling) or qualitative (e.g., coding or content analysis).

The final phase of research involves preparing the final research report documenting the entire research process and its findings in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or monograph. This report should outline in detail all the choices made during the research process (e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of the research process. The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable. Of course, having a ready research proposal will greatly simplify and quicken the process of writing the finished report. Note that research is of no value unless the research process and outcomes are documented for future generations—such documentation is essential for the incremental progress of science.

Common mistakes in research

The research process is fraught with problems and pitfalls, and novice researchers often find, after investing substantial amounts of time and effort into a research project, that their research questions were not sufficiently answered, or that the findings were not interesting enough, or that the research was not of ‘acceptable’ scientific quality. Such problems typically result in research papers being rejected by journals. Some of the more frequent mistakes are described below.

Insufficiently motivated research questions. Often times, we choose our ‘pet’ problems that are interesting to us but not to the scientific community at large, i.e., it does not generate new knowledge or insight about the phenomenon being investigated. Because the research process involves a significant investment of time and effort on the researcher’s part, the researcher must be certain—and be able to convince others—that the research questions they seek to answer deal with real—and not hypothetical—problems that affect a substantial portion of a population and have not been adequately addressed in prior research.

Pursuing research fads. Another common mistake is pursuing ‘popular’ topics with limited shelf life. A typical example is studying technologies or practices that are popular today. Because research takes several years to complete and publish, it is possible that popular interest in these fads may die down by the time the research is completed and submitted for publication. A better strategy may be to study ‘timeless’ topics that have always persisted through the years.

Unresearchable problems. Some research problems may not be answered adequately based on observed evidence alone, or using currently accepted methods and procedures. Such problems are best avoided. However, some unresearchable, ambiguously defined problems may be modified or fine tuned into well-defined and useful researchable problems.

Favoured research methods. Many researchers have a tendency to recast a research problem so that it is amenable to their favourite research method (e.g., survey research). This is an unfortunate trend. Research methods should be chosen to best fit a research problem, and not the other way around.

Blind data mining. Some researchers have the tendency to collect data first (using instruments that are already available), and then figure out what to do with it. Note that data collection is only one step in a long and elaborate process of planning, designing, and executing research. In fact, a series of other activities are needed in a research process prior to data collection. If researchers jump into data collection without such elaborate planning, the data collected will likely be irrelevant, imperfect, or useless, and their data collection efforts may be entirely wasted. An abundance of data cannot make up for deficits in research planning and design, and particularly, for the lack of interesting research questions.

• Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ↵
• Burrell, G. & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis: elements of the sociology of corporate life . London: Heinemann Educational. ↵

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and Practices (Revised edition) Copyright © 2019 by Anol Bhattacherjee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Research Process

Dissertation markers expect you to include the explanation of research process in methodology chapter. A typical research process comprises the following stages:

1. Selecting the research area . Your dissertation marker expects you to state that you have selected the research area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. Students often underestimate the importance of this first stage in the research process. If you find a research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.

2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses . The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions.

Accordingly, you need to mention in your dissertation that you have revised your research aims and objectives or hypotheses during the research process several times to get their final versions. It is critically important that you get confirmation from your supervisor regarding your research questions or hypotheses before moving forward with the work.

3. Conducting the literature review . Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and objective. This is because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed before and this task is a part of the literature review. Nevertheless, you will conduct the main part of the literature review after the formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.

4. Selecting data collection methods . Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative methods. In studies involving primary data collection, you need to write about advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) in detailed manner in methodology.

5. Collecting the primary data . You will have to start primary data collection only after detailed preparation. Sampling is an important element of this stage. You may have to conduct pilot data collection if you chose questionnaire primary data collection method. Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.

6. Data analysis . Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. This stage involves an extensive editing and coding of data. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative studies. In data analysis coding of primary data plays an instrumental role to reduce sample group responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing. Data analysis is discussed in Chapter 6 in great details.

7. Reaching conclusions . Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In this final part of your dissertation you will have to justify why you think that research aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research limitations and suggestions for future research .

8. Completing the research . Following all of the stages described above, and organizing separate chapters into one file leads to the completion of the first draft. You need to prepare the first draft of your dissertation at least one month before the submission deadline. This is because you will need to have sufficient amount of time to address feedback to be provided by your supervisor.

Individual stages in the research process outlined above are interdependent and the sequence has to be maintained. Moreover, the process of any research tends to be iterative, meaning that you may have to return back to the previous stages of the research process several times for revisions and improvement. In other words, no stage of the research process is fully completed until the whole dissertation is completed.

John Dudovskiy

A Getting Started Guide

What is research, stages of the research process, how do i start writing a college paper, annotated bibliographies.

• Books, eBooks, Videos
• Articles and Journals
• Citation Guide

The Research Process

Welcome to The Research Process! Throughout your college career, many of your assignments will involve doing research. You can use this guide to find definitions of key terms related to doing research, learn about the many stages of the research process, and explore resources to help you succeed at each stage.

Before getting started on your own research, it is important to know what research is and why we do it. 

• Research is inquiry : When we research a topic, we are asking questions and investigating that topic to learn more about it.
• Research is continuous : Learning about a topic often requires finding and incorporating new information, which can lead to asking new questions.
• Research is iterative : As we move through the various stages of the research process, we may have to repeat steps we completed earlier.

How to get started with the Research Process

Step 1:  Start by asking yourself some questions:

1. What does the assignment require? Read the assignment guidelines carefully for requirements such as length, formatting (single or double spaced, indentations, etc.) and citation style.

2. What will your topic be? If you were given a general topic, you'll need to narrow it down so you can cover all relevant information but not so much that you won't find enough information to enable a rich discussion.

3. Can you summarize what your paper will be about in a sentence or two? You may need to do some preliminary research to be able to do this. If you're having trouble, try paraphrasing your topic as a question then answer that question (this may become your thesis statement). 

4. Do you have an open mind and are you willing to change directions based on your research?

5. Do you know where to find supporting evidence?

Step 2:   Familiarize yourself with the process and stages of research:

Anna Eisen, 2014

Background Knowledge = What you already know about it and what you find during initial research.

Topic = Assigned (video says, "Gaps in Research", but your professor assigned certain topics for a reason), Professional interest (related to your career or academic interests), Societal interest (What are people talking about or worried about), or Personal interes t.

Research Question = Topic + Question + Significance

1.   Picking your topic IS research!

2.    Get Background Information.

Background information provides a general overview of the topic including terms, concepts, relevant names of people or places, and dates of specific events. Gathering background information can help you confirm what you know, or answer questions you may have about the topic. This can also help you identify keywords for searching databases and refining your topic in the next stages of the research process.

Before you search for background information, you should ask yourself:

• What do I already know about this topic?
• What do I still need to learn about this topic?
• What do I need to know about this topic for this assignment?

Answering these questions will give you a good idea of what kinds of background information you need to find.

3. Refine your topic.

At any point during the research process you may need to make some adjustments to your chosen topic. You may realize that your topic is too broad and you need to narrow the topic to something more specific. Or your topic could be too narrow and you need to widen your focus so you can find more relevant information. This page provides ideas for refining your topic in a way that will help you then transform your topic into a workable research question.

If your topic is too narrow, you may have trouble finding any relevant information in a library database. Think more broadly about the topic and what interests you. Ask yourself:

• What are the larger concepts or ideas that my topic falls under?

While gathering background information on your topic. you may have found too many results. You will need to narrow your topic by focusing on a specific aspect of that topic. Ask yourself:

• What elements of this topic are most interesting to me?
• What about this topic do I want to know more?

This broadening and narrowing of your original idea can help refine and focus your topic.

4. Create Search

Now that you know what you are looking for, it's time to get searching! Creating an effective search also involves generating keywords and refining results using search tool limiters to find appropriate, relevant resources wherever you are searching.

Where to search:

When doing a project or research paper, using a variety of sources helps create a more interesting result. Different topics may require the use of different sources, but in general, you should use: 

• Library Databases
• Books and eBooks (check the library catalog) 
• Reference books--encyclopedias and dictionaries (The CREDO database has a ton of these)
• Scholarly Journals (free student access to scholarly journals through library databases)
• Newspapers (Not Peer-Reviewed, but most current)
• government documents
• statistical sources

Can't I just Google this?

There is a difference between " searching " and " researching ." Online search engines, like Google or Bing, are for searching but are not designed for researching. 

In college, you are expected to research your topic, not just complete a search. Research requires you to actively think about your topic and find the words that best fit your topic. Learning to use databases will turn you into a researcher and critical thinker. 

Online search engines merely search, so the information you find may not be reliable or accurate. You will need to use academic evaluation systems to make that determination. Using databases helps you find the information you need without you having to do all the thinking, especially if you choose peer reviewed, academic, or scholarly sources. Instructors will often ask for these types of articles. It is easy to search for these types of articles in databases and will increase your level of research. 

Library Collections

Searching in Library databases will connect you with many resources you might not find with a simple internet search. Resources in library collections are specifically selected to support the research needs of all library users and never charge for access. These include academic and scholarly articles, newspapers, books, videos, music, and more. When you access these resources though the library, they are free of charge so you can use them without paying money. Sources found in our databases are  NOT  internet sources. When your instructor says, "don't use the internet," skip Google and Wikipedia and use the libraries' databases and books. 

There are two tabs above and to the left that will link you directly to library resources. The first is the Books, eBooks, and Videos tab. The second is the Articles and Journals tab (this is where you will find databases). 

The key to searching the databases is using  KEYWORDS . Searching the databases is different than searching the internet. You want to find words, not phrases, that describe your topic. For example, if you are studying the Dust Bowl and the migration west to California you could use the History Reference Center database and use the search terms: Dust Bowl in the first search box and California in the second. Typically, you want to put the broadest term in first and then use the other boxes for terms to narrow your search. 

Watch the videos below to learn more about searching. The first video will give you some tips on how to search any database. The second video will give you tips on exploring topics using PPSC resources.

Topic Exploration using PPSC Learning Commons resources:

5.  Gather Results

Rough Outline

Make a list of all the important categories and subtopics you need to cover. These will become the foundation of your outline. Arrange them in a logical order, but don’t be afraid to rearrange… it’s better to fix structural problems in the outline phase than later after everything has already been written.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement conveys the purpose and topic of your paper and will be written into the introduction and usually restated in the conclusion of your paper. It is basically a summarization of what your paper is about written in a sentence or two. Because you may need to do some preliminary research to figure out what categories and subtopics you'll cover within the topic of your paper, it is best to develop your actual thesis statement after developing an outline. If you are having trouble getting your thesis statement down to one or two sentences, try paraphrasing your topic as a question then answer that question. 

Refined Outline

Organize your resources within the outline for your paper and showing where you plan to incorporate quotes from your sources.  Don't forget about  rhetorical devices,  or modes of persuasion, that should be included in any argumentative or persuasive paper or speech. These include: 

Ethos,  which are appeals to the credibility and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer.  Pathos,  which are appeals to the emotions and feelings of the audience.  Logos,  which are appeals to the logic and reason of the audience.  and  Kairos , which are appeals the timeliness and relevance of the argument. 

Think of  transition statements  between paragraphs and ideas and rearrange your outline if necessary.

Rough Draft

• Introduction with Thesis Statement.
• Body to include all categories and subtopics with quotes with smooth transitions.
• Conclusion as a restatement of your thesis statement, reiteration of your main evidence, and summarization of your findings.

Draft again until final draft with citations  (repeat as needed).

From Purdue OWL:

A  bibliography  is a list of sources (books, journals, web sites, periodicals, etc.) one has used for researching a topic. Bibliographies are sometimes called "References" or "Works Cited" depending on the style format you are using. A bibliography usually just includes the bibliographic information (i.e., the author, title, publisher, etc.).

An  annotation  is a summary and/or evaluation. Therefore, an  annotated bibliography  includes a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources. Depending on your project or the assignment, your annotations may do one or more of the following.

For more help, see our handout on  paraphrasing  sources.

For more help, see our handouts on  evaluating resources .

• Reflect : Once you've summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into your research. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it changed how you think about your topic?

Your annotated bibliography may include some of these, all of these, or even others. If you're doing this for a class, you should get specific guidelines from your instructor.

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Books, eBooks, Videos >>
• Last Updated: Jan 10, 2024 10:49 AM
• URL: https://cccs.libguides.com/c.php?g=1313341

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.2 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal

Learning objectives.

• Identify the steps in developing a research proposal.
• Choose a topic and formulate a research question and working thesis.
• Develop a research proposal.

Writing a good research paper takes time, thought, and effort. Although this assignment is challenging, it is manageable. Focusing on one step at a time will help you develop a thoughtful, informative, well-supported research paper.

Your first step is to choose a topic and then to develop research questions, a working thesis, and a written research proposal. Set aside adequate time for this part of the process. Fully exploring ideas will help you build a solid foundation for your paper.

Choosing a Topic

When you choose a topic for a research paper, you are making a major commitment. Your choice will help determine whether you enjoy the lengthy process of research and writing—and whether your final paper fulfills the assignment requirements. If you choose your topic hastily, you may later find it difficult to work with your topic. By taking your time and choosing carefully, you can ensure that this assignment is not only challenging but also rewarding.

Writers understand the importance of choosing a topic that fulfills the assignment requirements and fits the assignment’s purpose and audience. (For more information about purpose and audience, see Chapter 6 “Writing Paragraphs: Separating Ideas and Shaping Content” .) Choosing a topic that interests you is also crucial. You instructor may provide a list of suggested topics or ask that you develop a topic on your own. In either case, try to identify topics that genuinely interest you.

After identifying potential topic ideas, you will need to evaluate your ideas and choose one topic to pursue. Will you be able to find enough information about the topic? Can you develop a paper about this topic that presents and supports your original ideas? Is the topic too broad or too narrow for the scope of the assignment? If so, can you modify it so it is more manageable? You will ask these questions during this preliminary phase of the research process.

Identifying Potential Topics

Sometimes, your instructor may provide a list of suggested topics. If so, you may benefit from identifying several possibilities before committing to one idea. It is important to know how to narrow down your ideas into a concise, manageable thesis. You may also use the list as a starting point to help you identify additional, related topics. Discussing your ideas with your instructor will help ensure that you choose a manageable topic that fits the requirements of the assignment.

In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Jorge, who is studying health care administration, as he prepares a research paper. You will also plan, research, and draft your own research paper.

Jorge was assigned to write a research paper on health and the media for an introductory course in health care. Although a general topic was selected for the students, Jorge had to decide which specific issues interested him. He brainstormed a list of possibilities.

If you are writing a research paper for a specialized course, look back through your notes and course activities. Identify reading assignments and class discussions that especially engaged you. Doing so can help you identify topics to pursue.

• Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in the news
• Sexual education programs
• Hollywood and eating disorders
• Americans’ access to public health information
• Media portrayal of health care reform bill
• Depictions of drugs on television
• The effect of the Internet on mental health
• Popularized diets (such as low-carbohydrate diets)
• Fear of pandemics (bird flu, HINI, SARS)
• Electronic entertainment and obesity
• Advertisements for prescription drugs
• Public education and disease prevention

Set a timer for five minutes. Use brainstorming or idea mapping to create a list of topics you would be interested in researching for a paper about the influence of the Internet on social networking. Do you closely follow the media coverage of a particular website, such as Twitter? Would you like to learn more about a certain industry, such as online dating? Which social networking sites do you and your friends use? List as many ideas related to this topic as you can.

Narrowing Your Topic

Once you have a list of potential topics, you will need to choose one as the focus of your essay. You will also need to narrow your topic. Most writers find that the topics they listed during brainstorming or idea mapping are broad—too broad for the scope of the assignment. Working with an overly broad topic, such as sexual education programs or popularized diets, can be frustrating and overwhelming. Each topic has so many facets that it would be impossible to cover them all in a college research paper. However, more specific choices, such as the pros and cons of sexual education in kids’ television programs or the physical effects of the South Beach diet, are specific enough to write about without being too narrow to sustain an entire research paper.

A good research paper provides focused, in-depth information and analysis. If your topic is too broad, you will find it difficult to do more than skim the surface when you research it and write about it. Narrowing your focus is essential to making your topic manageable. To narrow your focus, explore your topic in writing, conduct preliminary research, and discuss both the topic and the research with others.

Exploring Your Topic in Writing

“How am I supposed to narrow my topic when I haven’t even begun researching yet?” In fact, you may already know more than you realize. Review your list and identify your top two or three topics. Set aside some time to explore each one through freewriting. (For more information about freewriting, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” .) Simply taking the time to focus on your topic may yield fresh angles.

Jorge knew that he was especially interested in the topic of diet fads, but he also knew that it was much too broad for his assignment. He used freewriting to explore his thoughts so he could narrow his topic. Read Jorge’s ideas.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Another way writers may focus a topic is to conduct preliminary research . Like freewriting, exploratory reading can help you identify interesting angles. Surfing the web and browsing through newspaper and magazine articles are good ways to start. Find out what people are saying about your topic on blogs and online discussion groups. Discussing your topic with others can also inspire you. Talk about your ideas with your classmates, your friends, or your instructor.

Jorge’s freewriting exercise helped him realize that the assigned topic of health and the media intersected with a few of his interests—diet, nutrition, and obesity. Preliminary online research and discussions with his classmates strengthened his impression that many people are confused or misled by media coverage of these subjects.

Jorge decided to focus his paper on a topic that had garnered a great deal of media attention—low-carbohydrate diets. He wanted to find out whether low-carbohydrate diets were as effective as their proponents claimed.

Writing at Work

At work, you may need to research a topic quickly to find general information. This information can be useful in understanding trends in a given industry or generating competition. For example, a company may research a competitor’s prices and use the information when pricing their own product. You may find it useful to skim a variety of reliable sources and take notes on your findings.

The reliability of online sources varies greatly. In this exploratory phase of your research, you do not need to evaluate sources as closely as you will later. However, use common sense as you refine your paper topic. If you read a fascinating blog comment that gives you a new idea for your paper, be sure to check out other, more reliable sources as well to make sure the idea is worth pursuing.

Review the list of topics you created in Note 11.18 “Exercise 1” and identify two or three topics you would like to explore further. For each of these topics, spend five to ten minutes writing about the topic without stopping. Then review your writing to identify possible areas of focus.

Set aside time to conduct preliminary research about your potential topics. Then choose a topic to pursue for your research paper.

Collaboration

Please share your topic list with a classmate. Select one or two topics on his or her list that you would like to learn more about and return it to him or her. Discuss why you found the topics interesting, and learn which of your topics your classmate selected and why.

A Plan for Research

Your freewriting and preliminary research have helped you choose a focused, manageable topic for your research paper. To work with your topic successfully, you will need to determine what exactly you want to learn about it—and later, what you want to say about it. Before you begin conducting in-depth research, you will further define your focus by developing a research question , a working thesis, and a research proposal.

Formulating a Research Question

In forming a research question, you are setting a goal for your research. Your main research question should be substantial enough to form the guiding principle of your paper—but focused enough to guide your research. A strong research question requires you not only to find information but also to put together different pieces of information, interpret and analyze them, and figure out what you think. As you consider potential research questions, ask yourself whether they would be too hard or too easy to answer.

To determine your research question, review the freewriting you completed earlier. Skim through books, articles, and websites and list the questions you have. (You may wish to use the 5WH strategy to help you formulate questions. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information about 5WH questions.) Include simple, factual questions and more complex questions that would require analysis and interpretation. Determine your main question—the primary focus of your paper—and several subquestions that you will need to research to answer your main question.

Here are the research questions Jorge will use to focus his research. Notice that his main research question has no obvious, straightforward answer. Jorge will need to research his subquestions, which address narrower topics, to answer his main question.

Using the topic you selected in Note 11.24 “Exercise 2” , write your main research question and at least four to five subquestions. Check that your main research question is appropriately complex for your assignment.

Constructing a Working ThesIs

A working thesis concisely states a writer’s initial answer to the main research question. It does not merely state a fact or present a subjective opinion. Instead, it expresses a debatable idea or claim that you hope to prove through additional research. Your working thesis is called a working thesis for a reason—it is subject to change. As you learn more about your topic, you may change your thinking in light of your research findings. Let your working thesis serve as a guide to your research, but do not be afraid to modify it based on what you learn.

Jorge began his research with a strong point of view based on his preliminary writing and research. Read his working thesis statement, which presents the point he will argue. Notice how it states Jorge’s tentative answer to his research question.

One way to determine your working thesis is to consider how you would complete sentences such as I believe or My opinion is . However, keep in mind that academic writing generally does not use first-person pronouns. These statements are useful starting points, but formal research papers use an objective voice.

Write a working thesis statement that presents your preliminary answer to the research question you wrote in Note 11.27 “Exercise 3” . Check that your working thesis statement presents an idea or claim that could be supported or refuted by evidence from research.

Creating a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief document—no more than one typed page—that summarizes the preliminary work you have completed. Your purpose in writing it is to formalize your plan for research and present it to your instructor for feedback. In your research proposal, you will present your main research question, related subquestions, and working thesis. You will also briefly discuss the value of researching this topic and indicate how you plan to gather information.

When Jorge began drafting his research proposal, he realized that he had already created most of the pieces he needed. However, he knew he also had to explain how his research would be relevant to other future health care professionals. In addition, he wanted to form a general plan for doing the research and identifying potentially useful sources. Read Jorge’s research proposal.

Before you begin a new project at work, you may have to develop a project summary document that states the purpose of the project, explains why it would be a wise use of company resources, and briefly outlines the steps involved in completing the project. This type of document is similar to a research proposal. Both documents define and limit a project, explain its value, discuss how to proceed, and identify what resources you will use.

Writing Your Own Research Proposal

Now you may write your own research proposal, if you have not done so already. Follow the guidelines provided in this lesson.

Key Takeaways

• Developing a research proposal involves the following preliminary steps: identifying potential ideas, choosing ideas to explore further, choosing and narrowing a topic, formulating a research question, and developing a working thesis.
• A good topic for a research paper interests the writer and fulfills the requirements of the assignment.
• Defining and narrowing a topic helps writers conduct focused, in-depth research.
• Writers conduct preliminary research to identify possible topics and research questions and to develop a working thesis.
• A good research question interests readers, is neither too broad nor too narrow, and has no obvious answer.
• A good working thesis expresses a debatable idea or claim that can be supported with evidence from research.
• Writers create a research proposal to present their topic, main research question, subquestions, and working thesis to an instructor for approval or feedback.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• Undergraduate courses
• Postgraduate courses
• Foundation courses
• Apprenticeships
• Part-time and short courses
• Apply undergraduate
• Apply postgraduate

Search for a course

Search by course name, subject, and more

• Undergraduate
• Postgraduate
• (suspended) - Available in Clearing Not available in Clearing location-sign UCAS

Fees and funding

• Tuition fees
• Scholarships
• Funding your studies
• Student finance
• Cost of living support

Why study at Kent

Student life.

• Careers and employability
• Student support and wellbeing
• Our locations
• Placements and internships
• Year abroad
• Student stories
• Schools and colleges
• International
• International students
• Your country
• Applicant FAQs
• International scholarships
• University of Kent International College
• Campus Tours
• Applicant Events
• Postgraduate events
• Maps and directions
• Research strengths
• Research centres
• Research impact

Research institutes

• Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology
• Institute of Cyber Security for Society
• Institute of Cultural and Creative Industries
• Institute of Health, Social Care and Wellbeing

Research students

• Graduate and Researcher College
• Research degrees
• Find a supervisor
• How to apply

Popular searches

• Visits and Open Days
• Jobs and vacancies
• Accommodation
• Student guide
• Library and IT
• Partner with us
• Student Guide
• Student Help
• Health & wellbeing
• Student voice
• Living at Kent
• Careers & volunteering
• Diversity at Kent
• Finance & funding
• Life after graduation

Research projects & dissertations

Managing a research project.

The following guide has been created for you by the  Student Learning Advisory Service . For more detailed guidance and to speak to one of our advisers, please book an  appointment  or join one of our  workshops . Alternatively, have a look at our  SkillBuilder  skills videos.   

The stages of a research project

The basic stages involved in undertaking a university research project are as follows:

1. Choose your research area

Usually, it is best choose an area that you have already studied or are studying within your academic field. Not only will this help you identify potential research, but you can be confident in finding a suitable supervisor and reliable sources within the university. Choosing an area that you also find particularly interesting will help sustain your engagement. 

2. Conduct preliminary research (scope out the topic)

Survey current research surrounding your chosen subject area. Reflect on it carefully, and take advice from academic staff to establish what has already been written on your chosen subject area. This will enable you to identify what you can do that has not been done before.

3. Decide your research topic

Clearly define and delineate your research topic. The more clearly you do so the more confidence and clarity you will have in what you are trying to achieve, and the easier it will be for you to monitor your progress. If you’re uncertain what you’re trying to achieve, how will you know whether you’re on course or not?

At this stage you might also formulate a provisional research question – that is, the question your research will answer:

Research topic: Investigate ‘A’ and ‘B’ to see if/how they interrelate.

Research Question: ‘To what extent is A caused by B?’

4. Decide your methodology

As you are deciding your topic, you should be investigating and considering your research methodology – how you will conduct your research. Is it going to be experimental, observational, theoretical, textual, qualitative, quantitative? Will it involve human subjects? Are there ethical considerations – specific protocols, procedures or approaches to follow? Think about the research method you have chosen; what advantages does it give? What insights might it yield? What difficulties might it pose? How has it been used before in your field of study?

5. Submit/present your research proposal for approval

Most schools have a formal deadline for receiving research proposals/dissertation plans, and a formal approval process. In some cases this is an assessment stage – so make sure you know exactly what you need to submit, and when, in order to progress with your project. Your school will have given you guidance about what your proposal should include. Generally, the common elements are:

• Your main research question/problem/title
• Questions or concerns that will help you solve your main research problem
• A brief literature review or list of key texts/sources
• An overview of your methodology
• A timeline showing your main research project tasks

6. Finalise your topic and methodology

You may need to revise your research plan in the light of feedback you receive during the approval process. Many students are overambitious in their aims; academic staff have a much clearer idea of what is achievable and necessary in terms of a successful research project, so be guided by their advice. You may also need to modify your methodology in the light of your initial research, or a pilot study. It may be necessary, for example, to alter a questionnaire that isn’t generating the data you were expecting.

7. Conduct your research (fieldwork)

This might take place in a laboratory, in a library or archive, at a computer, on the streets or in a field. Whatever the location, this is the practical activity of collecting raw information or data. Be aware that what you think you are going to find out, and what you actually do find out, can often be very different, so be prepared to alter your research aims/question accordingly.

8. Analysis/data processing

Whatever your research topic, you will need to analyse and process the information you have collected in order to make sense of it. This might involve statistical analysis, generating graphs, charts or tables, organising information into categories, or critical appraisal of texts or events. As well as finding out something, you need to understand what it means within your academic field.

9. Writing up

This is the process of producing the written document – your dissertation or thesis – upon which your research project will be assessed. Allow enough time to improve and revise your work through a series of drafts, and to edit and proof-read the final document – including ensuring that any graphs/images referred to in the text are properly numbered and labelled, and that your referencing is error-free – before formatting and binding the finished document. Do not underestimate how long the writing up process will take.

10. Submission

All academic research projects are time constrained, so you will have a specific deadline for submitting your work. With longer research projects, you will also have intermediate deadlines (e.g. progress/upgrade boards). Consequently, you will need to time-manage each stage of your work to ensure that you complete the overall project on time.

Project managing your research

Any complex project involving multiple activities and deadlines requires some form of management. Using simple project management techniques will allow you to keep control of your research project – to schedule your work more effectively, to identify how much time you have to spend on each stage, to create intermediate milestones that will tell you if you’re on schedule or not (and allow you to respond accordingly) and give you a clear overview of your progress.

One simple but highly effective technique is to produce a Gantt chart. This provides you with a clear visual plan of your research project, based on scheduling the different stages involved against a time base. The example below (Figure 1) is based on the ten basic research project stages, scheduled against two (hypothetical) formal deadlines – submission of the proposal in week 10 and submission of the finished dissertation in week 24:  

Figure 1: Simple research project Gantt chart    

This example is typical of an undergraduate or taught Masters’ dissertation. Longer research projects (PhD, Masters by research, etc.) will generally have more activities spread over a longer timeframe (See below, Figure 2, for an example of a project plan for a humanities PhD).  

Figure 2: Humanities PhD example Gantt chart

In project management, the scheduling of individual activities is always worked backwards from the deadline. Thus, the amount of time that you have to complete each task is a function of the overall project schedule. As shown above, some tasks have to be carried out consecutively (i.e., you can’t start the next task until you’ve completed the previous one), but other tasks can be carried out at the same time, or started before the previous task has been completed, (e.g. you might be able to start analysing your data whilst you’re still collecting it). What you also need to bear in mind with undergraduate dissertations is that your research project constitutes only one part (25%) of your academic activities, and that you’ll be working on other assignments, reading, exam revision, etc, at the same time. As such, it is important that you make full use of the available time period and balance your priorities accordingly.

Tip: With longer-term projects such as these, it can be difficult to stay focused and motivated. Try to dedicate some time to your project every day/week (depending on your other academic commitments) and break your tasks down into smaller chunks so that they are more manageable. The Pomodoro technique can also be helpful for generating small bursts of concentration. If you are struggling, maybe read an article on your topic to remind yourself of your interest in the area, or talk to fellow students or your supervisor(s).    

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• For authors
• New editors
• BMJ Journals More You are viewing from: Google Indexer

You are here

• Volume 34, Issue 1
• Stages in the development of a research project: putting the idea together
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• Roger G Eston ,
• Ann V Rowlands
• School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor LL57 2EN, Wales, United Kingdom
• Correspondence to: Dr R G Eston.

https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.34.1.59

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the process and stages involved in developing a research idea from its inception to realisation. It is not designed to be an all encompassing summary of the research process. It fprovides a brief guide to the most common sequence of stages involved in the development of a research idea into a viable research proposal. Useful references for further reading on important issues that are beyond the scope of this article are also provided.

Familiarity with the topic

Reviewing the literature.

Most literature searches begin with one of the many electronic databases available, using the author's name or a combination of carefully selected keywords. Individual databases are limited as to which journals are listed. Within sports and exercise science, Sports Discus and Medline are widely used. To avoid missing pertinent articles, it is suggested that a number of electronic databases are searched. Medline covers biomedically orientated journals, Sports Discus covers sport and exercise orientated sources, and the Science Citation Index covers scientific articles in general. In addition, the National Sports Medicine Institute has recently released the Sports Medicine and Related Topics (SMART) database of journal articles, which covers all aspects of sports and exercise science and medicine from 1985. Addresses for these databases on the internet are: for Medline, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/medline.html; for the Science Citation Index (United Kingdom higher education institutions only), http://www.bids.ac.uk/; for SMART, http://smart.nsmi.org.uk .

Most universities offering courses in sports and exercise science courses have access to Sports Discus available on a centrally accessed CD-ROM. Further relevant papers may be obtained by studying their reference lists. Papers that provide a critical review of the topic are also very useful. Many journals such as Sports Medicine specialise in reviews, although these can also be found in other mainstream journals such as the British Journal of Sports Medicine, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , and Journal of Sports Sciences . If the library does not hold a particular journal, it should be possible to obtain issues through the university's interlibrary loan service, although this is expensive and may limit the number of papers obtained.

When writing a review paper or conducting a more sophisticated empirically based review, such as a meta-analysis, it is important to endeavour to obtain all papers asking a given research question, 2 whether they are published or not. Although this may not be practically possible, the researcher should be careful not to select only those papers that are easiest to obtain as this may bias the review. Hence, further steps should be taken to obtain more elusive papers and/or obtain a random selection of relevant papers. Rosenthal 3 has written a comprehensive paper on bibliographic retrieval for researchers wishing to conduct a meta-analysis.

The research hypothesis and rationale

The typical empirical journal article and research proposal commences with a brief literature review to provide the background and rationale for the research. Questions that remain unanswered, or findings that need clarifying, are often highlighted here. This leads into explicit statements about the importance and necessity of the planned research.

Once the research problem has been stated, the hypothesis is normally presented. 4 However, often, hypotheses are not stated in research papers, primarily because of authors' assumptions that the reader can implicitly determine the hypotheses being tested from the description of the purpose or statement of the problem, which is most commonly stated at the end of the introduction. 1

The expected results form the research hypothesis. For example, it may be hypothesised that the mean cholesterol levels of trained men are lower than those of sedentary men. This is a research hypothesis, as it states what the results are expected to be. Conversely, the null hypothesis often states what the researcher does not expect to be the case. Its purpose is for use in the statistical test of reliability of results. It usually, although not always, 1 states that there are no differences between treatments, or that there is no relation between variables. 4 For example, the null hypothesis for the above study may state that there is no difference between the mean cholesterol levels of trained and sedentary men. If the null hypothesis were true, any observed differences would be due to chance alone, and the statistically non-significant differences that existed in the sample would not be inferred to exist in the population. Huck and Cormier 1 (chapters 7 and 8) give a detailed description of the different forms of hypotheses and the stages of hypothesis testing.

The design of the study

A study should be designed to answer the research question being asked. A thorough evaluation of the literature can help the researcher avoid repeating design mistakes that have been made in the past. Theoretically, research studies should become better and better with time as past mistakes are rectified and studies become more and more robust. However, this is generally not the case as in reality each study is a new and novel endeavour. 5

TYPES OF STUDY

As in medical research, broadly speaking the types of study used in sports science research can be split into two groups: observational and experimental. 5

Observational design

In observational studies, the participants receive no treatment or experimental manipulation. As the name suggests, the variables of interest are recorded from the participant with no attempt to influence the variables in any way. This is a descriptive study. In observational studies, the researcher analyses the data with the aim of determining differences or relations between variables and reasons why they do or do not exist. In experimental studies, the effect of treatment or manipulation of the independent variable is examined. 5 Examples of observational studies include those that have recorded skinfold levels and other estimates of body fat, 6– 9 or the measurement of body fat and physical activity in children to assess whether there is a relation between the two. 10, 11 In the latter examples, if the participants had received an aerobic training programme to assess the effects on body fat, the independent variable in the study would have been directly manipulated and the study would be experimental in nature. 12

Experimental design

If the study has an experimental design—that is, one of the independent variables is to be manipulated, it is important to be sure that any observed changes in the dependent variable—for example, power output—are due to the experimental treatment—for example, creatine ingestion—and not due to chance, growth, learning, or other extraneous factors. For example, in a study to investigate the effects of creatine supplementation on maximal anaerobic capacity—for example, that of Worth et al 13 —a control group was necessary to separate the treatment effect from any other causes that may have improved performance. A placebo group was also included in the above study to determine whether any improvement in performance was due to the creatine supplementation or to a psychological effect. 4

There are situations in which the inclusion of a placebo is not possible. For example, in studies in which the treatment is obvious to the participant (and the investigator). An example of this is a study to examine the effects of cryotherapy on exercise induced muscle damage and the soreness that accompanies it—for example, the study of Eston and Peters. 14 In this study, the control group had no treatment for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness, while the treatment group received cryotherapy by immersing the damaged arm in cool water for a limited period of time on several occasions after the eccentric exercise bout. It was not possible to have a placebo group in this study because it would be very clear to the participants what treatment they were receiving.

Repeated measures and independent groups design

Experimental studies can be conducted using separate groups for treatment, control, and placebo conditions (independent groups design) or by using the same group for all conditions (repeated measures design). The option chosen depends on the design of the experiment. There are advantages and disadvantages to each method.

REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN

In a repeated measures design, the same group is tested under all conditions. The experiment is more powerful, as the within group variability due to individual differences is removed 15 and thus the number of participants (n) in each condition can be smaller than if separate groups are required for each condition. However, the commitment required from each participant is greater. In addition, there may need to be a large gap between conditions because there may be long lasting effects that may remain during the subsequent condition. For example, if the treatment is a drug, it may remain in the participant's system after the drug course has finished. It is important that the drug is completely flushed out from the system or it may affect the results from the control or placebo condition. An example of this type of study is that of Head et al . 16 In this study, all participants received two types of β-blockers and a placebo for five days in a double blind randomised cross over design. A minimum of two days was allowed for wash out.

For many studies a repeated measures design is the best tool for tackling the research question. In a study of this nature, in which the same group of participants are exposed to several conditions, it is essential that the order in which they are exposed to the conditions is randomised. 4 This helps control for any learning effect or acclimatisation related to the testing procedure. For example, when the effects of practice in using ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) to regulate exercise intensity were assessed, healthy 17 and blind participants 18 performed bouts of exercise at randomised RPEs.

INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN

If two or more independent groups are used in a study, the groups should be similar except for the factor that is being investigated. For example, if the treatment group is comprised of young men, the control group should also consist of young men, not older men or young women. Ideally the participants should only differ with respect to the variable of interest. The method of allocating participants to groups must not be affected by the characteristics of the participants, therefore each participant should have an equal chance of being in any group. Bland 5 (chapter 2) describes various methods of randomly allocating participants to groups. There are numerous examples of random assignment of participants to independent groups—for example, Doyle and Parfitt 19 and Ehrlich and Haber. 20

The equivalence of the groups with respect to various measures can be checked before treatment by simple independent groups t tests or, in the case of more than two groups, by a one way analysis of variance. Provided that there is sufficient power to detect differences that are meaningful, these tests can provide an assurance of the equivalence of the groups. Alternatively, but less commonly, the investigators may adjust the scores after treatment on the basis of differences in the groups' scores before the test by using analysis of covariance procedures—for example, the study of Eston et al . 21 In this study, scores on muscle strength after treatment were adjusted for each group using the score obtained before the test as the covariate. 22 This reduced the possibility of the scores obtained after treatment being influenced by initial group differences.

When independent groups are used, the commitment required from the participant is less. Normally, he/she will experience the procedure only once. The time taken is therefore less, as all groups may be studied simultaneously. However, the design is less powerful, as the within group variability is greater because of individual differences between groups. 15 This implies that more participants per group are necessary (in comparison with a repeated measures design) for the design to have sufficient power.

MIXED MODEL DESIGN

Perhaps the most commonly used experimental design in sports and exercise science research is the mixed model analysis of variance. This contains at least one repeated measures factor and one independent groups factor. A typical example of this would be an experimental study that compares effects before and after treatment. For example, the effects of aerobics training on peak oxygen uptake and submaximal heart rate measures in girls, 23 or the effects of a prophylactic anti-inflammatory drug on muscle soreness after strenuous eccentric exercise—for example, the study of Semark et al . 24 In both of these studies, the participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group. In the latter study, the control group received a placebo. There are many other examples of the mixed model type of study.

Blind/double blind studies

In a single blind study, participants do not know whether they are receiving the placebo or the experimental treatment. A double blind study is when the tester also does not know what treatment the participant is receiving. This strengthens the design as it also reduces the tester's potential influence on the participants' results. Hence, neither the participant's nor the tester's expectations of the effects of the treatment should affect the outcome of the study. This is obviously important in studies to determine the effects of orally administered substances on performance, such as in the study by Head et al , 16 which assessed the effects of two different types of β-blocker on exercise metabolism, or in studies to assess the effects of oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity. 13

Power of the study

There is increasing criticism about the lack of statistical power of papers published in sports and exercise science and psychology journals. 25 – 27 Statistical power refers to the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis—that is, the probability that the study will lead to significant results. 26 If the null hypothesis is false but not rejected, a type 2 error is incurred. Cohen 26 suggested that a power of 0.80 is adequate when an alpha is set at 0.05—that is, the risk of type 1 error, which is rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true, is 0.05. This means that the risk of a type 2 error is 0.20.

An important consideration in relation to the statistical power of the study is the magnitude of the relation or treatment effect. This is known as the effect size. When calculated a priori, this quantifies the degree to which the investigator believes the null hypothesis to be false. 26 Each statistical test has an effect size index, which ranges from zero upwards and is scale free. 26 For example, the effect size index for a correlation is simply r ; no conversion is necessary. For assessment of the difference between two sample means, Cohen's d , Hedges g , or Glass's Δ can be used. These divide the difference between two means by a standard deviation (see Rosenthal, 28 p 35). Formulae are available for converting other test statistics—for example, t test, one way analysis of variance, and χ 2 results—into effect size indexes (see Rosenthal, 28 p 19).

To evaluate an effect size, some idea of its scale is needed. 26 Effect sizes are often described as small, medium, and large. Correlations ( r ) equalling 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 and Cohen's d equalling 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 equate to small, medium, and large effect sizes respectively. A table detailing the magnitude of other effect size indexes equal to small, medium, and large effect sizes is presented in Cohen. 26 The smaller the expected effect size, the larger the sample size necessary if the study is to have sufficient power to detect that effect size.

An example of a study in which the effect size may be medium, could be one to assess the effects of habitual physical activity on body fat in children—for example, that of Rowlands et al . 10 In this study, there was a moderate correlation between habitual physical activity and body fat, corresponding to a medium effect size. A large effect size may be expected in a study to assess the effects of a very low energy diet on body fat in overweight women; an example is the study of Eston et al . 29 In this study, a greatly reduced energy intake (daily intake 1695 kJ a day for six weeks) resulted in a substantial decrease in total body mass and percentage body fat.

The effect size should be estimated during the design stage of a study. This allows the determination of the sample size required to give adequate power for a given alpha. Hence, the study can be designed to ensure it has sufficient power to detect the effect of interest—that is, minimising type 2 error. A simple table detailing sample sizes necessary to detect small, medium, and large effect sizes, with a power of 0.80 and an alpha of 0.05, is presented in Cohen. 26 This table covers eight statistical tests including the difference between independent means, product-moment correlation, χ 2 , and one way analysis of variance. More detailed descriptions of power analysis and methods for determining the sample size necessary in more complex tests can be found in the texts by Cohen 30 and Stevens. 15 Power calculations can also be carried out on interactive sites on the internet—for example, http://members.aol.com/johnp71/javastat.html#Power .

When empirical data are available, this can sometimes be used to estimate the effect size for a study. However, for some research questions it is difficult to find enough information to estimate the expected effect size. Here, the expected effect size may be difficult to calculate because of the limited number of studies that provide empirical information on the topic, or there may be insufficient detail provided in the results of the relevant studies. To enable comparison of effect sizes from studies that differ in sample size, it is recommended that, in addition to reporting the test statistic and p value, the appropriate effect size index is also reported.

A review of 108 articles published in the Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport (AJMS; now The Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport ) in 1996 or 1997 showed that the median power to detect small, medium, and large effect sizes was 0.10, 0.46, and 0.84 respectively. 27 No study had adequate power to detect a small effect size, 38% had adequate power to detect a medium effect size, and 75% had adequate power to detect a large effect size. It is clear that, as recently as two to three years ago, the power of studies was often not being considered at the design stage of a study, if at all.

Ethical considerations

A further consideration in the design of a study involves the ethics of the testing procedures. Some journals will not accept papers unless the study has had ethics approval from a recognised ethics committee. The ethical implications of the study are dependent on the procedures to be undertaken and the nature of the participants. For example, the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) recommend that ethical clearance should be obtained before imposing unusual or severe psychological or physiological stress, administering any ergogenic aid, working with clients with disabilities, or using biopsy or venepuncture techniques. 31 The above list is not complete, and where there is any doubt cases should be looked at individually. Certain procedures that may be approved for adult participants may not be approved for children. Children are recognised as a vulnerable group with a limited comprehension capacity. 32 Consequently, they are unable legally to give consent. However, it is generally accepted that parents/guardians can give parental permission, and children who are old enough can choose whether or not to participate. Rowland 32 (chapter 5) presents a thorough discussion on the ethical aspects of research with children.

Whether the participants are children or not, the relevance of each of the measures or treatments should be considered during the design stage of the research. There should be a clear and justifiable rationale for the necessity of invasive procedures, particularly if there are valid alternative and non-invasive measures available. The frequency of the invasive procedures and the effect this has on the participants should be considered.

A further ethical consideration involves the denial of potentially beneficial treatment. For example, in an experimental design there may be one group of participants who receive the treatment, one group who receive the placebo, and one group who receive the control treatment. Those who receive the placebo will, by definition, think they are receiving the treatment. In this case, both the placebo and control group have been denied the treatment. It is important to consider the ethics of denying these groups the treatment, particularly if the treatment is expected to be beneficial. This does not arise in a repeated measures design as all participants are exposed to all treatments.

A possible solution is to offer all groups the treatment after the study. This would not be possible with some studies—for example, when the purpose of the treatment is to reduce the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness, because the symptoms would have dissipated by the end of the study. However, if the effects of an ergogenic aid were studied, the participants may volunteer because they believe they will have the opportunity to benefit from the ergogenic aid. In this situation it would be possible to offer the aid to all participants after the study. Ethically, this may be preferable to withholding the treatment from two thirds of the volunteers. It may also prevent participants from withdrawing from a study which they consider is providing little or no benefit to them.

This issue becomes increasingly important if the treatment is for a medical condition or for rehabilitation. This is a common scenario in clinical trials. It has been argued that withholding a potentially beneficial treatment from patients is ethically justified, as any biologically active treatment is also potentially harmful. Hence, the benefits need to be conclusively demonstrated in properly controlled trials before general administration. 5 The ethics of withholding treatment clearly depend on the type of treatment and participants involved.

Before a study is embarked on, it is necessary to ensure that the study is viable. This involves making a realistic assessment of the costs, time, and availability of the participants. If there is an application for funding, these details have to be approved by the host institution and the funding body. Costs will be related to the sample size, duration of the study, equipment needed, consumables, research assistants or other staff, travel, conference presentations, and institutional overheads.

tk;3The facilities available for conducting the research also need to be considered. If the study is laboratory based, it may be necessary to book laboratory time relatively early, as many people typically share laboratory facilities. This can only be achieved if a reasonably accurate estimate of the laboratory time needed to conduct the research is known. A pilot study can help answer these questions, identify problems, and prevent or limit methodological faults in the main study. Piloting procedures are an essential part of preparing a study. 4

Most studies within sports science and sports medicine require human participants. It is important to consider how these participants will be obtained and how representative of the relevant population they are. It may be necessary to advertise or send letters to request participation. If this is so, consideration should be given as to where to advertise, or where to obtain addresses of potential participants. For example, an advertisement in a leisure centre is likely to attract a different type of participant from a similar advertisement in a doctors surgery or outpatients clinic. The methods of obtaining participants will be largely determined by the population the sample is supposed to represent. For some studies, it is acceptable to use the most convenient sample of sports and exercise science undergraduates, but this is not appropriate for all proposed research.

Expected outcomes

During the planning stages of the study, the potential benefits should be considered. The expected outcomes are strongly linked with the literature review, hypothesis, and rationale. A useful exercise is to plot a graph of the expected outcomes for each group. This also helps to identify the most appropriate statistical analysis of the prospective data. An assessment of the expected outcomes and the potential value of these outcomes will help show whether or not the study is worth while.

We have considered some of the most important factors involved in designing a viable study that will adequately address the research question. Although we do not profess to be experts in all aspects of the above, we have learned through experience that attention to many of the above points will help to avoid frustration during the experimental process and when the study is presented for external review and subsequent presentation and publication. Good luck in your research.

• ↵ Huck SW, Cormier WH. Reading statistics and research . New York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1996.
• ↵ Rosenthal R. Writing meta-analytic reviews. Psychol Bull 1995 ; 118 : 183 –92. OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science
• ↵ Rosenthal MC. Bibliographic retrieval for the social and behavioural scientist. Research in Higher Education 1985 ; 22 : 315 –33.
• ↵ Thomas JR, Nelson JK. Research methods in physical activity . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1990.
• ↵ Bland M. An introduction to medical statistics , 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Medical Publications, Oxford University Press, 1996.
• ↵ Durnin JVGA, Womersley J. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years. Br J Nutr 1974 ; 32 : 77 –97. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• Jackson AS, Pollock ML. Generalized equations for predicting body density of men. Br J Nutr 1978 ; 40 : 497 –504. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• Eston, RG, Fu F. Fung L. Validity of conventional anthropometric techniques for estimating body composition in Chinese adults. Br J Sports Med 1995 ; 29 : 52 –6. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Eston RG, Evans R, Fu F. Estimation of body composition in Chinese and British males by ultrasonic assessment of segmental adipose tissue volume. Br J Sports Med 1994 ; 28 : 9 –13. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Rowlands AV, Eston RG, Ingledew DK. The relationship between activity levels, body fat and aerobic fitness in 8–10 year old children. J Appl Physiol 1999 ; 86 : 1428 –35. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Taylor W, Baranowski T. Physical activity, cardiovascular fitness and adiposity in children. Res Q Exerc Sport 1991 ; 62 : 157 –63. OpenUrl PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Epstein LH, Wing RR, Koeske R, et al . Comparison of lifestyle change and programmed aerobic exercise on weight and fitness changes in obese children. Behavioural Therapy 1982 ; 13 : 651 –65. OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science
• ↵ Worth SJ, Eston RG, Lemmey AB. Effects of oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity in young trained men and women. J Sports Sci 1999 ; 17 : 565 –6P. OpenUrl
• ↵ Eston RG, Peters D. Effects of cold water immersion on the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. J Sports Sci 1999 ; 17 : 231 –8. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Stevens J. Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences , 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.
• ↵ Head A, Maxwell S, Kendall MJ. Exercise metabolism in healthy volunteers taking celipropol, atenelol and placebo. Br J Sports Med 1997 ; 31 : 120 – 5. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Eston RG, Williams JG. Reliability of ratings of perceived effort for regulation of exercise intensity. Br J Sports Med 1988 ; 22 : 153 –5. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Buckley JP, Eston RG, Sims JW, et al . Reliability of regulating exercise intensity using a braille ratings of perceived exertion scale with blind subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999 ; 31 : S113 . OpenUrl
• ↵ Doyle J, Parfitt G. The effect of induced mood states on performance profile areas of perceived need. J Sports Sci 1999 ; 17 : 115 –27. OpenUrl PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Erhlich D, Haber P. Influence of acupuncture on physical performance capacity and haemodynamic parameters. Int J Sports Med 1992 ; 13 : 486 –91. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Eston RG, Finney S, Baltzopoulos V, et al . Muscle soreness and strength loss changes after downhill running following a prior bout of isokinetic eccentric exercise. J Sports Sci 1996 ; 14 : 291 –9. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed
• ↵ Vincent WJ. Statistics in kinesiology . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1995:189.
• ↵ Welsman JR, Armstrong N, Withers S. Responses of young girls to two modes of aerobic training. Br J Sports Med 1997 ; 31 : 139 –42. OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text
• ↵ Semark A, Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A, et al . The effect of a prophylactic dose of flurbiprofen on muscle soreness and sprinting performance in trained subjects. J Sports Sci 1999 ; 17 : 197 –203. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Christensen JE, Christensen CE. Statistical power analysis of health, physical education and recreation research. Res Q 1977 ; 48 : 204 –8. OpenUrl PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull 1992 ; 112 : 155 –9. OpenUrl CrossRef PubMed Web of Science
• ↵ Speed HD, Anderson MB. Power, effect size and the misinterpretation of statistical inference in exercise science. 1998 Australian Conference of Science and Medicine in Sport . Bruce, Australia: Sports Medicine Australia, 1998:215P.
• ↵ Rosenthal R. Meta-analytic procedures for social research (revised edition). Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991.
• ↵ Eston RG, Shephard S, Kreitzman S, et al . Effect of very low calorie diet on body composition and exercise response in sedentary women. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992 ; 65 : 452 –8. OpenUrl
• ↵ Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences , 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988.
• ↵ BASES, British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. Code of conduct . Headingley, Leeds: BASES, 1995.
• ↵ Rowland TW. Developmental exercise physiology . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1996.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

Stages in the research process

Stage 1: create ideas, networking and collaboration.

• Find a supervisor
• UC Research Profile
• Research specialties
• R&I Business Development team

Keeping up to date

• Keeping current

Literature review

• Doing a literature review
• Systematic reviews
• Find theses
• UC archives and art collections
• Google Scholar

Developing a research question

• Māori research methodology
• Pasifika research
• Starting your research
• Subject and specialist librarians by subject

Stage 2: Plan and fund

Finding funding.

• Applying for external funding
• Research funding opportunities

Agreements (MOUs, NDAs, IP)

• Research & Innovation (R&I) team

Data management

• Research data management
• Isilon research data storage
• R&I Research Support Programme
• Library research workshops
• Facilities and equipment

Stage 3: Do research

Conduct research.

• SAGE Research Methods
• Statistical resources
• Use Qualtrics for surveys
• Transcription
• UC statistical consulting

Form conclusions

• You're on your own
• Thesis formatting
• Referencing

Stage 4: Publish and share

• Strategic publishing
• Open access
• Prepaid open access agreements
• UC Research Repository
• UC journal publishing

Copyright/rights

Stage 5: make impact.

• Measure impact

Knowledge transfer

Stage 6: manage and preserve, data storage and preservation.

• Intellectual property policy
• Comparing reference software
• Real world research impact

Bibliometrics and altmetrics

• Impact metrics explained

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Pharmacol Pharmacother
• v.4(2); Apr-Jun 2013

The critical steps for successful research: The research proposal and scientific writing: (A report on the pre-conference workshop held in conjunction with the 64 th annual conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012)

Pitchai balakumar.

Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Mohammed Naseeruddin Inamdar

1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA

An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]

The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOP

The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.

The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE KEY TO GETTING STARTED IN RESEARCH

A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.

Fundamentals in the research process

A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.

Research topic

The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]

Elements of a study protocol

Research question

The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.

Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?

A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.

To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.

To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.

The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:

• The hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna is superior to that of Apium graveolens against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]

Relevance of the study

Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.

Biomedical literature

A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]

Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).

Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.

Bibliography management

Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.

Writing experimental protocols

The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.

The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?

In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .

Elements of a research protocol

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].

Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)

Research and publication ethics

The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.

Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SELLING OF FINDINGS

Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.

An overview of paper structure and thesis writing

Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.

The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.

Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.

Language and style in publication

The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.

Working with journals

The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.

Poster and oral presentations at conferences

Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.

Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes

PANEL DISCUSSION: FEEDBACK AND COMMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS

After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.

• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student receive adequate training, either through an institutional course, a workshop of the present nature, or from the guide?
• Are these Post-Graduates self-taught (like most of us who learnt the hard way)?
• How are these guides trained? How do we train them to become more efficient mentors?
• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student struggle to find a method (s) to carry out studies? To what extent do seniors/guides help a post graduate overcome technical difficulties? How difficult is it for a student to find chemicals, reagents, instruments, and technical help in conducting studies?
• Analyses of data and interpretation: Most students struggle without adequate guidance.
• Thesis and publications frequently feature inadequate/incorrect statistical analyses and representation of data in tables/graphs. The student, their guide, and the reviewers all share equal responsibility.
• Who initiates and drafts the research paper? The Post-Graduate or their guide?
• What kind of assistance does a Post-Graduate get from the guide in finalizing a paper for publication?
• Does the guide insist that each Post-Graduate thesis yield at least one paper, and each Ph.D. thesis more than two papers, plus a review article?

The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.

WHAT HAVE THE PARTICIPANTS LEARNED?

At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:

• Sequential steps in developing a study protocol, from choosing a research topic to developing research questions and a hypothesis.
• Study protocols on different topics in their subject of specialization
• Searching and reviewing the literature
• Appropriate statistical analyses in biomedical research
• Scientific ethics in publication
• Writing and understanding the components of a research paper (IMRaD)
• Recognizing the value of good title, running title, abstract, key words, etc
• Importance of Tables and Figures in the Results section, and their importance in describing findings
• Evidence-based Discussion in a research paper
• Language and style in writing a paper and expert tips on getting it published
• Presentation of research findings at a conference (oral and poster).

Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.

The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

• Meta-skills for Graduate Students

Stages of a Research Project

A research project will progress through many stages from its conception through publishing the results. Below is a mostly  ordered list of the stages of an experimental research project in our laboratory. Sometimes these stages will be done in a different orde r, o r they may repeat, or they may blend into one another. Different fields of physics and different types of research (i.e., computational or theoretical) will likely have a different order or  different stages . If you are part of our research group, you can use the outline below to evaluate and plan your projects. 

• Conception/inspiration
• Development/feasibility study
• Literature review
• Simulations
• Experimental design : Outline both the measurements to be done and the equipment that is necessary to do them.
• Experimental setup, calibration, tests, troubleshooting : Construct and arrange the experimental equipment to do the planned measurements. This can take the majority of the time spent on an experiment.
• Preliminary steps
• Preliminary experimental measurements : Figure out how to do the measurements. This may require going back to steps 3 and 4 a few times.
• Preliminary data analysis : Figure out how to analyze the raw data. This may require going back to steps 3 and 4 a few times.
• Preliminary writing, essay-style : Start writing the paper because "writing is thinking". This is a first attempt at explaining the experiment and results. Use it to see what is missing, what additional data to take, and what additional analyses to do. This should continue throughout the rest of the project.
• Pipeline development : This is an outgrowth of the preliminary steps above.
• Experimental pipeline development : We often need to take all our data from one quantum dot (QD), and a given QD can't be easily re-found if the sample is changed. The experimental pipeline is an efficient method to collect all the data in a short amount of time. It takes time and effort to develop the procedures and programs to enable that.
• Raw data analysis pipeline development : To ensure the data being collected is valid, it needs to be analyzed immediately so a human can evaluate it for validity. The analysis pipeline is code that raw data can be put through immediately after collection, and which produces plots and figures that enable human evaluation. Similar to the experimental pipeline, it takes time and effort to develop the analysis method and code for this task.
• Experimental measurements directly into raw data analysis pipeline : This is when the data that will be used in the final analysis is recorded. This setup can take very little time if the experimental and analysis pipelines are well functioning. If the pipelines are not well functioning, then this step might be performed incorrectly and need to be repeated after redevelopment of the pipelines.
• Analysis of processed data : If the preliminary writing and data analysis were done well, then this step can be straightforward. If it is not straightforward, then we may need to return to the preliminary steps again.
• Writing : The order of writing is different from the order of the eventual paper. The order below starts with the easiest parts to write and ends with the hardest.
• Experimental setup/methods : Equipment (figures); kinds of measurements (archetypal examples); data analysis methods. As the graduate student who did the experiment, this section is the easiest to write because you just describe what you did.
• Data presentation/analysis : It is sometimes necessary to present all of the raw data, but sometimes the archetypal examples in the previous section are sufficient.
• Results and discussion : Plots and models of information extracted from raw data. This includes analysis of processed data.
• Conclusions : (Re)State main results and explanation. Describe how this fulfills the knowledge gap (see below) and enables useful and/or interesting things (outlook and future directions).
• Here we show : Summary of experiment. Preview of conclusions.
• Motivation and introduction : Why do this? Why is it interesting/useful? Describe the state of the field. Set up and describe the "gap in knowledge" that your work fills.
• Abstract : ("to draw out from") Take out the most essential parts of the manuscript.
• Reorder sections : The sections above are presented in the final manuscript in a different order than they are written: (1) abstract, (2) motivation and intro, (3) here we show, (4) experimental setup/methods, (5) data presentation and analysis, (6) results and discussion, (7) conclusions.

The Plagiarism Checker Online For Your Academic Work

Start Plagiarism Check

Editing & Proofreading for Your Research Paper

Get it proofread now

Online Printing & Binding with Free Express Delivery

Configure binding now

• Academic essay overview
• The writing process
• Structuring academic essays
• Types of academic essays
• Academic writing overview
• Sentence structure
• Academic writing process
• Improving your academic writing
• Titles and headings
• APA style overview
• APA citation & referencing
• APA structure & sections
• Citation & referencing
• Structure and sections
• APA examples overview
• Commonly used citations
• Other examples
• British English vs. American English
• Chicago style overview
• Chicago citation & referencing
• Chicago structure & sections
• Chicago style examples
• Citing sources overview
• Citation format
• Citation examples
• College essay overview
• Application
• How to write a college essay
• Types of college essays
• Commonly confused words
• Definitions
• Dissertation overview
• Dissertation structure & sections
• Dissertation writing process
• Graduate school overview
• Application & admission
• Study abroad
• Master degree
• Harvard referencing overview
• Language rules overview
• Grammatical rules & structures
• Parts of speech
• Punctuation
• Methodology overview
• Analyzing data
• Experiments
• Observations
• Inductive vs. Deductive
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Types of validity
• Types of reliability
• Sampling methods
• Theories & Concepts
• Types of research studies
• Types of variables
• MLA style overview
• MLA examples
• MLA citation & referencing
• MLA structure & sections
• Plagiarism overview
• Plagiarism checker
• Types of plagiarism
• Printing production overview
• Research bias overview
• Types of research bias
• Example sections
• Types of research papers
• Research process overview
• Problem statement
• Research proposal
• Research topic
• Statistics overview
• Levels of measurment
• Frequency distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Measures of variability
• Hypothesis testing
• Parameters & test statistics
• Types of distributions
• Correlation
• Effect size
• Hypothesis testing assumptions
• Types of ANOVAs
• Types of chi-square
• Statistical data
• Statistical models
• Spelling mistakes
• Tips overview
• Academic writing tips
• Dissertation tips
• Sources tips
• Working with sources overview
• Evaluating sources
• Finding sources
• Including sources
• Types of sources

Your Step to Success

Plagiarism Check within 10min

Printing & Binding with 3D Live Preview

Research Process – The 5 Stages of Your Research

How do you like this article cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Research is the creative and systematic work done to increase knowledge on a particular topic or phenomenon. It involves multiple steps such as defining a research question, conducting a literature review, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions to contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This post discusses the entire research process and everything you should know about it.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Research process – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Research process
• 3 Step 1 of the research process: Choosing a topic
• 4 Step 2 of the research process: Identify a problem
• 5 Step 3 of the research process: Research question
• 6 Step 4 of the research process: Research design
• 7 Step 5 of the research process: Research proposal
• 8 Overview of all research process articles

Research process – In a Nutshell

• The research process involves the critical steps between choosing a topic and presenting it for approval.
• It is the first process of starting a research project.
• The research processes include selecting a topic, problem identification, research question, research design formulation, and writing a proposal.

Definition: Research process

This process involves the steps of conducting research work to get effective or desired results from your project. It entails selecting the topic, conducting problem research, developing a research design, and establishing a proposal.

Step 1 of the research process: Choosing a topic

Choosing a topic for your research is not as easy as you may assume, especially if you have not done it before. For instance, you must become well-versed in the material surrounding the topic, the possible research topics , and if there is room for more knowledge. Furthermore, choosing a topic for your research process may take a while and involve the methods below.

Brainstorming ideas

You can come up with a research topic by brainstorming ideas. For instance, you can find a field of interest or classes where you want to choose your idea. However, you may have already thought of a topic, like when applying to graduate school. However, even with an existing topic idea, you still need to write a statement of purpose. The purpose of brainstorming ideas is to choose a specific topic.

Familiarize yourself with your topic

Once you have landed on the topic you want to write about; the next step is to familiarize yourself with it. You can get a good sense of the chosen topic by reviewing existing literature. While reading about the topic, taking notes, and identifying problem areas, debates, and questions would be wise. This helps you find a specific niche for your research.

Considering the practicalities

The next part of choosing a topic is considering the practicalities. For instance, you should consider the factors below:

• The requirements of your program
• The time you have to conduct the research and submit your report
• The resources you will need to research the particular topic

Step 2 of the research process: Identify a problem

Consider the following elements when identifying a research problem .

Theoretical and practical problems

A well-identified research problem will help the researcher accomplish all the vital phases of the research process, like selecting objectives and research methodology and making your project manageable. There are two types of problems in research: practical and theoretical .

Practical research focuses on processes that are not working properly. Examples of practical research problems are:

• Performance/ productivity issues in an organization
• Processes that need improvement in an institution
• Areas of concern in a field

On the other hand, theoretical research is associated with unexplored phenomena. For example:

• A context that has not been studied closely (like long-term effects of radiation from Wi-Fi)
• A contradiction between various perspectives (like the difference between racism and colorism)
• A correlation that is not well-understood (like the link between Vitamin D deficiency and cardiovascular health)

Writing a problem statement

A problem statement is a precise description of the issues your research project will address. It is crucial for finding and implementing effective solutions in a research project. Additionally, a problem statement helps you contextualize and understand the implication of your research problem. An effective problem statement should:

• Put the problem in context
• Describe the precise problem
• Show the relevance of the problem
• Set objectives

Step 3 of the research process: Research question

A research question aims to help you get perspectives on what you should focus on when conducting research for your project.

A strong research question should be, focused, researchable, feasible, specific, complex, and relevant. Other types of research require a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses before coming up with research questions.

Step 4 of the research process: Research design

A research design is an approach for answering your research questions using empirical data. A research design aims to ensure that our methods match your project’s aims. It also ensures that you use the right methods for data analysis. Creating a research design entails the following steps:

When creating a research design, you must consider primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods. Your choice will influence your entire research design.

Step 5 of the research process: Research proposal

Finally, you must write a research proposal through which you present your objectives, content, and plan. The proposal will demonstrate the relevance of your study and should include a problem statement, research objectives, questions, and methodology.

Additionally, your research proposal needs a literature review section that shows that you have researched and understood your topic. It also shows that you are not repeating what others have said or done.

You must present the research proposal to your professor or instructor for approval before conducting the study.

Overview of all research process articles

• Research question examples
• Problem statement example
• Research problem
• Relevance of research

What are the five stages of the research process?

The five stages are choosing a topic, identifying a problem, formulating a research process, creating a research design, and writing a research proposal.

What is the best way to choose a topic for your research process?

There are many methods for choosing a topic for your research process. The best ones are brainstorming ideas, familiarizing yourself with your topic, and considering the practicalities of your options.

What is the difference between choosing a research topic and identifying a problem?

The difference is that you can choose a topic in a general area while identifying a problem helps you focus your research on a specific subject in your topic.

What is the value of the research process?

The research process helps you get effective results from your project. It also helps you design your project.

We use cookies on our website. Some of them are essential, while others help us to improve this website and your experience.

• External Media

Individual Privacy Preferences

Cookie Details Privacy Policy Imprint

Here you will find an overview of all cookies used. You can give your consent to whole categories or display further information and select certain cookies.

Accept all Save

Essential cookies enable basic functions and are necessary for the proper function of the website.

Show Cookie Information Hide Cookie Information

Statistics cookies collect information anonymously. This information helps us to understand how our visitors use our website.

Content from video platforms and social media platforms is blocked by default. If External Media cookies are accepted, access to those contents no longer requires manual consent.

Privacy Policy Imprint

Understanding the 5 phases of project management

It’s always daunting at the outset of a new project (unless you’re like the Spiderman of project management or something, in which case, good for you — but I’m speaking for the rest of us, Peter Parker). Anyway, the point is, don’t worry so much — with the right tools and processes, you’ll nail this one just like you did the last one (maybe better!). 

To help you gain clarity and control over your project, let’s break down the five phases of project management in a way that’s as easy to follow as your favorite superhero movie. From dreaming up your project (phase one) to crossing the finish line (phase five), let’s see how a project lifecycle works.

What is project management lifecycle?

Project management lifecycle is a framework that outlines the stages or phases through which your project progresses from initiation to completion. Each stage has its unique set of tasks, goals, and objectives.

Now, why is this important? Think, if you would, about building a house. You wouldn’t start by randomly laying bricks, would you? First, you’d design a blueprint to make sure that every room serves its purpose, from the kitchen to the bedroom. The project lifecycle works the same way. It structures your project into manageable stages, ensuring you plan, execute, and review every task with precision.

Related: 4 best practices for collaborative project management

Five phases of project management lifecycle

The five project management phases help you meet the requirements of a project, which includes defining what needs to be done, who needs to do it, and how to keep everything on track.

Let’s take a closer look at each phase.

Phase 1: Project initiation

This phase marks the starting point of your project journey. It’s where you define the project’s objectives, scope, and stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities.

Key activities of the first phase include:

• Project charter: It’s akin to your project’s mission statement, outlining the goals, scope, budget, and timeline. Think of the charter as your north star , guiding the team toward a common destination.
• Stakeholder identification : These are the folks who’ll be directly impacted by your project or have a say in its outcome — whether they’re team members, clients, or sponsors. Getting them on board early on sets the stage for collaboration and support throughout your journey.
• Initial scope of the project : This step clarifies what’s in and what’s out of your project. If you’re building a website, defining the scope involves specifying what features the website will have (like a homepage, contact page, and product listings) and what it won’t have (like a forum or chatroom).

Use visual collaboration software like Mural to make sure your whole project team is on the same page about the expectations. 

• Pro-tip: Mural’s project kickoff template includes a pre-built agenda to help you easily align your team.

Phase 2: Project planning

The planning phase is all about taking the big-picture vision and breaking it down into actionable steps. It involves laying out all the steps and strategies you’ll need for a successful project.

Key activities of the second phase include:

• Resource allocation : Determine what resources — whether it’s people, equipment, or materials — you’ll need to bring your project to life. 
• Scheduling: Create a timeline for your project and map out key milestones, deadlines, and dependencies to make sure everything stays on track.
• Risk identification: List potential risks, assess their likelihood and impact, and develop strategies to address or mitigate them.
• Budget planning: Estimate costs, allocate funds, and establish mechanisms for tracking and managing expenses throughout the project lifecycle.

When it comes to the planning phase of project development, you need effective collaboration for decision-making. That’s where Mural truly shines. 

• Pro-tip: Our project planning template provides a digital workspace to brainstorm ideas and share insights. With features like voting, commenting, and annotations, you can evaluate alternatives, identify trade-offs, and make informed decisions that align with project objectives.

Phase 3: Project execution

The execution phase is where you put your plans into action and make things happen. Think of it like building a LEGO set — you’ve got all the pieces laid out, and now it’s time to start assembling them.

In this phase, you and your team dive into the work, tackling tasks, solving problems, and progressing towards your project goals. 

Key activities of the third phase include:

• Task implementation: Begin executing the tasks outlined in the project plan. This step involves activities such as design, development, testing, and production, depending on the nature of the project.
• Quality assurance: Make sure deliverables meet the standards set out in your project plan. Conduct thorough testing, review work against predefined criteria, and promptly address any discrepancies or defects.
• Change management: Despite your best efforts to plan ahead, changes to project scope, schedule, or resources may occur during execution. You must implement the approved changes while minimizing disruption to the project’s progress.
• Documentation: Use agile documentation to capture information in a lightweight and flexible manner. It includes maintaining user stories, sprint backlogs, and task boards, as well as documenting decisions, agreements, and lessons learned in real time. 

In the execution phase of project management, you can use Mural’s free templates, like a Kanban board or process flowchart , to visualize workflows. By tracking who's doing what and when you easily identify potential bottlenecks in the project.

Phase 4: Project monitoring and controlling

This phase involves tracking, reviewing, and regulating your project to ensure it stays on course and achieves its objectives. Keep a close eye on the project’s progress, including tasks completed, milestones achieved, and resources used.

Key activities of the fourth phase include:

• Scope verification and control: Verify that each deliverable meets the specified requirements and standards. If there are any changes or deviations from the plan, carefully evaluate them to make sure they won’t throw you off track.
• Schedule control: Continuously review the project schedule to ensure tasks get completed on time. If there are delays or schedule changes, you need to reallocate resources or adjust task dependencies to keep things under control.
• Cost control: Money matters! Keep a close eye on your project budget, making sure you're not spending more than you should. If costs start to creep up, figure out ways to rein them in — whether it’s renegotiating contracts, finding cheaper alternatives, or reallocating resources.

Phase 5: Project closing

Congratulations, you’ve made it to the finish line! The closing phase of project management is the point where you formally complete all project activities and tasks.

Key activities of the fifth phase include:

• Handover: If the project involves handing off deliverables to another team or department, provide necessary training or documentation to ensure the new owners can easily take over responsibility for the project.
• Stakeholder feedback : Reach out to your project stakeholders — clients, team members, sponsors — and ask for their honest feedback. What worked well? What could’ve been better? It’s like conducting a post-mortem on your project, learning from your mistakes, and celebrating your successes.
• Resource release: It’s time to say goodbye to your project resources and return them to the organization. This step involves returning equipment, releasing team members to their respective departments, or closing out any contracts or agreements related to project resources. 
• Project review: Finally, use Mural’s retrospective template to conduct a comprehensive review of the project’s performance, outcomes, and lessons learned. This review includes a formal post-project evaluation, where you assess the project against its initial objectives and identify areas for improvement.

Optimize and visualize the phases of project management with Mural

From initiation to closing, Mural empowers you to collaborate and succeed — all in one virtual workspace. With Mural’s free templates , you optimize and visualize all five phases of the project management journey seamlessly. 

From creating interactive team charters in project initiation to mapping out product roadmaps in project planning, Mural serves as your virtual command center. During the project execution phase, Mural helps you visualize workflows for quick decision-making. With customizable dashboards and metrics tracking, you get effective project monitoring and control. And in the project closing phase, you're able to analyze project metrics, document lessons learned, and more. 

Sign up for free today to experience the power of visual collaboration firsthand.

About the authors

Bryan Kitch

Tagged Topics

Related blog posts

What is Agile project management?

How to plan & lead a project kickoff meeting

The best use cases of AI in project management

Related blog posts.

What is remote collaboration & how to make it work for your team

Don't do this when using a flowchart builder

How Mural links design thinking and Agile

Enter your search term

*Limited to most recent 250 articles Use advanced search to set an earlier date range

Sponsored by   

Saving articles

Articles can be saved for quick future reference. This is a subscriber benefit. If you are already a subscriber, please log in to save this article. If you are not a subscriber, click on the View Subscription Options button to subscribe.

Article Saved

Contact us at [email protected]

Forgot Password

Please enter the email address that you used to subscribe on Engineering News. Your password will be sent to this address.

Content Restricted

This content is only available to subscribers

REAL ECONOMY NEWS

sponsored by  

• LATEST NEWS
• LOADSHEDDING
• MULTIMEDIA LATEST VIDEOS REAL ECONOMY REPORTS SECOND TAKE AUDIO ARTICLES CREAMER MEDIA ON SAFM WEBINARS YOUTUBE
• SECTORS AGRICULTURE AUTOMOTIVE CHEMICALS CONSTRUCTION DEFENCE & AEROSPACE ECONOMY ELECTRICITY ENERGY ENVIRONMENTAL MANUFACTURING METALS MINING RENEWABLE ENERGY SERVICES TECHNOLOGY & COMMUNICATIONS TRADE TRANSPORT & LOGISTICS WATER
• SPONSORED POSTS
• ANNOUNCEMENTS
• BUSINESS THOUGHT LEADERSHIP
• MINING WEEKLY
• SHOWROOM PLUS
• PRODUCT PORTAL
• MADE IN SOUTH AFRICA
• PRESS OFFICE
• WEBINAR RECORDINGS
• COMPANY PROFILES
• VIRTUAL SHOWROOMS
• CREAMER MEDIA
• BACK COPIES
• BUSINESS LEADER
• SUPPLEMENTS
• FEATURES LIBRARY
• RESEARCH REPORTS
• PROJECT BROWSER

Article Enquiry

Research project launched into telemedicine and HIV/Aids management in South Africa

Email This Article

separate emails by commas, maximum limit of 4 addresses

A pharmacist dispensing HIV/Aids medication

Photo by Reuters

As a magazine-and-online subscriber to Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly , you are entitled to one free research report of your choice . You would have received a promotional code at the time of your subscription. Have this code ready and click here . At the time of check-out, please enter your promotional code to download your free report. Email [email protected] if you have forgotten your promotional code. If you have previously accessed your free report, you can purchase additional Research Reports by clicking on the “Buy Report” button on this page. The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link .

The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link . For a full list of Research Channel Africa benefits, click here

If you are not a subscriber, you can either buy the individual research report by clicking on the ‘Buy Report’ button, or you can subscribe and, not only gain access to your one free report, but also enjoy all other subscriber benefits , including 1) an electronic archive of back issues of the weekly news magazine; 2) access to an industrial and mining projects browser; 3) access to a database of published articles; and 4) the ability to save articles for future reference. At the time of your subscription, Creamer Media’s subscriptions department will be in contact with you to ensure that you receive a copy of your preferred Research Report. The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link .

If you are a Creamer Media subscriber, click here to log in.

30th May 2024

By: Rebecca Campbell

Creamer Media Senior Deputy Editor

Font size: - +

How effective is telemedicine as a differentiated service delivery model for the prevention of HIV/Aids in South Africa? This is the question to be addressed by a PhD researcher at Stellenbosch University’s Africa Centre for HIV/Aids Management, Rudi de Koker .

“Globally, there is a goal of ‘ending’ HIV/Aids by 2030,” he points out to Engineering News . “This will need the use of different service delivery models. One of these could be telemedicine. Frankly, our expectation is that telemedicine will indeed be valuable, but could it do more? How big a role could it, should it, play?”

Telemedicine – virtual consultations – has only been formalised in South Africa in recent years, having only been authorised by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) as an extraordinary measure required to address the Covid-19 pandemic. Officially, in South Africa, telemedicine is still only a temporary emergency measure.

Even under the impact of Covid, the HPCSA only authorised telemedicine for use in situations in which there was already an existing relationship between the patient and the healthcare provider. “Other than this, no single framework exists for the use of telemedicine in South Africa,” he notes. “If this research shows telemedicine is effective in this country, then we have the basis to justify the development of a national telemedicine framework, including a White Paper.”

Given that he is also project manager at Digital Health Cape Town (DHCT), De Koker’s interest in the topic is unsurprising. DHCT has developed and manages the HIV Clinicians Expert Telemedicine Platform, which is the largest HIV telemedicine platform in South Africa, covering the entire country (and not just Cape Town). Currently, the platform embraces 397 active trained pharmacists and 88 active trained nurses.

“The key research point, with regard to South Africa, is the use of telemedicine for virtual consultations to create access to treatment,” he stresses. “Also, because of the disparity between urban and rural areas in South Africa, I’d like to see how telemedicine can be utilised to link health seekers in rural areas closer to healthcare services. That’s my personal ambition.”

The research project should be completed by the end of 2026.     

Edited by Creamer Media Reporter

Research Reports

Latest Multimedia

Latest News

Booyco Electronics, South African pioneer of Proximity Detection Systems, offers safety solutions for underground and surface mining, quarrying,...

AxFlow AQS Liquid Transfer (Pty) Ltd is an Importer and Distributor of Pumps in Southern Africa

sponsored by

Press Office

Announcements

Subscribe to improve your user experience...

Option 1 (equivalent of R125 a month):

Receive a weekly copy of Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly magazine (print copy for those in South Africa and e-magazine for those outside of South Africa) Receive daily email newsletters Access to full search results Access archive of magazine back copies Access to Projects in Progress Access to ONE Research Report of your choice in PDF format

Option 2 (equivalent of R375 a month):

All benefits from Option 1 PLUS Access to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa for ALL Research Reports, in PDF format, on various industrial and mining sectors including Electricity; Water; Energy Transition; Hydrogen; Roads, Rail and Ports; Coal; Gold; Platinum; Battery Metals; etc.

Already a subscriber?

Forgotten your password?

MAGAZINE & ONLINE

R1500 (equivalent of R125 a month)

Receive weekly copy of Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly magazine (print copy for those in South Africa and e-magazine for those outside of South Africa)

Access to full search results

Access archive of magazine back copies

Access to Projects in Progress

Access to ONE Research Report of your choice in PDF format

RESEARCH CHANNEL AFRICA

R4500 (equivalent of R375 a month)

All benefits from Option 1

Electricity

Energy Transition

Roads, Rail and Ports

Battery Metals

CORPORATE PACKAGES

Discounted prices based on volume

Receive all benefits from Option 1 or Option 2 delivered to numerous people at your company

Intranet integration access to all in your organisation

Enter your search term

*Limited to most recent 250 articles Use advanced search to set an earlier date range

Sponsored by   

Saving articles

Articles can be saved for quick future reference. This is a subscriber benefit. If you are already a subscriber, please log in to save this article. If you are not a subscriber, click on the View Subscription Options button to subscribe.

Article Saved

Contact us at [email protected]

Forgot Password

Please enter the email address that you used to subscribe on Engineering News. Your password will be sent to this address.

Content Restricted

This content is only available to subscribers

Set Default Regional Edition

Select your default regional edition of MiningWeekly.com

Note: When you select a default region you will be directed to the MiningWeekly.com home page of your choice whenever you visit miningweekly.com. This setting is controlled by cookies and should your cookies be re-set you will then be directed to the regional edition associated with the geographic location of our IP address. Should your cookies be reset then you may again use the menu to select a default region.

sponsored by  

• LATEST NEWS
• LOADSHEDDING
• MULTIMEDIA LATEST VIDEOS RESOURCES WATCH SECOND TAKE AUDIO ARTICLES CREAMER MEDIA ON SAFM WEBINARS YOUTUBE
• SECTORS BASE METALS CHEMICALS COAL CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY CRITICAL MINERALS DIAMONDS DIVERSIFIED MINERS ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION FERROUS METALS FLUORSPAR GEMSTONES GOLD GRAPHITE HEALTH & SAFETY HYDROGEN LEGISLATIVE ENVIRONMENT LITHIUM MINERAL SANDS MINING SERVICES OIL & GAS PLATINUM GROUP METALS POTASH & PHOSPHATES PROJECT MANAGEMENT RARE-EARTH MINERALS SILVER URANIUM VANADIUM
• WORLD NEWS AFRICA ASIA AUSTRALASIA EUROPE MIDDLE EAST NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA
• SPONSORED POSTS
• ANNOUNCEMENTS
• BUSINESS THOUGHT LEADERSHIP
• ENGINEERING NEWS
• SHOWROOM PLUS
• PRODUCT PORTAL
• MADE IN SOUTH AFRICA
• PRESS OFFICE
• WEBINAR RECORDINGS
• COMPANY PROFILES
• ELECTRA MINING
• MINING INDABA
• VIRTUAL SHOWROOMS
• CREAMER MEDIA
• MINE PROFILES
• BACK COPIES
• BUSINESS LEADER
• SUPPLEMENTS
• FEATURES LIBRARY
• RESEARCH REPORTS
• PROJECT BROWSER

Article Enquiry

Blencowe continues to advance graphite prequalification work, expects offtake agreements soon

Email This Article

separate emails by commas, maximum limit of 4 addresses

As a magazine-and-online subscriber to Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly , you are entitled to one free research report of your choice . You would have received a promotional code at the time of your subscription. Have this code ready and click here . At the time of check-out, please enter your promotional code to download your free report. Email [email protected] if you have forgotten your promotional code. If you have previously accessed your free report, you can purchase additional Research Reports by clicking on the “Buy Report” button on this page. The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link .

The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link . For a full list of Research Channel Africa benefits, click here

If you are not a subscriber, you can either buy the individual research report by clicking on the ‘Buy Report’ button, or you can subscribe and, not only gain access to your one free report, but also enjoy all other subscriber benefits , including 1) an electronic archive of back issues of the weekly news magazine; 2) access to an industrial and mining projects browser; 3) access to a database of published articles; and 4) the ability to save articles for future reference. At the time of your subscription, Creamer Media’s subscriptions department will be in contact with you to ensure that you receive a copy of your preferred Research Report. The most cost-effective way to access all our Research Reports is by subscribing to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa - you can upgrade your subscription now at this link .

If you are a Creamer Media subscriber, click here to log in.

28th May 2024

By: Marleny Arnoldi

Deputy Editor Online

Font size: - +

As London-listed Blencowe Resources advances the definitive feasibility stage of the Orom-Cross graphite project, in Uganda, towards production near the end of 2025, the company has had various fruitful engagements with offtakers.

From only 2% of its total tenement area, the Orom-Cross project has a 24.5-million-tonne indicated and inferred resource grading 6% total graphite. 

Blencowe visited Jilin Huiyang New Material Technology Company in China earlier this month, which is currently processing a 600 t bulk sample of small flake graphite from Orom-Cross.

Blencowe is working on a pilot programme with Jilin to produce commercial-scale processed samples for a range of potential Tier 1 offtakers in China and South Korea that are involved in battery manufacturing.

Blencowe explains that prequalification of product with industry buyers is a crucial step for any serious graphite miner, which Blencowe has been successfully advancing for nearly two years.

In addition to the small flake graphite samples, Blencowe has also received positive feedback on large flake graphite samples from Orom-Cross from other potential offtakers that use larger flake graphite.

The company has also met with various engineering, procurement and construction groups and Chinese strategists to advance Blencowe’s in-country downstream spherical graphite (SPG) processing strategy.

“We believe that adding local Ugandan downstream SPG processing facilities will enable us to capture more of the downstream value chain and significantly enhance Orom-Cross's already compelling economics. This will also substantially differentiate Blencowe from its graphite peers,” says chairperson Cameron Pearce .

In an interview with investor relations platform Focus IR, Blencowe CEO Mike Ralston said what makes graphite unique is that it is not sold onto a metals market or exchange, but directly to end-users, who tend to be very discerning.

Ralston emphasised that the company is not rushed to reach production, rather preparatory works and planning are being approached comprehensively and diligently, particularly since the company aims to produce a high-quality, clean product and be involved in downstream processing on uncoated SPG – a battery-ready product – outside of China.

Blencowe will update the market on the progress of its testwork and interest from offtakers in coming months.  

Edited by Chanel de Bruyn Creamer Media Senior Deputy Editor Online

Research Reports

Latest Multimedia

Latest News

Weir Minerals Europe, Middle East and Africa is a global supplier of excellent minerals solutions, including pumps, valves, hydrocyclones,...

Multotec, recognised industry leaders in metallurgy and process engineering help mining houses across the world process minerals more efficiently,...

sponsored by

Press Office

Announcements

Subscribe to improve your user experience...

Option 1 (equivalent of R125 a month):

Receive a weekly copy of Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly magazine (print copy for those in South Africa and e-magazine for those outside of South Africa) Receive daily email newsletters Access to full search results Access archive of magazine back copies Access to Projects in Progress Access to ONE Research Report of your choice in PDF format

Option 2 (equivalent of R375 a month):

All benefits from Option 1 PLUS Access to Creamer Media's Research Channel Africa for ALL Research Reports, in PDF format, on various industrial and mining sectors including Electricity; Water; Energy Transition; Hydrogen; Roads, Rail and Ports; Coal; Gold; Platinum; Battery Metals; etc.

Already a subscriber?

Forgotten your password?

MAGAZINE & ONLINE

R1500 (equivalent of R125 a month)

Receive weekly copy of Creamer Media's Engineering News & Mining Weekly magazine (print copy for those in South Africa and e-magazine for those outside of South Africa)

Access to full search results

Access archive of magazine back copies

Access to Projects in Progress

Access to ONE Research Report of your choice in PDF format

RESEARCH CHANNEL AFRICA

R4500 (equivalent of R375 a month)

All benefits from Option 1

Electricity

Energy Transition

Roads, Rail and Ports

Battery Metals

CORPORATE PACKAGES

Discounted prices based on volume

Receive all benefits from Option 1 or Option 2 delivered to numerous people at your company

Intranet integration access to all in your organisation

How to Conceptualize a Research Project

• First Online: 01 January 2013

Cite this chapter

• Shaili Jain M.D. 2 , 3 ,
• Steven E. Lindley MD, PhD 2 , 3 &
• Craig S. Rosen PhD 2 , 3 , 4  

3426 Accesses

1 Citations

The research process has three phases: the conceptual phase, the empirical phase, and the interpretative phase. In this chapter, we focus on the first phase: the conceptual phase—the part of the research process that determines which questions are to be addressed by the research and how research procedures are to be used as tools in finding the answers to these questions. Here we describe the various components of the conceptualization phase that need to be carefully considered before moving on to the empirical and interpretative phases of the research. Conceptualization involves simultaneously bringing together several considerations to identify a good research idea, i.e., an answerable research question that is worth answering. Components of this process include conducting a thorough search of the peer-reviewed literature, finding a research mentor and other collaborators, considering methodology and study design, and assessing feasibility. It should be noted that although we describe these various components in a linear fashion in the text, in reality, the conceptualization phase is not a linear process and will require consideration of these components to varying degrees at various stages depending upon evolving circumstances and the reader’s unique strengths and weaknesses. Even though careful attention to all these components will require considerable time and effort on the part of the physician scientist, we consider this to be time well spent as it will lay the ground for a successful research endeavor.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

The Roadmap to Research: Fundamentals of a Multifaceted Research Process

Designing a Research Question

Rose AM. Sociology: the study of human relations, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; 1965, p. 9

Google Scholar  

Batey MV. Conceptualizing the research process. Nurs Res. 1971;20:296–301.

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Sambunjak D, Straus SE, Marušic´ A. Mentoring in academic medicine: a systematic review. JAMA. 2006;296:1103–15.

Horn C, Plazas Snyder B, Coverdale JH, et al. Weiss Roberts L: educational research questions and study design. Acad Psychiatry. 2009;33:261–7.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Additional Resources

Chapters 8, 10, 19, 20, and 24. In: Roberts LW, Hilty D, editors. Handbook of career development in academic psychiatry and behavioral sciences, 1st ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2006.

Hulley SB, Cumming CR, Warren S, et al. Designing clinical research. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.

Kraemer HC, Kraemer KL, Kupfer DJ. To your health: how to understand what research tells us about risk. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Motulsky H. Intuitive biostatistics: a nonmathematical guide to statistical thinking. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

VA Palo Alto Health Care System, National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Shaili Jain M.D., Steven E. Lindley MD, PhD & Craig S. Rosen PhD

Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA

VA Sierra-Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Craig S. Rosen PhD

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shaili Jain M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral, Stanford University School of Medicine, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, 94305, California, USA

Laura Weiss Roberts

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Jain, S., Lindley, S.E., Rosen, C.S. (2013). How to Conceptualize a Research Project. In: Roberts, L. (eds) The Academic Medicine Handbook. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5693-3_30

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5693-3_30

Published : 22 February 2013

Publisher Name : Springer, New York, NY

Print ISBN : 978-1-4614-5692-6

Online ISBN : 978-1-4614-5693-3

eBook Packages : Medicine Medicine (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research