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• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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It’s Time to Reconceptualize What “Imposter Syndrome” Means for People of Color

• Kevin Cokley

How racism, bias, and imposter feelings are intertwined.

The recent pushback against the imposter phenomenon in the media has largely focused on how and why it’s inappropriate for people of color. In this article, the author argues that, while there is merit to these arguments, getting rid of the idea entirely for Black students and workers is a disservice. Instead, he recommends reconceptualizing the term to include new research on how imposterism affects people of color, and urges organizations to better understand how racism, bias, and imposter feelings are intertwined.

Over the past few years, there has been increased attention paid to the imposter phenomenon (a.k.a., imposter syndrome) in the media. Its popularity is understandable given that it’s an intuitive, common-sense concept about a tremendously relatable topic: feeling like a phony on the job. It’s also, at least according to recent review of the literature , fairly common: up to 80% of people have experienced imposter feelings.

• Kevin Cokley is the University Diversity and Social Transformation Professor and Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan where he serves as Associate Chair of Diversity Initiatives. He is editor of the forthcoming book The Impostor Phenomenon: Psychological Theory, Research, and Interventions . His Hidden Brain podcast “Success 2.0: The Psychology of Self-Doubt” addresses the corrosive effects of self-doubt and how we can turn that negative voice in our heads into an ally.

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• Published: 01 March 2024

Systemic proteome adaptions to 7-day complete caloric restriction in humans

• Maik Pietzner   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3437-9963 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Burulça Uluvar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8143-6989 1 ,
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• Per B. Jeppesen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8042-7554 6 ,
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• Jørgen F. P. Wojtaszewski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8185-3408 9 ,
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• Claudia Langenberg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5017-7344 1 , 2 , 3  

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Surviving long periods without food has shaped human evolution. In ancient and modern societies, prolonged fasting was/is practiced by billions of people globally for religious purposes, used to treat diseases such as epilepsy, and recently gained popularity as weight loss intervention, but we still have a very limited understanding of the systemic adaptions in humans to extreme caloric restriction of different durations. Here we show that a 7-day water-only fast leads to an average weight loss of 5.7 kg (±0.8 kg) among 12 volunteers (5 women, 7 men). We demonstrate nine distinct proteomic response profiles, with systemic changes evident only after 3 days of complete calorie restriction based on in-depth characterization of the temporal trajectories of ~3,000 plasma proteins measured before, daily during, and after fasting. The multi-organ response to complete caloric restriction shows distinct effects of fasting duration and weight loss and is remarkably conserved across volunteers with >1,000 significantly responding proteins. The fasting signature is strongly enriched for extracellular matrix proteins from various body sites, demonstrating profound non-metabolic adaptions, including extreme changes in the brain-specific extracellular matrix protein tenascin-R. Using proteogenomic approaches, we estimate the health consequences for 212 proteins that change during fasting across ~500 outcomes and identified putative beneficial (SWAP70 and rheumatoid arthritis or HYOU1 and heart disease), as well as adverse effects. Our results advance our understanding of prolonged fasting in humans beyond a merely energy-centric adaptions towards a systemic response that can inform targeted therapeutic modulation.

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Data availability

GWAS summary statistics for proteins are available from an interactive webserver ( https://omicscience.org/apps/olinkpgwas/ ) and statistics for other outcomes have been obtained from the OpenGWAS database with relevant identifiers listed in Supplementary Table 4 ( https://gwas.mrcieu.ac.uk/ ). Proteomic data has been deposited in ref. 55 . Tissue annotations for Olink proteins have been obtained from https://www.proteinatlas.org/ .

Code availability

Associated code and scripts are available at https://github.com/comp-med/olink-fasting-study .

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Acknowledgements

We thank M. Valde for excellent technical assistance and organizing blood sampling. The authors acknowledge the Scientific Computing of the IT Division at the Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin for providing computational resources that have contributed to the research results reported in this paper ( https://www.charite.de/en/research/research_support_services/research_infrastructure/science_it/#c30646061 ). This work was supported by the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, the DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research) and the BMBF (German Ministry of Education and Research). We thank the time and effort of the study participants and investigators of the EPIC-Norfolk study (DOI 10.22025/2019.10.105.00004; https://www.epic-norfolk.org.uk/ ) whose data have enabled this research. For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

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Maik Pietzner, Burulça Uluvar & Claudia Langenberg

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Maik Pietzner & Claudia Langenberg

MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

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Kristoffer J. Kolnes, Øyvind Skattebo, Egil I. Johansen & Jørgen Jensen

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Conceptualization: M.P. and C.L. Data curation/software: M.P., B.U., K.J.K., P.B.J., S.V.F., Ø.S., B.S.S., E.I.J. and A.J.K. Formal analysis: M.P. and B.U. Methodology: M.P., K.J.K., P.B.J., S.V.F., Ø.S. and A.J.K. Visualization: M.P. and B.U. Funding acquisition: C.L. and J.J. Project administration: C.L. and J.J. Supervision: M.P., C.L. and J.J. Writing—original draft: M.P. and C.L. Writing—review and editing: B.U., K.J.K., P.B.J., S.V.F., Ø.S., B.S.S., E.I.J., J.F.P.W., A.J.K., G.S.H.Y. and S.O.

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Extended data

Extended data fig. 1 change in body composition as measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (dexa)..

Each panel contains a separate measure and mean ± SEM are displayed for a change compared to baseline values. n = 12 (individuals) x 3 (timepoints) samples; Corresponding association statistics can be found in Supplementary Table 1 . SAT = subcutaneous adipose tissue; VAT = visceral adipose tissue.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Change in urinary nitrogen excretion during the time course of the study.

Each panel contains a separate measure and mean ± SEM are displayed for a change compared to baseline values. n = 12 (individuals) x 7 (timepoints) samples; Corresponding association statistics can be found in Supplementary Table 1 .

Extended Data Fig. 3 Individual time courses of selected protein candidates.

The upper panel displays mean ± SEM in original units for each time point of the study, whereas the lower panel displays mean ± SEM for change compared to baseline values. Thin grey lines indicate individual participants. n = 12 (individuals) x 10 (timepoints) samples.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Volcano plot of protein changes.

The y-axis displays corrected p-values from mixed effect linear regression models for a time effect, whereas the x-axis displays the largest extend proteins changed during the study. The size of the dot indicates at which timepoint the largest average change was observed.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Proteins with a sex-differential response during the study period.

Sex-specific mean ± SEM values are shown for three proteins that showed significant evidence (q-value < 0.05) for sex-differential effects. 1 = men; 0 = women. The upper panel displays original values, whereas the lower panel displays changes from baseline. n = 12 (individuals) x 10 (timepoints) samples.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Results from pathway enrichment analysis.

The first box refers to results using all significantly altered proteins, whereas all remaining refer to one of the clusters of proteins shown in main Fig. 2 . Each box displays the p-value (x-axis) and fold enrichment (colour intensity) for distinct set of pathways.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Tissue enrichment of proteins altered during fasting.

Plot displays results of Fisher’s exact tests (two-sided) for the enrichment of proteins altered during fasting among tissue-specific proteins, according to Human Protein Atlas. The y-axis shows the odds ratio estimate, the x-axis is ordered by –log10(p-value). The sizes of the dots show the number of proteins that are both tissue-specific and their plasma levels change during fasting, and they have a black border if the Bonferroni-adjusted Fisher’s p-value for 36 tissues is below 0.05.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Cell-type enrichment of proteins altered during fasting.

Same as Extended Data Fig. 7 (two-sided Fisher’s exact test), but for celltype-specific proteins according to Human Protein Atlas. Dots have a black border if the Bonferroni-adjusted Fisher’s p-value for 79 cell types is below 0.05.

Extended Data Fig. 9 Changes in proteins belonging involved in cholesterol metabolism during the study period.

Each protein measured in the current study is coloured according to the trajectory during fasting. The colour gradient is based on effect estimates from linear mixed models and has been restricted to −1 and 1 to enhance visualisation. Created using KEGG Database.

Extended Data Fig. 10 Changes in the complement and coagulation cascade during the study period.

Supplementary information, reporting summary, supplementary tables 1–4.

Contains Supplementary Tables 1–4.

Supplementary Data 1

Study protocol.

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Pietzner, M., Uluvar, B., Kolnes, K.J. et al. Systemic proteome adaptions to 7-day complete caloric restriction in humans. Nat Metab (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-024-01008-9

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Medication abortions rose in year after Dobbs decision, report finds

Medication abortions rose in the year after the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade , according to a report published Tuesday by the Guttmacher Institute, a research group that supports access to abortion.

In 2023, the first full calendar year since the 2022 Dobbs v. Jackson ruling , there were about 642,700 medication abortions, accounting for about 63% of all abortions in the country, up from 492,210 medication abortions, or 53%, in 2020, according to the report.

“This increase is indicative of the fact that people are overcoming barriers to get the care they need,” said Amy Friedrich-Karnik, the director of federal policy at the Guttmacher Institute. "Abortion is health care."

Following the Dobbs decision, 14 states completely ban abortion , which includes medication abortion. Another handful of states require patients to see doctors in person before they can get prescriptions for the drugs needed for medication abortion or ban shipping the medication by mail.  

Medication abortion became available in the U.S. in 2000 when the Food and Drug Administration approved mifepristone, one the drugs used in the regime, for use in early abortions. A second drug, misoprostol, is taken one to two days later.

Since 2020, medication abortion has been the most common method for ending early pregnancies in the U.S., according to the Guttmacher report.

It’s also once again on the judicial chopping block. 

Next week, the Supreme Court will hear oral arguments in a case that could decide whether mifepristone will remain easily accessible.

The numbers in the Guttmacher report account only for people who got medication abortions through the U.S. health care system, such as through in-person visits with health care providers. People can also get the pills outside the health care system, such as through community networks or in the mail via online pharmacies.

Dr. Michael Belmonte, a fellow at the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, said many of his patients prefer medication abortion because it provides them with a level of privacy.

“I’m not surprised to see that medication abortion continues to play a growing role,” he said.

Even with the Supreme Court case imminent, the drugs appear to be more available. Earlier this month, CVS and Walgreens announced that they would start dispensing mifepristone .

The report also looked at abortions overall and found that there were an estimated 1,026,690 last year — either through medication or surgery — a 10% increase from 2020 and the first time since 2012 that the number of abortions surpassed 1 million.

States without complete bans on abortions recorded a 25% increase in abortions last year compared with 2020. 

The sharpest increases, however, were in states that border those with complete bans, such as New Mexico, which borders Texas and Oklahoma; and Illinois, which borders Missouri and Kentucky. 

Other states, like South Carolina, had huge increases in out-of-state abortions because of their proximity to states with complete abortion bans, including many states in the South. (For much of 2023, South Carolina allowed abortions up to 20 weeks. A law banning abortion after six weeks went into effect in May but was blocked just days later ; it was reinstated in August .)

Friedrich-Karnik said almost 1 in 5 people are traveling to other states to get abortion care. “All of that impacts the type of care that they’ll be able to receive,” she said. 

Arthur Caplan, the head of the Division of Medical Ethics at NYU Langone Medical Center in New York City, said he expected the number of medication abortions would have increased last year, even without the challenge to the FDA’s approval of mifepristone. Medication abortions have been on a steady upswing since it was approved in 2000, according to the Guttmacher report.

“Nothing surprises me about this shift,” Caplan said of the Guttmacher findings. “It’s less burdensome to use a pharmaceutical agent than surgery, and it’s cheaper.”

A Supreme Court decision to restrict access to mifepristone would have huge ramifications for women, he said.

It would be “absolute utter nonsense,” he said. “Were the court to buy into it, it would clearly bring abortion by pill to an end around the country, which would lead immediately to an enormous black market.”

Dr. Kristyn Brandi, an OB-GYN in New Jersey and the former board chair for Physicians of Reproductive Health, an advocacy group for reproductive rights, said medication abortion is often the only option for marginalized communities, including people with disabilities who can’t travel. The medications will become even more common, she said, unless the Supreme Court makes them less accessible.

“That will affect the vast majority of people seeking abortion,” she said.

Belmonte said he is worried about his patients.

“Every patient should be able to choose which abortion option is right for them, without bans, restrictions or burdens,” he said.

Berkeley Lovelace Jr. is a health and medical reporter for NBC News. He covers the Food and Drug Administration, with a special focus on Covid vaccines, prescription drug pricing and health care. He previously covered the biotech and pharmaceutical industry with CNBC.

Image credit: Getty Images (Alessandro Biascioli)

World Happiness Report offers most comprehensive picture yet of happiness across generations

Fresh insights from the World Happiness Report 2024 paint the richest picture yet of happiness trends across different ages and generations.

The findings, announced today to mark the UN’s International Day of Happiness, are powered by data from the Gallup World Poll and analysed by some of the world’s leading wellbeing scientists.

Experts use responses from people in more than 140 nations to rank the world’s ‘happiest’ countries. Finland tops the overall list for the seventh successive year, though there is considerable movement elsewhere:

• Serbia (37th) and Bulgaria (81st) have had the biggest increases in average life evaluation scores since they were first measured by the Gallup World Poll in 2013, and this is reflected in climbs up the rankings between World Happiness Report 2013 and this 2024 edition of 69 places for Serbia and 63 places for Bulgaria. • The next two countries showing the largest increases in life evaluations are Latvia (46th) and Congo (Brazzaville) (89th), with rank increases of 44 and 40 places, respectively, between 2013 and 2024.

Significantly, the United States of America (23rd) has fallen out of the top 20 for the first time since the World Happiness Report was first published in 2012, driven by a large drop in the wellbeing of Americans under 30. Afghanistan remains bottom of the overall rankings as the world’s ‘unhappiest’ nation.

For the first time, the report gives separate rankings by age group, in many cases varying widely from the overall rankings. Lithuania tops the list for children and young people under 30, while Denmark is the world’s happiest nation for those 60 and older.

In comparing generations, those born before 1965 are, on average, happier than those born since 1980. Among Millennials, evaluation of one’s own life drops with each year of age, while among Boomers life satisfaction increases with age.

Rankings are based on a three-year average of each population’s average assessment of their quality of life1. Interdisciplinary experts from the fields of economics, psychology, sociology and beyond then attempt to explain the variations across countries and over time using factors such as GDP, life expectancy, having someone to count on, a sense of freedom, generosity and perceptions of corruption.

These factors help to explain the differences across nations, while the rankings themselves are based only on the answers people give when asked to rate their own lives.

The World Happiness Report is a partnership of Gallup, the Oxford Wellbeing Research Centre, the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network, and the WHR’s Editorial Board. The  Wellbeing Research Centre  at the University of Oxford is an interdisciplinary research group focussed on the empirical study of wellbeing.  From 2024, the Wellbeing Research Centre is the publisher of the annual World Happiness Report, the world’s foremost publication on global happiness.

Professor Jan-Emmanuel De Neve , Director of Oxford’s Wellbeing Research Centre, Professor of Economics and Behavioural Science at the Saïd Business School, and an Editor of the World Happiness Report, said: 'Once again the World Happiness Report uncovers some special empirical insights at the cutting edge of the wellbeing research frontier. Piecing together the available data on the wellbeing of children and adolescents around the world, we documented disconcerting drops especially in North America and Western Europe. To think that, in some parts of the world, children are already experiencing the equivalent of a mid-life crisis demands immediate policy action.

'It is a great privilege and responsibility for our Centre at Oxford to become the next custodian of the World Happiness Report and we’re committed to continuing to give the world the best evidence on the state of global happiness in collaboration with our partners.'

Professor John F. Helliwell, Emeritus Professor of Economics at the Vancouver School of Economics, University of British Columbia, and a founding Editor of the World Happiness Report, said: 'The broad country coverage and annual surveys of the Gallup World Poll provide an unmatched source of data about the quality of lives all over the globe. There are now enough years of data, going back to 2006, to enable us this year to plausibly separate age and generational patterns for happiness.

'We found some pretty striking results. There is a great variety among countries in the relative happiness of the younger, older, and in-between populations. Hence the global happiness rankings are quite different for the young and the old, to an extent that has changed a lot over the last dozen years.'

Jon Clifton, CEO of Gallup, said: 'Effective policymaking relies on solid data, yet there remains a significant lack of it in various parts of the world. Today’s World Happiness Report attempts to bridge some of these gaps by offering insights into people’s perceptions of life on Earth. It offers more than just national rankings; it provides analytics and advice for evidence-based planning and policymaking. Our role in research on World Happiness is a natural fit with our longstanding mission: providing leaders with the right information about what people say makes life worthwhile.'

The World Happiness Report 2024 also features curated submissions on the theme of happiness across different age groups from experts at the forefront of wellbeing science.

Observing the state of happiness among the world’s children and adolescent population, researchers found that, globally, young people aged 15 to 24 report higher life satisfaction than older adults, but this gap is narrowing in Europe and recently reversed in North America.

Findings also suggest that the wellbeing of 15- to 24-year-olds has fallen in North America, Western Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia since 2019 – but in the rest of world it has risen. Overall, though, there is a notable global scarcity of wellbeing data available for children below the age of 15.

Further work examines the relationship between wellbeing and dementia, identified as a significant area of research in a globally aging population.

Researchers highlight not only the impact of dementia on the wellbeing of individuals but also the reverse association: the demonstrable predictive power of higher wellbeing to reduce the risk of developing the disease in later life.

Finally, a team of researchers used a large survey of life satisfaction of older adults in what is now the world’s most populous nation: India. They found that within this older Indian population, increasing age is associated with higher life satisfaction, matching the findings of the global analyses.

These researchers also analysed the complex impact of India’s caste system on wellbeing among older adults, though satisfaction with living arrangements, perceived discrimination and self-rated health emerged as the top three predictors of life satisfaction in this study.

The report is produced under the editorial control of the WHR Editorial Board, formed of John F. Helliwell, Lord Richard Layard, Jeffrey D. Sachs, Jan-Emmanuel De Neve, Lara B. Aknin, and Shun Wang.

Read the report in full at worldhappiness.report .

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Apple Vision Pro unlocks new opportunities for health app developers

Surgical Planning and Education

• Fundamental Surgery , which delivers surgical training through spatial computing for Apple Vision Pro.
• CollaboratOR 3D by KARL STORZ, which enhances surgical learning opportunities while allowing teams to scale their training efforts.
• Elsevier’s Complete HeartX , designed exclusively for Apple Vision Pro, which provides a captivating experience as it delves into the intricacies of the human body to create a realistic and engaging learning environment.
• Insight Heart , which lets users understand the human heart like never before. With ARKit, users can easily scan their physical surroundings and visualize 3D hearts using CT data, as well as explore various heart conditions.

Productivity and Collaboration

• Visage Ease VP , which supports immersive spatial experiences for diagnostic imaging and multimedia. UC San Diego Health became the first health system to pilot the technology with the goal of improving patient care, looking at opportunities like potentially helping inefficient tumor board reviews and creating collaborative spaces in healthcare.
• Falcon Vue , which unleashes the power of spatial medical imaging viewing across all modalities.
• Medivis , which brings SurgicalAR Vision to Apple Vision Pro, enhancing medical imaging to support surgical precision and patient care.

Behavioral Health and Wellness

• The Mindfulness app on Apple Vision Pro, designed to transform users’ surroundings into a calming, immersive environment.
• TRIPP , which delivers signature experiences for Vision Pro with illuminating visuals and Spatial Audio for guided breathing exercises and sleep experience.
• Healium , which brings beautifully designed experiences to Vision Pro users, helping them relax and build resilience by creating stress-reducing memories of nature-based escapes.
• Odio , which uses Spatial Audio and intuitive gestures to display beautiful 3D images in a user’s space for focus, relaxation, or peaceful sleep.

Text of this article

March 11, 2024

Breakthrough health and wellness apps are designed to take advantage of the infinite canvas in visionOS, unveiling spatial experiences that benefit users in clinical settings and at home

For decades, medical institutions and developers have taken advantage of Apple’s innovative products and frameworks to help achieve better patient outcomes, increase cost savings, broaden research opportunities, and improve efficiency. From using iPad to lower the cost and shorten the length of NICU stays so newborns can be at home with their families, to iPhone helping nurses respond faster to alerts and alarms and improve medication administration, the healthcare community has driven purposeful change with powerful Apple products at their fingertips.

Now, with the introduction of Apple Vision Pro, developers have unparalleled opportunities to deliver experiences that can positively impact people’s lives, whether they’re at home or at a clinic. Vision Pro seamlessly blends digital content with the physical world, unlocking powerful spatial experiences in an infinite canvas. And with the unique capabilities of visionOS, healthcare developers are creating new apps that were not previously possible, transforming areas such as clinical education, surgical planning, training, medical imaging, behavioral health, and more.

“We’re thrilled to see the incredible apps that developers across the healthcare community are bringing to Apple Vision Pro,” said Susan Prescott, Apple’s vice president of Worldwide Developer Relations. “The imagination and drive of our developers, combined with the technical capabilities of visionOS, are igniting new possibilities for physicians, frontline workers, and even students, and we can’t wait to see what’s to come.”

Here are just a few of the apps currently available on Apple Vision Pro in the healthcare and wellness space.

More than 1 million Americans receive a knee or hip replacement surgery every year, and that number will continue to rise as the population ages. 1 When surgeons use Stryker’s Mako SmartRobotics for total hip, total knee, and partial knee replacements, it can help lead to better patient outcomes like less pain and shorter recovery times, compared to traditional joint replacement surgeries. With the new myMako app, Stryker is extending a surgeon’s experience in and beyond the operating room with Apple Vision Pro and iPhone. For better preparation, myMako allows surgeons to visualize and review patients’ Mako surgical plans at any time in a brilliant, immersive visual experience.

“The myMako app for Apple Vision Pro allows surgeons the ability to access intricate surgical plan details and insights at their fingertips in a 3D-native, intuitive, and dynamic way. This level of insight — anytime, anywhere — was previously not possible,” said Robert Cohen, Stryker’s president of Digital, Robotics, and Enabling Technologies. “With Apple Vision Pro, Stryker’s market-leading enabling technologies such as Mako SmartRobotics have the exciting potential to transform the way surgeons think about preoperative planning and the intraoperative experience, all consistent with Stryker’s mission to make healthcare better.”

To alleviate some of the timely challenges healthcare workers face in onboarding and training, Boston Children’s Hospital developed a comprehensive learning experience in a safe, universally accessible virtual environment. Created for Apple Vision Pro, CyranoHealth places a spotlight on skills related to new medical equipment, like medical infusion pumps, helping improve confidence and reduce anxiety for frontline workers, beginning with nurses. This immersive, multisensory approach allows students to familiarize themselves with the latest advancements in healthcare technology, helping to prepare them to navigate real-world challenges.

“CyranoHealth utilizes spatial computing to revolutionize the training of healthcare professionals, offering immersive, lifelike simulations to enhance learning and combat burnout. The app represents a significant leap forward in healthcare training, blending technology and medicine to create a future-ready workforce,” said John Brownstein, Ph.D., Boston Children’s chief innovation officer.

Additional apps in surgical planning and education include:

“At Apple, we believe technology can play an important role in the evolution of healthcare,” said Sumbul Desai, MD, Apple’s vice president of Health. “With the ability to transform a user’s space, display 3D objects at life size, and see all relevant data in one view, the opportunities for health developers to use Apple Vision Pro to help improve procedural planning, education, and outcomes are limitless.”

Siemens Healthineers’ Cinematic Reality app on Apple Vision Pro allows surgeons, medical students, and patients to view immersive, interactive holograms of the human body captured through medical scans in their real-world environment. Using Metal and the power of the M2 processor, the app integrates advanced path-tracing technology, simulating light interactions with virtual objects to deliver breathtakingly realistic lighting and reflections.

“Cinematic Reality gives people the opportunity to immerse themselves in a world of photorealistic renderings of the human anatomy,” said Christian Zapf, Siemens Healthineers’ head of Digital & Automation. “Apple Vision Pro perfectly presents that three-dimensional experience, combined with great flexibility and standalone use. We see great potential for the technology for clinical as well as educational purposes.”

Medical records are core to any clinician’s work with a patient, whether it’s understanding their health history or finding new opportunities to support improved health outcomes. Epic Systems, an electronic health records company, is introducing its Epic Spatial Computing Concept for Apple Vision Pro to allow physicians and clinicians to easily complete charting, review labs, communicate using secure chat, and complete In Basket workflows through intuitive gestures, like simply tapping their fingers to select, flicking their wrist to scroll, or using a virtual keyboard or dictation to type.

“Creating the first electronic health record experience for spatial computing was an exciting project for our developers,” said Seth Howard, Epic’s senior vice president of Research & Development. “With Apple Vision Pro, clinicians will be able to interact with their patients’ health information in new, immersive ways. We welcome ideas from the physician community about how this technology can expand the future of healthcare delivery.”

Additional apps in productivity and collaboration include:

Cedars-Sinai’s Xaia app takes full advantage of the unique capabilities of Apple Vision Pro to support patients’ mental health needs. Through its trained digital avatar, Xaia offers patients AI-enabled, conversational mental health support in relaxing spatial environments where they can also do deep breathing exercises and meditation. The immersive therapy sessions take place in environments that are most comfortable to users — whether they choose to remain in their own space, or transform their environment into a relaxing location like a beach. Privacy remains core to the app; it requires no personal information or health information.

“Apple Vision Pro’s stunning display offers a gateway into a world of immersive, interactive behavioral health support — a quantum leap beyond previous technologies,” said Brennan Spiegel, MD, MSHS, professor of medicine, director of Health Services Research, and director of the master’s degree program in Health Delivery Science at Cedars-Sinai. “With Xaia, we leverage every pixel of that remarkable resolution and the full spectrum of vivid colors to craft a form of immersive therapy that’s engaging and deeply personal. With this remarkable device, our team was able to completely reimagine how spatial computing can support behavioral health and overall wellbeing in ways never before possible.”

Additional apps in behavioral health and wellness include:

• https://rheumatology.org/patients/joint-replacement-surgery

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Something felt ‘off’ – how AI messed with our human research, and what we learned

Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington

Research Fellow, School of Health, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington

Disclosure statement

Alexandra Gibson receives funding from Te Apārangi - Royal Society of New Zealand.

Alex Beattie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of Wellington provides funding as a member of The Conversation NZ.

Te Herenga Waka—Victoria University of Wellington provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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All levels of research are being changed by the rise of artificial intelligence (AI). Don’t have time to read that journal article? AI-powered tools such as TLDRthis will summarise it for you.

Struggling to find relevant sources for your review? Inciteful will list suitable articles with just the click of a button. Are your human research participants too expensive or complicated to manage? Not a problem – try synthetic participants instead.

Each of these tools suggests AI could be superior to humans in outlining and explaining concepts or ideas. But can humans be replaced when it comes to qualitative research?

This is something we recently had to grapple with while carrying out unrelated research into mobile dating during the COVID-19 pandemic . And what we found should temper enthusiasm for artificial responses over the words of human participants.

Encountering AI in our research

Our research is looking at how people might navigate mobile dating during the pandemic in Aotearoa New Zealand. Our aim was to explore broader social responses to mobile dating as the pandemic progressed and as public health mandates changed over time.

As part of this ongoing research, we prompt participants to develop stories in response to hypothetical scenarios.

Read more: What happens when we outsource boring but important work to AI? Research shows we forget how to do it ourselves

In 2021 and 2022 we received a wide range of intriguing and quirky responses from 110 New Zealanders recruited through Facebook. Each participant received a gift voucher for their time.

Participants described characters navigating the challenges of “Zoom dates” and clashing over vaccination statuses or wearing masks. Others wrote passionate love stories with eyebrow-raising details. Some even broke the fourth wall and wrote directly to us, complaining about the mandatory word length of their stories or the quality of our prompts.

These responses captured the highs and lows of online dating, the boredom and loneliness of lockdown, and the thrills and despair of finding love during the time of COVID-19.

But, perhaps most of all, these responses reminded us of the idiosyncratic and irreverent aspects of human participation in research – the unexpected directions participants go in, or even the unsolicited feedback you can receive when doing research.

But in the latest round of our study in late 2023, something had clearly changed across the 60 stories we received.

This time many of the stories felt “off”. Word choices were quite stilted or overly formal. And each story was quite moralistic in terms of what one “should” do in a situation.

Using AI detection tools, such as ZeroGPT, we concluded participants – or even bots – were using AI to generate story answers for them, possibly to receive the gift voucher for minimal effort.

Contrary to claims that AI can sufficiently replicate human participants in research, we found AI-generated stories to be woeful.

We were reminded that an essential ingredient of any social research is for the data to be based on lived experience.

Is AI the problem?

Perhap the biggest threat to human research is not AI, but rather the philosophy that underscores it.

It is worth noting the majority of claims about AI’s capabilities to replace humans come from computer scientists or quantitative social scientists. In these types of studies, human reasoning or behaviour is often measured through scorecards or yes/no statements.

This approach necessarily fits human experience into a framework that can be more easily analysed through computational or artificial interpretation.

In contrast, we are qualitative researchers who are interested in the messy, emotional, lived experience of people’s perspectives on dating. We were drawn to the thrills and disappointments participants originally pointed to with online dating, the frustrations and challenges of trying to use dating apps, as well as the opportunities they might create for intimacy during a time of lockdowns and evolving health mandates.

Read more: AI is in danger of becoming too male – new research

In general, we found AI poorly simulated these experiences.

Some might accept generative AI is here to stay, or that AI should be viewed as offering various tools to researchers. Other researchers might retreat to forms of data collection, such as surveys, that might minimise the interference of unwanted AI participation.

But, based on our recent research experience , we believe theoretically-driven, qualitative social research is best equipped to detect and protect against AI interference.

There are additional implications for research. The threat of AI as an unwanted participant means researchers will have to work longer or harder to spot imposter participants.

Academic institutions need to start developing policies and practices to reduce the burden on individual researchers trying to carry out research in the changing AI environment.

Regardless of researchers’ theoretical orientation, how we work to limit the involvement of AI is a question for anyone interested in understanding human perspectives or experiences. If anything, the limitations of AI reemphasise the importance of being human in social research.

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Sen. Joni Ernst slams Biden admin for funneling $2.8M for ‘high-risk pathogens’ research in Guinea

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The Biden administration shows no signs of stopping research on “pathogens of pandemic potential” abroad through a controversial US nonprofit, Sen. Joni Ernst said Monday, as the Pentagon will complete a $2.8 million grant this year for experiments on “high-risk pathogens” in Guinea.

The Department of Defense began funding Georgetown University in September 2021 for a three-year project out of its Defense Threat Reduction Agency focused on “reducing the risk of pathogens causing fever” in Guinea, a grant database shows.

EcoHealth Alliance has received subgrants as part of the project — despite concerns from lawmakers and scientific experts that the Manhattan-based nonprofit has used US taxpayers’ money to fund “risky” research in the past — including at a lab in Wuhan, China, the city where the COVID-19 pandemic started.

“It’s clear EcoHealth can’t be trusted — with dollars or dangerous diseases — after they funneled taxpayer dollars to fund Chinese-run risky research in Wuhan,” Ernst (R-Iowa) told The Post.

“That’s why Congress approved my proposal to audit the defense dollars flowing to and through EcoHealth to pay for batty experiments in China or anywhere else. Even after my provision, more funds have already found their way to Ecohealth Alliance. We must stop this before they are used to make the world a less safe place.”

The scientific research is aimed at “reducing the risk of pathogens causing fever” in Guinea, a grant database shows, and “will test blood samples” from human patients and “assess” bats, dogs, rodents and livestock “with which the patients may interact,” according to researchers at Georgetown’s Center for Global Health Sciences and Security .

The researchers are partnering with EcoHealth Alliance for help with observing and recording animal behavior and have paid the organization more than $150,000 so far.

EcoHealth funded bat coronavirus experiments at the Wuhan Institute of Virology that increased virality and proposed other research that may have resulted in SARS-CoV-2, the virus that spawned the COVID-19 pandemic, according to government records and experts on viral research.

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) provided more than $1.4 million to EcoHealth Alliance between 2014 and 2021 for research that “included genetic experiments to combine naturally occurring bat coronaviruses with SARS and MERS viruses, resulting in hybridized (also known as chimeric) coronavirus strains,” according to a June 2023 federal report .

In an October 2021 letter, NIH principal deputy director Lawrence Tabak admitted to Congress that EcoHealth had also “failed to report” having created novel coronaviruses that exceeded “a one log increase in growth.”

Those experiments may have constituted gain-of-function research, with NIH documents confirming that humanized mice showed up to a 4 log increase to the growth rate of the original virus — or 10,000 times greater, The Intercept reported .

Tabak said the NIH grant could not have produced COVID-19, since the “sequences of the viruses are genetically very distant,” but another proposal from EcoHealth is now being cited as “ smoking gun ” evidence that it leaked out of a lab in Wuhan.

In 2018, EcoHealth submitted a grant proposal, known as Project DEFUSE, which would have tested engineered bat coronaviruses to make them more easily transmissible.

EcoHealth Alliance President Peter Daszak sought to “downplay” that much of the research would be conducted at the Wuhan Institute of Virology in order to make DARPA feel “comfortable,” according to a draft proposal obtained by US Right to Know .

The Pentagon’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) rejected it. However, the work may have continued with researchers in Wuhan with the help of Chinese government funding.

Other Project DEFUSE documents raise “to the level of a smoking gun,” the genetic evidence of COVID-19 being engineered, Rutgers University molecular biologist Richard Ebright told The Post.

A spokesperson for EcoHealth said in a previous statement on the disclosures that the proposals were “incomplete or early drafts” and the allegations of the virus being engineered from it were “false, based on misleading out-of-context quotations, and a lack of understanding of the process by which federal grants are awarded.”

“Because the work was not selected for funding, any assertions about these details are by definition based on review of incomplete information and are extremely misleading,” the spokesperson added.

The Energy Department and FBI have since determined an accidental lab leak was the most likely explanation for the COVID-19 pandemic last year, and former Director of National Intelligence John Ratcliffe went as far as to say it was the “ only ” explanation for COVID’s origin.

An EcoHealth Alliance spokesperson said the acute febrile illness being studied remains “a persistent danger to public health and global health security” and is being studied with “the highest levels of field and lab biosafety.”

The spokesperson added that it was “incorrect and misleading” to say that it funded bat coronavirus experiments at the Wuhan Institute of Virology or that the research at the lab “started the COVID-19 pandemic,” pointing to an Oct. 20, 2021, statement from then-NIH Director Francis Collins about EcoHealth’s grant.

“Analysis of published genomic data and other documents from the grantee demonstrate that the naturally occurring bat coronaviruses studied under the NIH grant are genetically far distant from SARS-CoV-2 and could not possibly have caused the COVID-19 pandemic,” Collins  said . “Any claims to the contrary are demonstrably false.”

The Pentagon did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

The White Coat Waste Project, a taxpayer watchdog group that first exposed the Wuhan funding, is partnering with Ernst to “curtail wasteful government spending” on EcoHealth-related research on viruses that “can cause lab leaks and create bioweapons.”

“The solution is simple,” said Justin Goodman, the group’s senior vice president. “Stop the money. Stop the madness.”

Ernst and Rep. Mike Gallagher (R-Wis.) also asked the Defense Department’s inspector general in January to probe  more than $50 million  in Pentagon grants to Chinese pandemic research institutions.

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