effects of air pollution on environment essay

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Air pollution.

Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Geography

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Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals, and plants. It also damages buildings. Pollutants in the air take many forms. They can be gases , solid particles, or liquid droplets. Sources of Air Pollution Pollution enters the Earth's atmosphere in many different ways. Most air pollution is created by people, taking the form of emissions from factories, cars, planes, or aerosol cans . Second-hand cigarette smoke is also considered air pollution. These man-made sources of pollution are called anthropogenic sources . Some types of air pollution, such as smoke from wildfires or ash from volcanoes , occur naturally. These are called natural sources . Air pollution is most common in large cities where emissions from many different sources are concentrated . Sometimes, mountains or tall buildings prevent air pollution from spreading out. This air pollution often appears as a cloud making the air murky. It is called smog . The word "smog" comes from combining the words "smoke" and " fog ." Large cities in poor and developing nations tend to have more air pollution than cities in developed nations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , some of the worlds most polluted cities are Karachi, Pakistan; New Delhi, India; Beijing, China; Lima, Peru; and Cairo, Egypt. However, many developed nations also have air pollution problems. Los Angeles, California, is nicknamed Smog City. Indoor Air Pollution Air pollution is usually thought of as smoke from large factories or exhaust from vehicles. But there are many types of indoor air pollution as well. Heating a house by burning substances such as kerosene , wood, and coal can contaminate the air inside the house. Ash and smoke make breathing difficult, and they can stick to walls, food, and clothing. Naturally-occurring radon gas, a cancer -causing material, can also build up in homes. Radon is released through the surface of the Earth. Inexpensive systems installed by professionals can reduce radon levels. Some construction materials, including insulation , are also dangerous to people's health. In addition, ventilation , or air movement, in homes and rooms can lead to the spread of toxic mold . A single colony of mold may exist in a damp, cool place in a house, such as between walls. The mold's spores enter the air and spread throughout the house. People can become sick from breathing in the spores. Effects On Humans People experience a wide range of health effects from being exposed to air pollution. Effects can be broken down into short-term effects and long-term effects . Short-term effects, which are temporary , include illnesses such as pneumonia or bronchitis . They also include discomfort such as irritation to the nose, throat, eyes, or skin. Air pollution can also cause headaches, dizziness, and nausea . Bad smells made by factories, garbage , or sewer systems are considered air pollution, too. These odors are less serious but still unpleasant . Long-term effects of air pollution can last for years or for an entire lifetime. They can even lead to a person's death. Long-term health effects from air pollution include heart disease , lung cancer, and respiratory diseases such as emphysema . Air pollution can also cause long-term damage to people's nerves , brain, kidneys , liver , and other organs. Some scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects . Nearly 2.5 million people die worldwide each year from the effects of outdoor or indoor air pollution. People react differently to different types of air pollution. Young children and older adults, whose immune systems tend to be weaker, are often more sensitive to pollution. Conditions such as asthma , heart disease, and lung disease can be made worse by exposure to air pollution. The length of exposure and amount and type of pollutants are also factors. Effects On The Environment Like people, animals, and plants, entire ecosystems can suffer effects from air pollution. Haze , like smog, is a visible type of air pollution that obscures shapes and colors. Hazy air pollution can even muffle sounds. Air pollution particles eventually fall back to Earth. Air pollution can directly contaminate the surface of bodies of water and soil . This can kill crops or reduce their yield . It can kill young trees and other plants. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles in the air, can create acid rain when they mix with water and oxygen in the atmosphere. These air pollutants come mostly from coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles . When acid rain falls to Earth, it damages plants by changing soil composition ; degrades water quality in rivers, lakes and streams; damages crops; and can cause buildings and monuments to decay . Like humans, animals can suffer health effects from exposure to air pollution. Birth defects, diseases, and lower reproductive rates have all been attributed to air pollution. Global Warming Global warming is an environmental phenomenon caused by natural and anthropogenic air pollution. It refers to rising air and ocean temperatures around the world. This temperature rise is at least partially caused by an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat energy in the Earths atmosphere. (Usually, more of Earths heat escapes into space.) Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that has had the biggest effect on global warming. Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels (coal, gasoline , and natural gas ). Humans have come to rely on fossil fuels to power cars and planes, heat homes, and run factories. Doing these things pollutes the air with carbon dioxide. Other greenhouse gases emitted by natural and artificial sources also include methane , nitrous oxide , and fluorinated gases. Methane is a major emission from coal plants and agricultural processes. Nitrous oxide is a common emission from industrial factories, agriculture, and the burning of fossil fuels in cars. Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons , are emitted by industry. Fluorinated gases are often used instead of gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs have been outlawed in many places because they deplete the ozone layer . Worldwide, many countries have taken steps to reduce or limit greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. The Kyoto Protocol , first adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, is an agreement between 183 countries that they will work to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions. The United States has not signed that treaty . Regulation In addition to the international Kyoto Protocol, most developed nations have adopted laws to regulate emissions and reduce air pollution. In the United States, debate is under way about a system called cap and trade to limit emissions. This system would cap, or place a limit, on the amount of pollution a company is allowed. Companies that exceeded their cap would have to pay. Companies that polluted less than their cap could trade or sell their remaining pollution allowance to other companies. Cap and trade would essentially pay companies to limit pollution. In 2006 the World Health Organization issued new Air Quality Guidelines. The WHOs guidelines are tougher than most individual countries existing guidelines. The WHO guidelines aim to reduce air pollution-related deaths by 15 percent a year. Reduction Anybody can take steps to reduce air pollution. Millions of people every day make simple changes in their lives to do this. Taking public transportation instead of driving a car, or riding a bike instead of traveling in carbon dioxide-emitting vehicles are a couple of ways to reduce air pollution. Avoiding aerosol cans, recycling yard trimmings instead of burning them, and not smoking cigarettes are others.

Downwinders The United States conducted tests of nuclear weapons at the Nevada Test Site in southern Nevada in the 1950s. These tests sent invisible radioactive particles into the atmosphere. These air pollution particles traveled with wind currents, eventually falling to Earth, sometimes hundreds of miles away in states including Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Washington. These areas were considered to be "downwind" from the Nevada Test Site. Decades later, people living in those downwind areascalled "downwinders"began developing cancer at above-normal rates. In 1990, the U.S. government passed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act. This law entitles some downwinders to payments of $50,000.

Greenhouse Gases There are five major greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere.

• water vapor
• carbon dioxide
• nitrous oxide

London Smog What has come to be known as the London Smog of 1952, or the Great Smog of 1952, was a four-day incident that sickened 100,000 people and caused as many as 12,000 deaths. Very cold weather in December 1952 led residents of London, England, to burn more coal to keep warm. Smoke and other pollutants became trapped by a thick fog that settled over the city. The polluted fog became so thick that people could only see a few meters in front of them.

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air pollution

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• United States Environment Protection Agency - Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges
• Natural Resources Defense Council - Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know
• National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences - Air Pollution
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Air pollution: Impact and prevention
• Environmental Pollution Centers - What is Air Pollution?
• air pollution - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

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air pollution , release into the atmosphere of various gases , finely divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the natural capacity of the environment to dissipate and dilute or absorb them. These substances may reach concentrations in the air that cause undesirable health, economic, or aesthetic effects.

Major air pollutants

Criteria pollutants.

Clean, dry air consists primarily of nitrogen and oxygen —78 percent and 21 percent respectively, by volume. The remaining 1 percent is a mixture of other gases, mostly argon (0.9 percent), along with trace (very small) amounts of carbon dioxide , methane , hydrogen , helium , and more. Water vapour is also a normal, though quite variable, component of the atmosphere, normally ranging from 0.01 to 4 percent by volume; under very humid conditions the moisture content of air may be as high as 5 percent.

There are six major air pollutants that have been designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as “criteria” pollutants — criteria meaning that the concentrations of these pollutants in the atmosphere are useful as indicators of overall air quality. The sources, acceptable concentrations, and effects of the criteria pollutants are summarized in the table.

The gaseous criteria air pollutants of primary concern in urban settings include sulfur dioxide , nitrogen dioxide , and carbon monoxide ; these are emitted directly into the air from fossil fuels such as fuel oil , gasoline , and natural gas that are burned in power plants, automobiles, and other combustion sources. Ozone (a key component of smog ) is also a gaseous pollutant; it forms in the atmosphere via complex chemical reactions occurring between nitrogen dioxide and various volatile organic compounds (e.g., gasoline vapours).

Airborne suspensions of extremely small solid or liquid particles called “particulates” (e.g., soot, dust, smokes, fumes, mists), especially those less than 10 micrometres (μm; millionths of a metre) in size, are significant air pollutants because of their very harmful effects on human health. They are emitted by various industrial processes, coal- or oil-burning power plants, residential heating systems, and automobiles. Lead fumes (airborne particulates less than 0.5 μm in size) are particularly toxic and are an important pollutant of many diesel fuels .

Except for lead, criteria pollutants are emitted in industrialized countries at very high rates, typically measured in millions of tons per year. All except ozone are discharged directly into the atmosphere from a wide variety of sources. They are regulated primarily by establishing ambient air quality standards, which are maximum acceptable concentrations of each criteria pollutant in the atmosphere, regardless of its origin. The six criteria pollutants are described in turn below.

REVIEW article

Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: a review.

• 1 Delphis S.A., Kifisia, Greece
• 2 Laboratory of Hygiene and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Medicine, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
• 3 Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Service de Médicine Interne, Lausanne, Switzerland
• 4 School of Social and Political Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

One of our era's greatest scourges is air pollution, on account not only of its impact on climate change but also its impact on public and individual health due to increasing morbidity and mortality. There are many pollutants that are major factors in disease in humans. Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere plays a protective role against ultraviolet irradiation, it is harmful when in high concentration at ground level, also affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered air pollutants that are harmful to humans. Carbon monoxide can even provoke direct poisoning when breathed in at high levels. Heavy metals such as lead, when absorbed into the human body, can lead to direct poisoning or chronic intoxication, depending on exposure. Diseases occurring from the aforementioned substances include principally respiratory problems such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and also lung cancer, cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and cutaneous diseases. Last but not least, climate change resulting from environmental pollution affects the geographical distribution of many infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The only way to tackle this problem is through public awareness coupled with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific experts; national and international organizations must address the emergence of this threat and propose sustainable solutions.

Approach to the Problem

The interactions between humans and their physical surroundings have been extensively studied, as multiple human activities influence the environment. The environment is a coupling of the biotic (living organisms and microorganisms) and the abiotic (hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere).

Pollution is defined as the introduction into the environment of substances harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are harmful solids, liquids, or gases produced in higher than usual concentrations that reduce the quality of our environment.

Human activities have an adverse effect on the environment by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil in which plants grow. Although the industrial revolution was a great success in terms of technology, society, and the provision of multiple services, it also introduced the production of huge quantities of pollutants emitted into the air that are harmful to human health. Without any doubt, the global environmental pollution is considered an international public health issue with multiple facets. Social, economic, and legislative concerns and lifestyle habits are related to this major problem. Clearly, urbanization and industrialization are reaching unprecedented and upsetting proportions worldwide in our era. Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest public health hazards worldwide, given that it accounts for about 9 million deaths per year ( 1 ).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are closely associated with climate change, and in the event of danger, the consequences can be severe for mankind ( 2 ). Climate changes and the effects of global planetary warming seriously affect multiple ecosystems, causing problems such as food safety issues, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and damage to plants ( 3 , 4 ).

Air pollution has various health effects. The health of susceptible and sensitive individuals can be impacted even on low air pollution days. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization (a measurement of morbidity).

The long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. According to a Swedish cohort study, diabetes seems to be induced after long-term air pollution exposure ( 5 ). Moreover, air pollution seems to have various malign health effects in early human life, such as respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal disorders ( 3 ), leading to infant mortality or chronic disease in adult age ( 6 ).

National reports have mentioned the increased risk of morbidity and mortality ( 1 ). These studies were conducted in many places around the world and show a correlation between daily ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate shifts and global planetary warming ( 3 ) could aggravate the situation. Besides, increased hospitalization (an index of morbidity) has been registered among the elderly and susceptible individuals for specific reasons. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter seems to be associated with more serious illnesses ( 6 ), as it can invade the deepest parts of the airways and more easily reach the bloodstream.

Air pollution mainly affects those living in large urban areas, where road emissions contribute the most to the degradation of air quality. There is also a danger of industrial accidents, where the spread of a toxic fog can be fatal to the populations of the surrounding areas. The dispersion of pollutants is determined by many parameters, most notably atmospheric stability and wind ( 6 ).

In developing countries ( 7 ), the problem is more serious due to overpopulation and uncontrolled urbanization along with the development of industrialization. This leads to poor air quality, especially in countries with social disparities and a lack of information on sustainable management of the environment. The use of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for domestic needs due to low incomes exposes people to bad-quality, polluted air at home. It is of note that three billion people around the world are using the above sources of energy for their daily heating and cooking needs ( 8 ). In developing countries, the women of the household seem to carry the highest risk for disease development due to their longer duration exposure to the indoor air pollution ( 8 , 9 ). Due to its fast industrial development and overpopulation, China is one of the Asian countries confronting serious air pollution problems ( 10 , 11 ). The lung cancer mortality observed in China is associated with fine particles ( 12 ). As stated already, long-term exposure is associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system ( 3 , 5 ). However, it is interesting to note that cardiovascular diseases have mostly been observed in developed and high-income countries rather than in the developing low-income countries exposed highly to air pollution ( 13 ). Extreme air pollution is recorded in India, where the air quality reaches hazardous levels. New Delhi is one of the more polluted cities in India. Flights in and out of New Delhi International Airport are often canceled due to the reduced visibility associated with air pollution. Pollution is occurring both in urban and rural areas in India due to the fast industrialization, urbanization, and rise in use of motorcycle transportation. Nevertheless, biomass combustion associated with heating and cooking needs and practices is a major source of household air pollution in India and in Nepal ( 14 , 15 ). There is spatial heterogeneity in India, as areas with diverse climatological conditions and population and education levels generate different indoor air qualities, with higher PM 2.5 observed in North Indian states (557–601 μg/m 3 ) compared to the Southern States (183–214 μg/m 3 ) ( 16 , 17 ). The cold climate of the North Indian areas may be the main reason for this, as longer periods at home and more heating are necessary compared to in the tropical climate of Southern India. Household air pollution in India is associated with major health effects, especially in women and young children, who stay indoors for longer periods. Chronic obstructive respiratory disease (CORD) and lung cancer are mostly observed in women, while acute lower respiratory disease is seen in young children under 5 years of age ( 18 ).

Accumulation of air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide and smoke, reaching 1,500 mg/m3, resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in December 1952 in London and in 1963 in New York City (400 deaths) ( 19 ). An association of pollution with mortality was reported on the basis of monitoring of outdoor pollution in six US metropolitan cities ( 20 ). In every case, it seems that mortality was closely related to the levels of fine, inhalable, and sulfate particles more than with the levels of total particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide ( 20 ).

Furthermore, extremely high levels of pollution are reported in Mexico City and Rio de Janeiro, followed by Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow ( 19 ).

Based on the magnitude of the public health impact, it is certain that different kinds of interventions should be taken into account. Success and effectiveness in controlling air pollution, specifically at the local level, have been reported. Adequate technological means are applied considering the source and the nature of the emission as well as its impact on health and the environment. The importance of point sources and non-point sources of air pollution control is reported by Schwela and Köth-Jahr ( 21 ). Without a doubt, a detailed emission inventory must record all sources in a given area. Beyond considering the above sources and their nature, topography and meteorology should also be considered, as stated previously. Assessment of the control policies and methods is often extrapolated from the local to the regional and then to the global scale. Air pollution may be dispersed and transported from one region to another area located far away. Air pollution management means the reduction to acceptable levels or possible elimination of air pollutants whose presence in the air affects our health or the environmental ecosystem. Private and governmental entities and authorities implement actions to ensure the air quality ( 22 ). Air quality standards and guidelines were adopted for the different pollutants by the WHO and EPA as a tool for the management of air quality ( 1 , 23 ). These standards have to be compared to the emissions inventory standards by causal analysis and dispersion modeling in order to reveal the problematic areas ( 24 ). Inventories are generally based on a combination of direct measurements and emissions modeling ( 24 ).

As an example, we state here the control measures at the source through the use of catalytic converters in cars. These are devices that turn the pollutants and toxic gases produced from combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants by catalysis through redox reactions ( 25 ). In Greece, the use of private cars was restricted by tracking their license plates in order to reduce traffic congestion during rush hour ( 25 ).

Concerning industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can keep the air pollution to the minimal standards imposed by legislation ( 26 ).

Current strategies to improve air quality require an estimation of the economic value of the benefits gained from proposed programs. These proposed programs by public authorities, and directives are issued with guidelines to be respected.

In Europe, air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are issued for setting off planning claims ( 27 ). In the USA, the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) establish the national air quality limit values ( 27 ). While both standards and directives are based on different mechanisms, significant success has been achieved in the reduction of overall emissions and associated health and environmental effects ( 27 ). The European Directive identifies geographical areas of risk exposure as monitoring/assessment zones to record the emission sources and levels of air pollution ( 27 ), whereas the USA establishes global geographical air quality criteria according to the severity of their air quality problem and records all sources of the pollutants and their precursors ( 27 ).

In this vein, funds have been financing, directly or indirectly, projects related to air quality along with the technical infrastructure to maintain good air quality. These plans focus on an inventory of databases from air quality environmental planning awareness campaigns. Moreover, pollution measures of air emissions may be taken for vehicles, machines, and industries in urban areas.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it is able to meet the needs of society. In this sense, technology must reflect the decision-making practices and procedures of those involved in risk assessment and evaluation and act as a facilitator in providing information and assessments to enable decision makers to make the best decisions possible. Summarizing the aforementioned in order to design an effective air quality control strategy, several aspects must be considered: environmental factors and ambient air quality conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs for technological improvement and administrative and legal costs. Considering the economic factor, competitiveness through neoliberal concepts is offering a solution to environmental problems ( 22 ).

The development of environmental governance, along with technological progress, has initiated the deployment of a dialogue. Environmental politics has created objections and points of opposition between different political parties, scientists, media, and governmental and non-governmental organizations ( 22 ). Radical environmental activism actions and movements have been created ( 22 ). The rise of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) are many times examined as to whether and in which way they have influenced means of communication and social movements such as activism ( 28 ). Since the 1990s, the term “digital activism” has been used increasingly and in many different disciplines ( 29 ). Nowadays, multiple digital technologies can be used to produce a digital activism outcome on environmental issues. More specifically, devices with online capabilities such as computers or mobile phones are being used as a way to pursue change in political and social affairs ( 30 ).

In the present paper, we focus on the sources of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose some solutions and interventions that may be of interest to environmental legislators and decision makers.

Sources of Exposure

It is known that the majority of environmental pollutants are emitted through large-scale human activities such as the use of industrial machinery, power-producing stations, combustion engines, and cars. Because these activities are performed at such a large scale, they are by far the major contributors to air pollution, with cars estimated to be responsible for approximately 80% of today's pollution ( 31 ). Some other human activities are also influencing our environment to a lesser extent, such as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures ( 32 ), as well as several natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. Therefore, it is worth mentioning the four main sources, following the classification system: Major sources, Area sources, Mobile sources, and Natural sources.

Major sources include the emission of pollutants from power stations, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, finally, municipal incineration.

Indoor area sources include domestic cleaning activities, dry cleaners, printing shops, and petrol stations.

Mobile sources include automobiles, cars, railways, airways, and other types of vehicles.

Finally, natural sources include, as stated previously, physical disasters ( 33 ) such as forest fire, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.

However, many classification systems have been proposed. Another type of classification is a grouping according to the recipient of the pollution, as follows:

Air pollution is determined as the presence of pollutants in the air in large quantities for long periods. Air pollutants are dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO 2 , NO, NO 2 , SO 3 , etc.

Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge and biological charge ( 10 ) at high levels that affect the water quality ( 34 , 35 ).

Soil pollution occurs through the release of chemicals or the disposal of wastes, such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

Air pollution can influence the quality of soil and water bodies by polluting precipitation, falling into water and soil environments ( 34 , 36 ). Notably, the chemistry of the soil can be amended due to acid precipitation by affecting plants, cultures, and water quality ( 37 ). Moreover, movement of heavy metals is favored by soil acidity, and metals are so then moving into the watery environment. It is known that heavy metals such as aluminum are noxious to wildlife and fishes. Soil quality seems to be of importance, as soils with low calcium carbonate levels are at increased jeopardy from acid rain. Over and above rain, snow and particulate matter drip into watery ' bodies ( 36 , 38 ).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution , releasing radioactive and nuclear pollutants into water, air, and soil during nuclear explosions and accidents, from nuclear weapons, and through handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive materials can contaminate surface water bodies and, being noxious to the environment, plants, animals, and humans. It is known that several radioactive substances such as radium and uranium concentrate in the bones and can cause cancers ( 38 , 39 ).

Noise pollution is produced by machines, vehicles, traffic noises, and musical installations that are harmful to our hearing.

The World Health Organization introduced the term DALYs. The DALYs for a disease or health condition is defined as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for people living with the health condition or its consequences ( 39 ). In Europe, air pollution is the main cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs), followed by noise pollution. The potential relationships of noise and air pollution with health have been studied ( 40 ). The study found that DALYs related to noise were more important than those related to air pollution, as the effects of environmental noise on cardiovascular disease were independent of air pollution ( 40 ). Environmental noise should be counted as an independent public health risk ( 40 ).

Environmental pollution occurs when changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses, temperature, climate, etc.) are produced.

Pollutants harm our environment either by increasing levels above normal or by introducing harmful toxic substances. Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously. Moreover, their origin can be a unique source (point-source) or dispersed sources.

Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds ( 41 – 43 ) have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size (solid or liquid) in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity. Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system ( 41 ). These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream ( 41 ), leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Moreover, the aerosol acidity ([H+]) seems to considerably enhance the production of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this last aspect is not supported by other scientific teams ( 38 ).

Climate and Pollution

Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth ( 44 ). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight. As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers.

In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe. Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe ( 45 ). Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector. Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria ( 46 ).

The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays ( 47 ). Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health ( 48 ).

The Chikungunya virus “took the airplane” from the Indian Ocean to Europe, as outbreaks of the disease were registered in Italy ( 49 ) as well as autochthonous cases in France ( 50 ).

An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding ( 36 , 51 ).

As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate. They are able to dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years ( 52 ).

Air Pollutants

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution ( 53 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter (PM) and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size ( 53 ). Particulate Matter (PM) was defined as a term for particles by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 54 ). Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with diameters of 10 micrometers (μm) or smaller, called PM 10 , and extremely fine particles with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers (μm) and smaller.

Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects ( 55 ). Particles <10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) after inhalation can invade the lungs and even reach the bloodstream. Fine particles, PM 2.5 , pose a greater risk to health ( 6 , 56 ) ( Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Penetrability according to particle size.

Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.5 and acute nasopharyngitis ( 56 ). In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality.

Those studies depend on PM 2.5 monitors and are restricted in terms of study area or city area due to a lack of spatially resolved daily PM 2.5 concentration data and, in this way, are not representative of the entire population. Following a recent epidemiological study by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, MA) ( 57 ), it was reported that, as PM 2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson error) seems to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not yet completely elucidated. The team developed a PM 2.5 exposure model based on remote sensing data for assessing short- and long-term human exposures ( 57 ). This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.

Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects ( 58 ). It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. PM 2.5 , followed by PM 10 , are strongly associated with diverse respiratory system diseases ( 59 ), as their size permits them to pierce interior spaces ( 60 ). The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can be organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals) in nature ( 55 ).

Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into four main categories according to type and size ( 61 ) ( Table 2 ).

Table 2 . Types and sizes of particulate Matter (PM).

Gas contaminants include PM in aerial masses.

Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust.

Biological Contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.

Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere is extended due to their tiny dimensions; this permits their long-lasting suspension in the atmosphere and even their transfer and spread to distant destinations where people and the environment may be exposed to the same magnitude of pollution ( 53 ). They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As stated, PM 2.5 , due to their tiny size, are causing more serious health effects. These aforementioned fine particles are the main cause of the “haze” formation in different metropolitan areas ( 12 , 13 , 61 ).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O 3 ) is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge ( 62 ). It is a strong oxidant, 52% stronger than chlorine. It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere ( 63 ).

Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses ( 64 ). It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation ( 65 ) as it is reducing carbon assimilation ( 66 ). Ozone reduces growth and yield ( 47 , 48 ) and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity ( 67 , 68 ). In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora ( 69 , 70 ) and animal species changing their species composition ( 71 ). Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function ( 72 ).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is generated through a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or following anthropogenic activities.

Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation. Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts ( 73 ). A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin (epidermis) but also depletion in vitamins C and E. It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease ( 74 ).

Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs ( 75 ).

Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders ( 76 ).

The European project (APHEA2) focuses on the acute effects of ambient ozone concentrations on mortality ( 77 ). Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period. During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths (0.33%), in the number of respiratory deaths (1.13%), and in the number of cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). No effect was observed during wintertime.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete. The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time. Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed.

Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur ( 68 ).

However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth ( 78 ).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2 )

Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines ( 79 , 80 ). It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels. It seems that concentrations over 0.2 ppm produce these adverse effects in humans, while concentrations higher than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes, particularly the CD8+ cells and NK cells that produce our immune response ( 81 ).It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell ( 81 ).

However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered ( 81 ).

High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency. Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics ( 81 ).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )

Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm ( 82 ). It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction. Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity) and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed ( 81 ).

Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions ( 83 ).

Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters ( 84 ).

Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft. Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries.

Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered ( 85 ). The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed ( 86 ). Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems. Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults ( 85 , 86 ).

Children and newborns ( 87 ) are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth. Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels ( 88 ).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal. They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines ( 89 ). PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer ( 89 ).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene ( 90 ), have been found to be associated with cancer in humans ( 91 ). The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs. VOCs pollute indoor air ( 90 ) and may have adverse effects on human health ( 91 ). Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions ( 92 ). Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects ( 91 , 93 ).

Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals ( 94 ).

Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin ( 94 ). Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer ( 94 ).

Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination. This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter ( 95 ).

Effect of Air Pollution on Health

The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter (PM). Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:

Outdoor pollution is the ambient air pollution.

Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.

People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health.

Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma.

As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified ( 57 ) due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors. New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully ( 57 ). Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.

Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.

These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term ( 96 ).

As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants. These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system ( 97 ). Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma ( 98 ). Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state. When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality ( 99 ). Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk ( 99 ).

Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants ( 100 ). Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality. Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions ( 101 ), while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO 2 ) ( 102 , 103 ).

Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.

Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution ( 83 ). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet. The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons ( 104 ) ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Impact of air pollutants on the brain.

Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period ( 105 ). In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins ( 106 ). The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution. Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs ( 105 , 107 ). Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.

However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants ( 108 ). Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain ( 108 ). Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway ( 60 ). For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele ( 61 ). Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) upregulate the innate immune Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles (CA, USA) particulate matter ( 61 ). In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure. These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity ( 109 ). No level of lead exposure seems to be “safe,” and the scientific community has asked the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to reduce the current screening guideline of 10 μg/dl ( 109 ).

It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation ( 104 ), is related to poor air quality. Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM) and the complement component C3 are observed ( 106 ). Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages ( 110 ).

As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. Traffic-related pollutants, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, may cause pigmented spots on our skin ( 111 ). On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung. On the other hand, air pollutants (and those in the troposphere) reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas ( 111 ). Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis ( 111 ), usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke ( 111 ). Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer ( 111 ).

Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers. Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported ( 112 ).

Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation ( 112 ), retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome ( 113 , 114 ).

Environmental Impact of Air Pollution

Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment ( 115 ) in which we live. The most important environmental effects are as follows.

Acid rain is wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.

Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life (skin cancer) ( 116 ) and crops ( 117 ). In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis ( 118 ).

Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. As is known, the “greenhouse effect” keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment. A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people ( 119 ).

People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount ( 119 ).

Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants. Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported.

Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients (especially nitrogen) stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity. The Canada Acid Rain Program established this load at 20 kg/ha/yr ( 120 ).

Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water ( 121 ). Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported. Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential ( 121 ).

An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone ( 121 ).

Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living creatures ( 121 ).

In 2018, during the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, the WHO's General Director, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, called air pollution a “silent public health emergency” and “the new tobacco” ( 122 ).

Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development. Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects.

Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school.

Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.

Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 set as a major target the reduction of GHG emissions to below 5% by 2012 ( 123 ). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, 2009 ( 124 ), and then the Durban summit of 2011 ( 125 ), where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. Among the pioneers who adopted this important protocol for the world's environmental and climate “health” was China ( 3 ). As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is expected to be very high by 2050, which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions.

A more recent international agreement of crucial importance for climate change is the Paris Agreement of 2015, issued by the UNFCCC (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN (United Nations) countries as well as the countries of the European Union ( 126 ). In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject. Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution ( 126 ). Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.

Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.

At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control. Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

IM is employed by the company Delphis S.A.

The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: air pollution, environment, health, public health, gas emission, policy

Citation: Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A and Bezirtzoglou E (2020) Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health 8:14. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014

Received: 17 October 2019; Accepted: 17 January 2020; Published: 20 February 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Manisalidis, Stavropoulou, Stavropoulos and Bezirtzoglou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Ioannis Manisalidis, giannismanisal@gmail.com ; Elisavet Stavropoulou, elisabeth.stavropoulou@gmail.com

† These authors have contributed equally to this work

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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3 Major Effects of Air Pollution on the Environment

Air pollution is a relatively less discussed problem since it is often invisible, except the extreme cases like smog in Beijing , and its effects do not manifest themselves in an instant but over a long period. Nevertheless, the negative effects of air pollution on the environment can be vast and significant, and are the culprits of many unnatural environmental phenomena.

What is Air Pollution and How is It Measured?

The most well-known indicator of air pollution is the Air Quality Index (AQI), which rates cities all over the world on a scale of 0 to 500. A lower value indicates a lower level of air pollution and vice versa. It should be noted that each country has its own AQI, but most countries include the measurement of five major air pollutants : ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and airborne particles. These air pollutants are formed due to different complex chemical reactions; air pollution can be generally ascribed to burning fossil fuels.

Effects of Air Pollution on the Environment

1. acid rain.

Pure water, meaning distilled water or deionised water, has the value of pH7 whereas water from rainfall is between 5 and 5.5, which is slightly acidic. Rainwater will become much more acidic when it is mixed with certain air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Typically, rain with a pH value of 4 is considered acid rain, of which the acidity is 10 times that of pH 5. Acid rain is incredibly harmful to natural ecosystems, in particular, its impact on soil. About 45% of the components of soil are minerals including aluminium. If soil becomes acidic, its aluminium will become soluble and interfere with the root’s cell division as well as its ability to elongate. At the same time, essential nutrients for plants such as calcium will be reduced by exposure to acid rain; this makes it difficult for plants to consume water. Acid rain also threatens wildlife, especially aquatic animals since most function at the optimal pH value between 6.5 to 8.5.

2. Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the situation in which a waterbody is enriched with minerals and nutrients that may eventually result in excessive growth of algae. Algae not only blocks out the sunlight from underwater plants, which is necessary for photosynthesis, but it also consumes large amounts of oxygen in the water.  Consequently, aquatic plants and animals may die due to the scarcity of nutrients in the water. 

Although this phenomenon can occur naturally, it is indisputable that human activities have been accelerating the process. Nitrogen dioxide that is excessively generated during the production of energy is one of the fundamental nutrients that the growth of algae requires. The use of fertiliser also contributes to eutrophication as nitrogen fertiliser is often applied in agriculture for multiple reasons: Increasing the speed of development of plants, preventing leaves from turning yellow et cetera. Excessive fertiliser not absorbed by plants that are left on the land will eventually be deposited into the waterbody nearby via rainfall.

You might also like: 10 Facts About Air Pollution That’ll Take Your Breath Away

3. Climate Change

The relationship between air pollution and climate change is complex as air pollutants are generally distinguished from greenhouse gases in terms of their effects, even though they are produced from similar sources and human activities.

Air pollutants are substances that have direct impacts on our health and the ecosystem while greenhouse gases damage the planet by warming it, which threatens the survival of all lives on it. Yet, on some occasions, this categorisation results in an overestimation of the scale of the differences between the two categories. Some air pollutants such as ground-level ozone also possess warming power, which can trap heat from the sun in the atmosphere. 

However, it is worth noting that some air pollutants have been discovered to have a positive effect on resisting climate change. Aerosol, a suspension of airborne particles usually formed during the process of burning fossil fuels, is found to possess cooling power. Aerosol helps to cool the planet in two different ways: to change the amount of solar energy entering and leaving the atmosphere, and its ability to form clouds. Since aerosol is mostly light-coloured, it can bounce solar radiation back to space. The cooling power of aerosol can be enormous. For example, during the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991, about 20 million tons of sulphur dioxide and ash particles were blasted into the atmosphere over 12 miles. Afterwards, the planet cooled for two consecutive years.

Its other cooling power is its ability to facilitate the formation of clouds. To form a cloud, water vapour needs to be condensed into water droplets. Condensation will not be possible without airborne particles, which provide surfaces for water vapour to transform itself into liquid. More surfaces reserved for condensation are available in the atmosphere due to the emergence of aerosol, more clouds are hence formed. The cooling power of clouds can also be attributed to the light colour, which helps to reflect the sunlight out to space. Scientists have been exploring the possibility of manipulating aerosols to slow down climate change, but the challenge is to control the number of airborne particles within a range where no threat is posed to our health and the ecosystem.

What Can We Do?

Despite most air pollution being generated from burning fossil fuels, as much as 95% of carbon monoxide comes from motor vehicles in some cities. One of the most efficient methods to reduce the effects of air pollution on the environment is by modifying the way we use motor vehicles.

There are many little things that we can easily do as individuals; instead of driving, opt for walking or biking if the travel distance is short, and use public transportation if available. The market also provides consumers with more choices, including electric or hybrid vehicles, to alleviate air pollution.

At the national level, things can be more complex since environmental policies are usually detrimental to the countries’ economic development. But there are many policies in which wealthier countries should consider and adopt, including a carbon tax system. 

While the original purpose of a carbon tax is to provide an economic incentive to companies and individuals to emit less carbon dioxide by charging consumers at the point of purchase, its function is not limited to fighting against climate change. As air pollution and greenhouse gases are mostly generated from the same human activities – burning of fossil fuels, emission from vehicles – implementing a carbon tax can hit two birds with one stone.

Featured image by: Rawpixel

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Air Pollution Essay for Students in English: 100, 200 and 500 Words

Air pollution is becoming a serious issue that’s affecting human health, flora and fauna and overall well-being of Earth. As responsible citizens of the world, it’s our duty to take care of anything that’s harming the planet and leave it in better condition for future generations. Here are a few sample essays children can use to write about air pollution and learn about different ways to mitigate this crisis.

100 Words Essay on Air Pollution

200 words essay on air pollution, 500 words essay on air pollution.

Any physical, chemical, or biological alteration in the air is referred to as air pollution. The atmosphere contains a specific portion of the gas. It is harmful to survival to change the makeup of these gases. “Global warming” is the term used to describe the rise in global temperature caused by this imbalance in gas composition. Hazardous pollutants, whether present naturally or artificially, can modify the environment and have a negative impact on the ecosystem. Ineffective resource management and reckless human activity are harming the environment and therefore it is our responsibility as inhabitants of Earth to take care of it.

Pollution is any activity that tampers with the environment's fundamental characteristics and causes damage. The air we breathe is no longer clean and fresh, it has been contaminated by pollutants. The threat to Earth and its ecosystem is getting worse as a result of the contamination of the air, water, and soil. These pollutants are causing a number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases—our immune system is getting affected negatively, and children are at a high risk of developing asthma and other breathing problems. There are numerous factors that frequently increase this air pollution. Automobiles, transportation methods, industrialization, expanding cities, etc. are the main causes of air pollution. The contamination of the entire atmosphere is brought on by the release of various toxic gases or dangerous components from such sources.

Air pollution, which has a negative impact on the environment, also has a significant impact on the ozone layer. The primary contributor to pollution is the ever-increasing demands of the human population. Daily human activities pump harmful chemicals into the atmosphere, making it more polluted than ever and accelerating climate change. The flora and fauna are also being severely impacted by the airborne harmful chemical releases. The rising contamination of the Earth's air, water, and soil—the essential life support systems of the planet—poses a major threat to the planet and its environment.

One of today's top environmental concerns is air pollution. There are numerous factors that frequently increase this air pollution. Toxic gases, particulates, paint, and batteries containing lead are released throughout the industrialization process. The ozone layer is also being destroyed and the world is being exposed to dangerous solar rays as a result of all the contaminants in touch with the atmosphere.

Ozone is a contaminant that exists at the ground level and can be harmful to human health. But the same ozone creates a layer of defence in the stratosphere. The "good" ozone, however, is being destroyed by ozone-depleting substances—such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and chlorofluorocarbons. These chemicals were once used in coolants, foaming agents, insecticides, solvents, and fire extinguishers and occasionally still are.

Primary and secondary pollutants are the two categories that have emerged as a result of the growing number of air pollutants. Primary pollutants, which include smoke, ash, dust, fumes, mist, spray, inorganic gases, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and radioactive substances, have a direct negative impact on fresh air. Secondary pollutants are those that interact chemically with primary pollutants, as well as other elements in the atmosphere, such as sulphate trioxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide.

Causes of Air Pollution

The disposal of solid wastes that release methane gas and the breakdown of trash landfills are major sources of air pollution. This problem has become a severe environmental and health issue as a result of the population's rapid development, industrialisation, and greater use of cars, planes, and other transportation.

Common Effects of Air Pollution

Pollutants in the air we breathe every minute enter our bloodstream and travel to our lungs and entire body, producing a plethora of health issues. Animals can have health issues similar to people if they are exposed to air toxics in high enough quantities over an extended period of time. Air toxics also play a role in animal sickness, infertility, and birth abnormalities. Therefore, both directly and indirectly, pollution of the environment harms both plants, animals, and people.

What Can We Do

Using public transportation is a surefire short method to reduce air pollution because it uses less gas and electricity, even carpools help with the situation. A permanent, non-polluting, and extremely secure source of energy is the sun or solar power. Solar panels, which are special in design and simple to install, are also a technical benefit to society and the planet. They take in solar energy and store it to power various equipment and electronics. Another step you can take on this path is to plant more trees and live a simplistic life. Minimalist living is not only a trendy millennial lifestyle, but it also has significant societal and environmental benefits.

Air pollution may reach one million tonnes annually in the next decades if environmental protection measures are not taken seriously and effectively enforced. We need to drastically alter our everyday routines if we want to lower the level of air pollution. By making better use of raw materials, water energy, and other resources, we can reduce pollution. Human health can be safeguarded and economic wellbeing can be increased when less harmful compounds are exchanged for hazardous ones.

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Essay on Environmental Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environmental pollution.

Essay on Environmental Pollution – Environment is the surroundings in which we live. But the contamination of our environment by pollutants is environmental pollution. The current stage of the earth that we are seeing is the cause of centuries of exploitation of earth and its resources.

Moreover, the earth cannot restore its balance because of environmental pollution . The human force has created and destroyed life on earth. Human plays a vital role in the degradation of the environment.

Effect of pollution on the health

The environmental pollution, directly and indirectly, affects the lives of humans and other species. These living beings co-existed on the earth with human from centuries.

Effect on Air

Carbon and dust particles string up with the air in the form of smog, damaging respiratory system , haze, and smoke. These are caused by the emission of industrial and manufacturing units by burning of fossil fuels, vehicle combustion of carbon fumes.

Moreover, these factors affect the immune system of birds which become a carrier of viruses and infections.

Besides, it also affects the body system and body organs.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Effects on Land, Soil, and Food

Human’s organic and chemical both waste harm the land and soil with its decomposition. Also, it introduces some chemical in the soil and water. Land and soil pollution mainly caused by the use of pesticides, fertilizers , soil erosion, and crop residues.

Effect on Water

Water gets contaminated easily with any pollutant whether it is human waste or chemical discharge from factories. Also, we use this water for irrigation of crops and drinking. But, because of infection they become contaminated too. Besides, an animal dies because they drink this same contaminated water.

Moreover, around 80% of pollutants of land such as chemical, industrial and agricultural waste end up in the water bodies.

Besides, these water bodies ultimately connect to the sea which means it indirectly pollutes the biodiversity of the sea.

Effect on Food

Because of contaminated soil and water, the crop or agricultural produce also get toxic. Furthermore, this contaminated food effect our health and organs. From the beginning of their life, these crops are laced with chemical components that reach a mass level until the time of harvest.

Effect on Climate

Climate change is also a cause of environmental pollution. Also, it affects the physical and biological components of the ecosystem.

Moreover, ozone depletion, greenhouse gases, global warming all these climate changes are a cause of environmental pollution.

Furthermore, some unstable climate changes are earthquakes, famine, smog, carbon particles, shallow rain or snow, thunderstorms, volcanic eruption, and avalanches are all because of climate change that happens all because of environmental pollution.

In conclusion, man has exploited the wealth of nature at the cost of his and environments health. Also, the effect that is now emerging rapidly is all because of the activities of humans for hundreds or thousands of years.

Above all, if we wish to survive and continue our life on earth then we have to take measures. These measures will help is securing our as well as our next generation future.

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Essay On Environmental Pollution

Table of Contents

Short Essay On Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment. It is a major problem in today’s world and has a profound impact on both the natural world and human lives.

The sources of environmental pollution are numerous and varied, including industrial activities, transportation, and household waste. One of the most significant contributors to environmental pollution is the burning of fossil fuels, which releases toxic chemicals and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This not only contributes to air pollution, but it also has a significant impact on climate change, causing rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and melting of polar ice caps.

Another major source of environmental pollution is the disposal of hazardous waste. This includes chemicals, batteries, and electronic waste, which contain toxic substances that can contaminate soil and groundwater, leading to serious health problems for both humans and wildlife.

The effects of environmental pollution are far-reaching and often devastating. It can cause serious health problems for humans, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer. Additionally, environmental pollution can have a significant impact on wildlife, causing a decline in biodiversity and threatening species with extinction.

To address environmental pollution, it is essential that we take a multi-faceted approach, addressing both the causes and consequences of pollution. This may involve reducing the use of fossil fuels and implementing clean energy technologies, as well as improving waste management and increasing public awareness about the impact of pollution.

In conclusion, environmental pollution is a serious problem that has a profound impact on both the natural world and human lives. To address this problem, it is essential that we take a comprehensive approach, addressing the causes and consequences of pollution and working to reduce its impact on the environment. By taking action now, we can protect the future of our planet and ensure a healthy and sustainable future for generations to come.

Long Essay On Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution is one of the biggest threats to our planet today. It affects both the environment and human health, and it’s becoming more and more pervasive in our daily lives. In this essay, we’ll explore what environmental pollution is, how it affects us, and what the most effective solutions are to reduce its impact on people and the planet.

Introduction

There are many different types of environmental pollution. Some of the most common include air pollution, water pollution, and soil contamination. Each type of pollution has different causes and effects. Air pollution is typically caused by emissions from factories and automobiles. These emissions can contain harmful chemicals that can cause respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer. Water pollution is often caused by sewage or agricultural runoff. This pollution can contaminate drinking water supplies and make people sick. Soil contamination can be caused by hazardous waste disposal or mining operations. This contamination can make crops unsafe to eat and cause health problems in people who come into contact with it.

Causes of Environmental Pollution

There are many causes of environmental pollution. The most common cause is the release of harmful chemicals into the environment. These chemicals can come from factories, power plants, cars, and other sources. They can pollute the air, water, and soil. They can also cause health problems for people and animals.

Other causes of environmental pollution include sewage, agricultural runoff, and mining. Sewage can contain harmful bacteria and viruses that can pollute water supplies. Agricultural runoff can contain pesticides and fertilizers that can pollute rivers and lakes. Mining can release harmful metals and minerals into the environment.

Types of Pollutants and Their Impact on the Environment

There are many different types of pollutants that can have an adverse impact on the environment. Some of the most common pollutants include:

• Air pollution – This is one of the most visible forms of pollution and can cause a range of health problems, including respiratory illnesses.

• Water pollution – This can lead to contamination of drinking water supplies and also harm marine life.

• Soil pollution – This can contaminate crops and lead to soil erosion.

• Light pollution – This can disrupt the natural circadian rhythms of animals and cause light-sensitive species to suffer.

All of these pollutants can have a serious impact on the environment, both in terms of the immediate damage they cause and also the long-term effects. It is therefore important to be aware of the different types of pollutants and their potential impacts.

Effects Of Environmental Pollution

There are many effects of environmental pollution. Some of the most common include air pollution, water pollution, and soil contamination.

Air pollution is one of the most harmful forms of environmental pollution. It is a major contributor to respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer. Air pollution is also a leading cause of climate change.

Water pollution is another major problem caused by environmental pollution. It can contaminate drinking water supplies, damage aquatic ecosystems, and make recreation in waterways unsafe.

Soil contamination can occur when pollutants such as chemicals or oil spills enter the ground. This can make crops difficult to grow and can contaminate food supplies. Soil contamination can also cause health problems if people come into contact with contaminated soil or eat contaminated food.

Prevention and Control Measures

There are a number of things that individuals can do to help prevent and reduce environmental pollution. One of the most important things is to educate yourself and others about the issue and its causes. This can help raise awareness and create a demand for change. Another key prevention measure is to support businesses and industries that are working to reduce their pollution output. This includes voting with your wallet by patronizing companies that have green policies in place, and investing in cleaner energy sources. Finally, you can take action in your own life to reduce your impact on the environment. This includes conserving energy, recycling, driving less, and composting.

In conclusion, environmental pollution has become a major global concern and it is important for us to take proactive steps to reduce the amount of pollutants that are entering our environment. We can start by reducing our consumption of single-use products, switching to renewable energy sources such as solar or wind power, and engaging in conscientious recycling habits. By taking these actions we can help protect our planet from further harm caused by environmental pollution.

Manisha Dubey Jha is a skilled educational content writer with 5 years of experience. Specializing in essays and paragraphs, she’s dedicated to crafting engaging and informative content that enriches learning experiences.

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• Environmental Pollution Essay

Essay on Environmental Pollution

The environment is the surrounding of an organism. The environment in which an organism lives is made up of various components like air, water, land, etc. These components are found in fixed proportions to create a harmonious balance in the environment for the organism to live in. Any kind of undesirable and unwanted change in the proportions of these components can be termed as pollution. This issue is increasing with every passing year. It is an issue that creates economic, physical, and social troubles. The environmental problem that is worsening with each day needs to be addressed so that its harmful effects on humans as well as the planet can be discarded.

Causes of Environmental Pollution 

With the rise of the industries and the migration of people from villages to cities in search of employment, there has been a regular increase in the problem of proper housing and unhygienic living conditions. These reasons have given rise to factors that cause pollution. 

Environmental pollution is of five basic types namely, Air, Water, Soil, and Noise pollution. 

Air Pollution: Air pollution is a major issue in today’s world. The smoke pouring out of factory chimneys and automobiles pollute the air that we breathe in. Gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide are emitted with this smoke which mixes with air and causes great harm to the human body, flora, and fauna. The dry-farm waste, dry grass, leaves, and coal used as domestic fuels in our villages also produce harmful gases. Acid rain occurs due to an excess of sulphur dioxide in the air.

The Main Sources of Air Pollution are as Follows:  

Automobile pollution 

Industrial air pollution 

Burning garbage 

Brick kilns 

Indoor air pollution 

Decomposed animals and plants 

Radioactive elements

Water Pollution: Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental issues. The waste products from the growing industries and sewage water are not treated properly before disposing of the wastewater into the rivers and other water bodies, thus leading to water pollution. Agricultural processes with excess fertilizers and pesticides also pollute the water bodies. 

The Main Sources of Water Pollution as Follows:  

Marine commerce. 

Industrial effluents joining seas and oceans. 

Dumping of radioactive substances into seawater. 

Sewage is disposed of into the sea by rivers. 

Offshore oil rigs. 

Recreational activities. 

Agricultural pollutants are disposed of into the water bodies.

Soil or Land Pollution: Soil pollution or land pollution results from the deposition of solid waste, accumulation of biodegradable material, deposition of chemicals with poisonous chemical compositions, etc on the open land. Waste materials such as plastics, polythene, and bottles, cause land pollution and render the soil infertile. Moreover, the dumping of dead bodies of animals adds to this issue. Soil pollution causes several diseases in man and animals like Cholera, Dysentery, Typhoid, etc.

The Main Causes of Soil Pollution are as Follows:  

Industrial waste 

Urban commercial and domestic waste 

Chemical fertilizers 

Biomedical waste 

Noise Pollution: With an increasing population, urbanization, and industrialization, noise pollution is becoming a serious form of pollution affecting human life, health, and comfort in daily life. Horns of vehicles, loudspeakers, music systems, and industrial activities contribute to noise pollution. 

The Main Sources of Noise Pollution as Follows:  

The machines in the factories and industries produce whistling sounds, crushing noise, and thundering sounds. 

Loudspeakers, horns of vehicles. 

Blasting of rocks and earth, drilling tube wells, ventilation fans, and heavy earth-moving machinery at construction sites.

How Pollution Harms Health and Environment

The lives of people and other creatures are affected by environmental pollution, both directly and indirectly. For centuries, these living organisms have coexisted with humans on the planet. 

1. Effect on the Environment

Smog is formed when carbon and dust particles bind together in the air, causing respiratory problems, haze, and smoke. These are created by the combustion of fossil fuels in industrial and manufacturing facilities and vehicle combustion of carbon fumes. 

Furthermore, these factors impact the immune systems of birds, making them carriers of viruses and diseases. It also has an impact on the body's system and organs. 

2.  Land, Soil, and Food Effects 

The degradation of human organic and chemical waste harms the land and soil. It also releases chemicals into the land and water. Pesticides, fertilisers, soil erosion, and crop residues are the main causes of land and soil pollution. 

3. Effects on water 

Water is easily contaminated by any pollutant, whether it be human waste or factory chemical discharge. We also use this water for crop irrigation and drinking. They, too, get polluted as a result of infection. Furthermore, an animal dies as a result of drinking the same tainted water. 

Furthermore, approximately 80% of land-based pollutants such as chemical, industrial, and agricultural waste wind up in water bodies. 

Furthermore, because these water basins eventually link to the sea, they contaminate the sea's biodiversity indirectly. 

4. Food Reaction

Crops and agricultural produce become poisonous as a result of contaminated soil and water. These crops are laced with chemical components from the start of their lives until harvest when they reach a mass level. Due to this, tainted food has an impact on our health and organs. 

5. Climate Change Impact 

Climate change is also a source of pollution in the environment. It also has an impact on the ecosystem's physical and biological components. 

Ozone depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming are all examples of environmental pollution. Because these water basins eventually link to the sea, they contaminate the sea's biodiversity indirectly. Furthermore, their consequences may be fatal for future generations. The unpredictably cold and hot climate impacts the earth’s natural system. 

Furthermore, earthquakes, starvation, smog, carbon particles, shallow rain or snow, thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, and avalanches are all caused by climate change, caused entirely by environmental pollution.

How to Minimise Environmental Pollution? 

To minimise this issue, some preventive measures need to be taken. 

Principle of 3R’s: To save the environment, use the principle of 3 R’s; Reuse, Reduce and Recycle. 

Reuse products again and again. Instead of throwing away things after one use, find a way to use them again.  Reduce the generation of waste products.  

Recycle: Paper, plastics, glass, and electronic items can be processed into new products while using fewer natural resources and lesser energy. 

To prevent and control air pollution, better-designed equipment, and smokeless fuels should be used in homes and industries. More and more trees should be planted to balance the ecosystem and control greenhouse effects. 

Noise pollution can be minimised by better design and proper maintenance of vehicles. Industrial noise can be reduced by soundproofing equipment like generators, etc.  

To control soil pollution, we must stop the usage of plastic. Sewage should be treated properly before using it as fertilizers and as landfills. Encourage organic farming as this process involves the use of biological materials and avoiding synthetic substances to maintain soil fertility and ecological balance. 

Several measures can be adopted to control water pollution. Some of them are water consumption and usage that can be minimized by altering the techniques involved. Water should be reused with treatment. 

The melting icebergs in Antarctica resulted in rising sea levels due to the world's environmental pollution, which had become a serious problem due to global warming, which had become a significant concern. Rising carbon pollution poses a risk for causing natural disasters such as earthquakes, cyclones, and other natural disasters. 

The Hiroshima-Nagasaki and Chernobyl disasters in Russia have irreversibly harmed humanity. Different countries around the world are responding to these calamities in the most effective way possible. 

Different countries around the world are responding to these calamities in the most effective way possible. More public awareness campaigns are being established to educate people about the hazards of pollution and the importance of protecting our environment. Greener lifestyles are becoming more popular; for example, energy-efficient lighting, new climate-friendly autos, and the usage of wind and solar power are just a few examples. 

Governments emphasise the need to plant more trees, minimise the use of plastics, improve natural waste recovery, and reduce pesticide use. This ecological way of living has helped humanity save other creatures from extinction while making the Earth a greener and safer ecology. 

 Conclusion

It is the responsibility of every individual to save our planet from these environmental contamination agents. If preventive measures are not taken then our future generation will have to face major repercussions. The government is also taking steps to create public awareness. Every individual should be involved in helping to reduce and control pollution.

FAQs on Environmental Pollution Essay

1. What do you understand by ‘Environmental Pollution’?  

Environmental pollution is the contamination of the environment and surroundings like air, water, soil by the discharge of harmful substances.

2. What preventive measures should be taken to save our environment?

Some of the preventive measures that should be taken to save our environment are discussed below. 

We can save our environment by adopting the concept of carpooling and promoting public transport to save fuel. Smoking bars are public policies, including criminal laws and occupational safety and health regulations that prohibit tobacco smoking in workplaces and other public places.  

The use of Fossil fuels should be restricted because it causes major environmental issues like global warming.  

Encourage organic farming to maintain the fertility of the soil.

3.  What are the main sources of soil pollution?

The main sources of soil pollution as follows:

Industrial waste

Urban commercial and domestic waste

Chemical fertilizers

Biomedical waste

4. What is organic farming?

 It is a farming method that involves growing and nurturing crops without the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Essay Service Examples Environment Air Pollution

Essay on Air Pollution

Table of contents

Essay on air pollution 1 (100 words), essay on air pollution 2 (200 words), essay on air pollution 3 (300 words), essay on air pollution 4 (400 words), essay on air pollution 5 (500 words), essay on air pollution 6 (600 words), essay on air pollution 7 (1200 words), i. introduction, ii. effects of air pollution, iii. methods to reduce air pollution, iv. conclusion.

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• Transition to Clean Energy: Promote the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. Encouraging the adoption of electric vehicles and supporting the development of sustainable transportation systems can significantly reduce emissions from the transportation sector.
• Improve Industrial Practices: Implement stricter emission standards and regulations for industries, requiring the use of advanced pollution control technologies. Encourage companies to adopt cleaner production methods and invest in research and development for innovative solutions.
• Enhance Waste Management: Encourage recycling and waste reduction initiatives to minimize the release of pollutants from waste incineration and landfill sites. Proper disposal of hazardous materials and the promotion of circular economy principles are crucial in reducing pollution levels.
• Reforestation and Green Spaces: Planting trees and creating green spaces in urban areas can help absorb pollutants and improve air quality. Urban planning should prioritize the incorporation of green infrastructure, including parks, gardens, and rooftop gardens, to mitigate the effects of air pollution.
• Raise Awareness and Education: Educate the public about the impacts of air pollution and promote sustainable lifestyle choices. Encourage individuals to reduce their carbon footprint by conserving energy, using public transportation, and practicing eco-friendly habits.

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Health consequences of air pollution on populations

What are the public health impacts of air pollution.

Exposure to high levels of air pollution can cause various health outcomes. Therefore, the short—and long-term public health consequences of air pollution exposure should be carefully assessed, in particular the impacts of fine particles which penetrate deep into the lung passageways and pose a significant threat to public health. Increased health risks, such as respiratory infections, heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer, can severely affect people who are already ill, such as children, the elderly, and poor people. Furthermore, poor air quality increases the risk of stillbirth, miscarriage, and neurological conditions such as cognitive impairment and dementia.

In 2019, air pollution caused about 6.7 million deaths . Of these, almost 85% are attributable to noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), including ischemic heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and diabetes. This makes air pollution the second leading cause of NCDs globally after tobacco.

What can we do to protect ourselves?

Solutions to air pollution are everybody’s responsibility to protect public health. We all need to do more--a lot more--swiftly and proactively to reduce air pollution. Coordinated efforts with active involvement of all sectors are crucial. This includes governments (on national, state, and local levels), cities, communities, and individuals.

To national governments : Reduce emissions and set national standards that meet WHO air quality guidelines . Invest in research and education about clean air and pollution—here are some vital tools to tools to evaluate policies and progress on air quality actions policies and progress on air quality actions.

T o cities and local communities : Different sectors should include health in all policies, with sufficient data and tools to assess health outcomes.

To individuals : Stand up for your right to healthy and sustainable environments. Hold your government accountable.

All of us  – Think and rethink how we live and consume and make sustainable choices for ourselves, our children, and our children’s children.

What is particulate matter?

Particulate matter (PM) is particles in the air, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. Diesel vehicles and coal-fired power plants typically emit large particulate matter concentrations. For example, particles smaller than 10 micrometers in diameter (PM 10 ) pose a serious health concern because they can be inhaled and accumulate in the respiratory system. Specifically, particles less than 2.5 micrometres in diameter (PM 2.5 ), also called "fine" particles, pose the greatest health risks. Because of their small size (approximately 1/30 th  the average width of a human hair), they lodge themselves deep into the lungs and can penetrate into the blood stream.

What are the sources of air pollution?

Major sources of air pollution include inefficient modes of transport (polluting fuels and vehicles), inefficient combustion of household fuels for cooking, lighting and heating, coal-fired power plants, agriculture, and waste burning.

Some air pollutants are also greenhouse gases and with significant climate impacts. This further affects the burden of morbidity and mortality caused by air pollution.

What can countries do to reduce air pollution?

Interventions to reduce the health consequences of air pollution include:

• developing sustainable transport in cities
• implementing solid waste management
• providing access to clean household fuels and cookstoves
• developing market for renewable energies and energy efficiency
• implementing industrial emissions reductions.

How does WHO work with countries to reduce air pollution?

WHO identifies and monitors air pollutants that have the greatest impact on people's health. This, in turn, supports countries in focusing on the most effective way to prevent or reduce health risks. WHO reviews and analyzes scientific evidence and uses expert advice to draw conclusions on how air pollutants affect health. It identifies effective measures to reduce air pollution.

In 2015, WHO Member States adopted a resolution to “address the adverse health effects of air pollution” . Member States then agreed on a road map for “ an enhanced global response to the adverse health effects of air pollution” . WHO's work to address the health consequences of air pollution and lack of energy access rests on four pillars:

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• Global leadership and coordination
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WHO's Strategy on Air Quality and Health

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1. Knowledge, evidence and measuring progress;

2. Institutional capacity building and technical support; and

3. Leadership and coordination.

The  “WHO Strategic Approach for Air Quality, Energy Access and Health”  elaborates a framework and related actions for 2023-2030 to strengthen WHO’s efforts to protect populations from the health consequences of air pollution and lack of energy access.

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This press release was updated on 25 June 2024 to reflect revised data and links.

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Effects of air pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran

Adel ghorani-azam.

Medical Toxicology Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Bamdad Riahi-Zanjani

Mahdi balali-mood.

Air pollution is a major concern of new civilized world, which has a serious toxicological impact on human health and the environment. It has a number of different emission sources, but motor vehicles and industrial processes contribute the major part of air pollution. According to the World Health Organization, six major air pollutants include particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Long and short term exposure to air suspended toxicants has a different toxicological impact on human including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, neuropsychiatric complications, the eyes irritation, skin diseases, and long-term chronic diseases such as cancer. Several reports have revealed the direct association between exposure to the poor air quality and increasing rate of morbidity and mortality mostly due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Air pollution is considered as the major environmental risk factor in the incidence and progression of some diseases such as asthma, lung cancer, ventricular hypertrophy, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight. In this review article, we aimed to discuss toxicology of major air pollutants, sources of emission, and their impact on human health. We have also proposed practical measures to reduce air pollution in Iran.

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution is a major problem of recent decades, which has a serious toxicological impact on human health and the environment. The sources of pollution vary from small unit of cigarettes and natural sources such as volcanic activities to large volume of emission from motor engines of automobiles and industrial activities.[ 1 , 2 ] Long-term effects of air pollution on the onset of diseases such as respiratory infections and inflammations, cardiovascular dysfunctions, and cancer is widely accepted;[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ] hence, air pollution is linked with millions of death globally each year.[ 7 , 8 , 9 ] A recent study has revealed the association between male infertility and air pollution.[ 10 ]

Air pollution has now emerged in developing countries as a result of industrial activities and also increase the quantity of emission sources such as inappropriate vehicles.[ 11 , 12 , 13 ] About 4.3 million people die from household air pollution and 3.7 million from ambient air pollution, most of whom (3.3 and 2.6 million, respectively) live in Asia.[ 14 ] In Iran, as a developing country, the level of air pollutants has increased gradually since the beginning of industrialization in the 1970s, but it has reached a very harmful level in some megacities such as Tehran, Mashhad, Tabriz, Isfahan, Ahvaz, Arak, and Karaj over the past two decades. Iran is the world's third main polluted country in the world, which results in 16 billion $ annual loss.[ 15 ] In fact, four of the top ten air-polluted cities are in Iran. Ahvaz is the most air polluted city in the world with microdust blowing in from neighboring countries, and particulate levels three times that of Beijing, and nearly 13 times that of London.[ 16 ] Air pollution caused almost 4460 deaths in 2013 only in Tehran although the reality seemed higher and is getting worse every year.[ 17 ] Therefore, it is of great importance to describe the problem, particularly its toxic effects on human health and provide recommendations as a basis for environmental guidelines and standard protocols in the field of air pollution in Iran.

The present article is neither a systematic review nor a descriptive, educational study. It is a problem-based descriptive review in which the authors try to explain a problem which is the major health and ecological problem in developing countries like Iran. In this review, we have tried to summarize the toxicology of air pollutants and related diseases with a possible mechanism of action and appropriate management of the patients. Therefore, it shall be useful for the environmental and health professionals particularly policy makers, emergency physicians, and other clinicians who may be involved in air pollution and related diseases. In this paper, we also discuss sources of air pollution and proposed some feasible solutions which may be beneficial for the environmental legislators and decision makers.

DEFINITIONS

Air pollution is defined as all destructive effects of any sources which contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere and/or deterioration of the ecosystem. Air pollution is caused by both human interventions and/or natural phenomena. It is made up of many kinds of pollutants including materials in solid, liquid, and gas phases.[ 18 ] Air pollutions of indoors will not be specifically considered in this article.

The Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) is a numerical value and indicator of pollutants that is normally used to facilitate risk assessment. It is a numeric value between zero to 500.[ 19 ] PSI is a guideline for reporting air quality which was first introduced by Thom and Ott in 1974.[ 20 ] Hence, it would provide a method of comparing the relative contribution of each pollutant to total risk.[ 21 ] The calculation of PSI is based on the concentration of five major air pollutants including particulate matters (PMs), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O 3 ) in the air.

According to Johnson et al ., “air quality index (AQI) is defined as a measure of the condition of air relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species or to any human need.”[ 22 ] AQI is divided into ranges, in which they are numbered, and each range is marked with color codes. It provides a number from healthy standard level of zero to a very hazardous level of above 300 to indicate the level of health risk associated with air quality. Based on PSI, air quality is classified into six major indices, which is marked by color codes and each color corresponds to a different level of health concerns. Principally, green is defined as a color indicator for healthy air quality; while yellow, orange, red, purple, and maroon colors indicate as moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups, unhealthy, very unhealthy, and hazardous air quality, respectively. These ranges and codes may differ in the different methods of classifications in different countries.[ 22 ]

TOXICOLOGY OF AIR POLLUTION

Effects of air pollutants on living organism will not only be limited to the human and animal health but also include the whole environment. Different geographical conditions, global climate changes, and the environmental variations affect the human health and the environment including the animal life.

Environmental damages

Ecologically, air pollution can cause serious environmental damages to the groundwater, soil, and air.[ 23 , 24 ] It is also a serious threat to the diversity of life. Studies on the relationship between air pollution and reducing species diversity clearly show the detrimental effects of environmental contaminants on the extinction of animals and plants species.[ 25 ] Air suspended toxicants may also cause reproductive effects in animals.[ 26 , 27 ] Acid rain, temperature inversion, and global climate changes due to the emissions of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere are other major ecological impacts of air pollution.[ 28 ]

Air pollutants and their toxicities

Every material in the air which could affect human health or have a profound impact on the environment is defined as air pollutants. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), particle pollution, ground-level O 3 , CO, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead (Pb) are the six major air pollutants which harm human health and also the ecosystem. There are many pollutants of suspended materials such as dust, fumes, smokes, mists, gaseous pollutants, hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and halogen derivatives in the air which at the high concentrations cause vulnerability to many diseases including different types of cancers.[ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ] The most important air pollutants and their toxic effects on different human body organs and related diseases have been briefly described below.

Particle pollutants

Particle pollutants are major parts of air pollutants. In a simple definition, they are a mixture of particles found in the air. Particle pollution which is more known as PM is linked with most of pulmonary and cardiac-associated morbidity and mortality.[ 33 , 34 ] They have varied in size ranging mostly from 2.5 to 10 μm (PM 2.5 to PM 10 ).

The size of particle pollutants is directly associated with the onset and progression of the lungs and heart diseases. Particles of smaller size reach the lower respiratory tract and thus have greater potential for causing the lungs and heart diseases. Moreover, numerous scientific data have demonstrated that fine particle pollutants cause premature death in people with heart and/or lung disease including cardiac dysrhythmias, nonfatal heart attacks, aggravated asthma, and decreased lung functions. Depending on the level of exposure, particulate pollutants may cause mild to severe illnesses. Wheezing, cough, dry mouth, and limitation in activities due to breathing problems are the most prevalent clinical symptoms of respiratory disease resulted from air pollution.[ 35 , 36 , 37 ]

Long-term exposure to current ambient PM concentrations may lead to a marked reduction in life expectancy. The increase of cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality are the main reasons for the reduction in life expectancy. Reduced lung functions in children and adults leading to asthmatic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are also serious diseases which induce lower quality of life and reduced life expectancy. Strong evidence on the effect of long-term exposure to PM on cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary mortality come from cohort studies.[ 38 , 39 , 40 ]

Ground-level ozone

O 3 with the chemical formula of O 3 is a colorless gas which is the major constituent of the atmosphere. It is found both at the ground level and in the upper regions of the atmosphere which is called troposphere. Ground-level ozone (GLO) is produced as a result of chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen and VOCs emitted from natural sources and/or due to human activities. GLO is believed to have a plausible association with increased risk of respiratory diseases, particularly asthma.[ 41 ]

As a powerful oxidant, O 3 accepts electrons from other molecules. There is a high level of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the surface fluid lining of the respiratory tract and cell membranes that underlie the lining fluid. The double bonds available in these fatty acids are unstable. O 3 attacks unpaired electron to form ozonides and progress through an unstable zwitterion or trioxolane (depending on the presence of water). These ultimately recombine or decompose to lipohydroperoxides, aldehydes, and hydrogen peroxide. These pathways are thought to initiate propagation of lipid radicals and auto-oxidation of cell membranes and macromolecules. It also increases the risk of DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes, which leads to impaired cellular function.[ 42 ]

O 3 induces a variety of toxic effects in humans and experimental animals at concentrations that occur in many urban areas.[ 43 ] These effects include morphologic, functional, immunologic, and biochemical alterations. Because of its low water solubility, a substantial portion of inhaled O 3 penetrates deep into the lungs but its reactivity is scrubbed by the nasopharynx of resting rats and humans in around 17% and 40%, respectively.[ 44 , 45 ] On ecological aspect, O 3 can reduce carbon assimilation in trees leading to deforestation which may affect global food security in long-term exposure.[ 46 , 47 ]

Carbon monoxide

CO is a colorless and odorless gas, which is produced by fossil fuel, particularly when combustion is not appropriate, as in burning coal and wood. The affinity of CO to hemoglobin (as an oxygen carrier in the body) is about 250 times greater than that of oxygen. Depending on CO concentration and length of exposure, mild to severe poisoning may occur. Symptoms of CO poisoning may include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and finally loss of consciousness. The symptoms are very similar to those of other illnesses, such as food poisoning or viral infections.

No human health effects have been showed for carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels lower than 2%, while levels above 40% may be fatal. Hypoxia, apoptosis, and ischemia are known mechanisms of underlying CO toxicity.[ 48 ] The mechanism of such toxicity is the loss of oxygen due to competitive binding of CO to the hemoglobin heme groups. Cardiovascular changes also may be observed by CO exposures that create COHb in excess of 5%. In the early 1990s, Health Effects Institute performed a series of studies associated with cardiovascular disease to determine the potential for angina pectoris with COHb levels in the range of 2–6%.[ 49 ] The results showed that premature angina can occur under these situations but that the potential for the occurrence of ventricular arrhythmias remains uncertain. Thus, the reduction in ambient CO can reduce the risk of myocardial infarction in predisposed persons.

Sulfur dioxide

SO 2 is a colorless, highly reactive gas, which is considered as an important air pollutant. It is mostly emitted from fossil fuel consumption, natural volcanic activities, and industrial processes. SO 2 is very harmful for plant life, animal, and human health. People with lung disease, children, older people, and those who are more exposed to SO 2 are at higher risk of the skin and lung diseases.

The major health concerns associated with exposure to high concentrations of SO 2 include respiratory irritation and dysfunction, and also aggravation of existing cardiovascular disease. SO 2 is predominantly absorbed in the upper airways. As a sensory irritant, it can cause bronchospasm and mucus secretion in humans. Residents of industrialized regions encountered with SO 2 even at lower concentrations (<1 ppm) in the polluted ambient air might experience a high level of bronchitis.

The penetration of SO 2 into the lungs is greater during mouth breathing compared to nose breathing. An increase in the airflow in deep, rapid breathing enhances penetration of the gas into the deeper lung. Therefore, people who exercise in the polluted air would inhale more SO 2 and are likely to suffer from greater irritation. When SO 2 deposits along the airway, it dissolves into surface lining fluid as sulfite or bisulfite and is easily distributed throughout the body. It seems that the sulfite interacts with sensory receptors in the airways to cause local and centrally mediated bronchoconstriction.

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the USA, the level of annual standard for SO 2 is 0.03 ppm. Due to its solubility in water, SO 2 is responsible for acid rain formation and acidification of soils. SO 2 reduces the amount of oxygen in the water causing the death of marine species including both animals and plants. Exposure to SO 2 can cause damages to the eyes (lacrimation and corneal opacity), mucous membranes, the skin (redness, and blisters), and respiratory tracts. Bronchospasm, pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, and acute airway obstruction are the most common clinical findings associated with exposure to SO 2 .[ 50 ]

Nitrogen oxide

Nitrogen oxides are important ambient air pollutants which may increase the risk of respiratory infections.[ 50 ] They are mainly emitted from motor engines and thus are traffic-related air pollutants. They are deep lung irritants that can induce pulmonary edema if been inhaled at high levels. They are generally less toxic than O 3 , but NO 2 can pose clear toxicological problems. Exposures at 2.0–5.0 ppm have been shown to affect T-lymphocytes, particularly CD8 + cells and natural killer cells that play an important role in host defenses against viruses. Although these levels may be high, epidemiologic studies demonstrate effects of NO 2 on respiratory infection rates in children.

Coughing and wheezing are the most common complication of nitrogen oxides toxicity, but the eyes, nose or throat irritations, headache, dyspnea, chest pain, diaphoresis, fever, bronchospasm, and pulmonary edema may also occur. In another report, it is suggested that the level of nitrogen oxide between 0.2 and 0.6 ppm is harmless for the human population.[ 51 ]

Pb or plumb is a toxic heavy metal that is widely used in different industries.[ 52 ] Pb pollution may result from both indoor and outdoor sources. It is emitted from motor engines, particularly with those using petrol containing Pb tetraethyl. Smelters and battery plants, as well as irrigation water wells and wastewaters, are other emission sources of the Pb into the environment.[ 52 , 53 ] Evaluation of the blood Pb level in traffic police officers shows that environmental pollution may be considered as a source of Pb exposure.[ 54 ] Fetuses and children are highly susceptible to even low doses of Pb.[ 55 ] Pb accumulates in the body in blood, bone, and soft tissue. Because it is not readily excreted, Pb can also affect the kidneys, liver, nervous system, and the other organs.[ 56 ]

Pb absorption by the lungs depends on the particle size and concentration. Around 90% of Pb particles in the ambient air that are inhaled are small enough to be retained. Retained Pb absorption through alveoli is absorbed and induces toxicity. Pb is a powerful neurotoxicant, especially for infants and children as the high-risk groups. Mental retardation, learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and antisocial behaviors are of adverse effects of Pb in childhood.[ 57 , 58 ] Therefore, it is very important to reduce the Pb level of ambient air.[ 59 ]

Pb exposure is often chronic, without obvious symptoms.[ 60 ] It can affect the different parts of the body including cardiovascular, renal, and reproductive systems, but the main target for Pb toxicity is the nervous system.[ 61 ] Pb disrupts the normal function of intracellular second messenger systems through the inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Pb may also replace calcium as a second messenger resulting in protein modification through various cellular processes including protein kinase activation or deactivation.

Abdominal pain, anemia, aggression, constipation, headaches, irritability, loss of concentration and memory, reduced sensations, and sleep disorders are the most common symptoms of Pb poisoning. Exposure to Pb is manifested with numerous problems, such as high blood pressure, infertility, digestive and renal dysfunctions, and muscle and joint pain.

Other air pollutants

Other major air pollutants that are classified as carcinogen and mutagen compounds and are thought to be responsible for incidence and progression of cancer in human include VOCs such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, PAHs such as acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and benzopyrene, and other organic pollutants such as dioxins, which are unwanted chemical pollutants that almost totally produced by industrial processes and human activity.[ 62 , 63 , 64 ]

In Table 1 , the standard level of some conventional air pollutants is presented in which the values were defined as air quality standards that provide public welfare protection.

Standard level of criteria air pollutants and their sources with health impact based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency

As it can be easily understood, fossil fuel consumption shares the largest part of air contamination. Air pollutants can also be classified into anthropogenic and natural according to their source of emission. From anthropogenic aspect, air contamination occurs from industrial and agricultural activities, transportation, and energy acquisition. While from natural contaminant has different sources of emission such as volcanic activities, forest fire, sea water, and so on.[ 65 , 66 ]

Health hazards

In terms of health hazards, every unusual suspended material in the air, which causes difficulties in normal function of the human organs, is defined as air toxicants. According to available data, the main toxic effects of exposure to air pollutants are mainly on the respiratory, cardiovascular, ophthalmologic, dermatologic, neuropsychiatric, hematologic, immunologic, and reproductive systems. However, the molecular and cell toxicity may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term.[ 67 , 68 ] On the other hand, even small amount of air toxicants is shown to be dangerous for susceptible groups including children and elderly people as well as patients suffering from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.[ 69 ]

Respiratory disorders

Because most of the pollutants enter the body through the airways, the respiratory system is in the first line of battle in the onset and progression of diseases resulted from air pollutants. Depending on the dose of inhaled pollutants, and deposition in target cells, they cause a different level of damages in the respiratory system. In the upper respiratory tract, the first effect is irritation, especially in trachea which induces voice disturbances. Air pollution is also considered as the major environmental risk factor for some respiratory diseases such as asthma and lung cancer.[ 70 , 71 ] Air pollutants, especially PMs and other respirable chemicals such as dust, O 3 , and benzene cause serious damage to the respiratory tract.[ 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 ] Asthma is a respiratory disease which may be developed as a result of exposure to air toxicants.[ 78 ] Some studies have validated associations between both traffic-related and/or industrial air pollution and increasing the risk of COPD.[ 79 , 80 , 81 ] Treatment of respiratory diseases due to air pollution is similar to the other toxic chemical induce respiratory disorders.

Cardiovascular dysfunctions

Many experimental and epidemiologic studies have shown the direct association of air pollutant exposure and cardiac-related illnesses.[ 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 ] Air pollution is also associated with changes in white blood cell counts[ 86 ] which also may affect the cardiovascular functions. On the other hand, a study on animal models suggested the close relationship between hypertension and air pollution exposure.[ 87 ] The traffic-related air pollution, especially exposure to high levels of NO 2 , is associated with right and left ventricular hypertrophy.[ 88 , 89 ] In addition to the antidote therapy that exists only for a few cardiotoxic substances like CO, usual treatment of cardiovascular diseases should be carried out.

Neuropsychiatric complications

The relationship between exposure to air suspended toxic materials and nerve system has always been argued. However, it is now believed that these toxic substances have damaging effects on the nervous system. The toxic effect of air pollutants on nerve system includes neurological complications and psychiatric disorders. Neurological impairment may cause devastating consequences, especially in infants. In contrast, psychiatric disorders will induce aggression and antisocial behaviors. Recent studies have reported the relationship between air pollution and neurobehavioral hyperactivity, criminal activity, and age-inappropriate behaviors.[ 90 , 91 ] Studies have also revealed the association between air pollution and higher risk of neuroinflammation,[ 92 ] Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.[ 93 ] Some studies showed that aggression and anxiety in megacities are in close relationship with the high level of air pollutants.[ 94 , 95 , 96 ]

Other long-term complications

Skin is the body's first line of defense against a foreign pathogen or infectious agent and it is the first organ that may be contaminated by a pollutant. The skin is a target organ for pollution in which the absorption of environmental pollutants from this organ is equivalent to the respiratory uptake.[ 97 ] Research on the skin has provided evidence that traffic-related air pollutants, especially PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM affect skin aging and cause pigmented spots on the face.[ 98 , 99 , 100 ]

Theoretically, toxic air pollutants can cause damage to organs when inhaled or absorbed through the skin.[ 101 ] Some of these pollutants are hepatocarcinogen chemicals.[ 102 , 103 ] There are some proven data which highlighted the role of air pollutants, especially traffic-related air pollution on the incidence of autism and its related disorders in fetus and children.[ 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 ] Disrupting endocrine by chemical components of pollutants has been described as a possible mechanistic pathway of autism or other neurological disorders.[ 93 , 108 ] Some studies showed that there are relationships between air pollution exposure and fetal head size in late pregnancy,[ 109 ] fetal growth,[ 110 ] and low birth weight.[ 111 , 112 ]

Many of the diseases that are linked to immune system dysfunction can be affected by several environmental factors such as poor air quality.[ 113 , 114 ] Poor air quality can cause serious complications in the immune system such as an abnormal increase in the serum levels of the immunoglobulin (Ig); IgA, IgM, and the complement component C 3 in humans as well as chronic inflammatory diseases of the respiratory system.[ 115 ] Exposure to these immunotoxicants may also cause immune dysfunction at different stages which can serve as the basis for increased risks of numerous diseases such as neuroinflammation, an altered brain innate immune response.[ 93 , 116 ] Air pollutants modify antigen presentation by up-regulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages.[ 117 ]

The eye is a neglected vulnerable organ to the adverse effects of air suspended contaminants even household air pollution.[ 118 , 119 ] Clinical effects of air pollution on the eyes can vary from asymptomatic eye problems to dry eye syndrome. Chronic exposure to air pollutants increases the risk for retinopathy and adverse ocular outcomes. In addition, there are now evidence suggesting the association between air pollution and irritation of the eyes, dry eye syndrome, and some of the major blinding.[ 118 , 120 ] According to data, the level of air pollution is linked to short-term increases in the number of people visiting the ophthalmological emergency department.[ 121 , 122 ]

Air pollution in Iran

Air pollution in Iran as a developing country has recently caused several health and environmental problem. According to a report, the quality of air in Iran, especially in Tehran metropolis is very unhealthy and most of the pollution indices, specifically indices for CO and PM are above the standard and at sometimes at dangerous level.[ 123 ] Nonstandard motor engines and other traffic-related sources of air pollution are the most important cause of poor air quality. For example, more than 90% of the CO gas as an important air pollutant is generated by motor vehicles in Tehran.[ 124 ] Moreover, reports have shown that more than 80% of air pollution in Iran is attributed to motor vehicles.[ 125 , 126 ] Official reports show that in Tehran, 9.4% of the cars, 22.1% of vans, and 4.7% of taxis are carburetor vehicles. Around 9% of the vehicles in Tehran are responsible for the production of almost 400 tons pollutants annually.[ 127 ] Other reports demonstrated that cars are responsible for 80% of air pollution. Unpublished data show that a motorcycle produces air pollution 60 times more than a standard car. Based on reports, annual average of air toxicants including PM 10, SO 2 , NO 2 and O 3 in Tehran capital city of Iran with around 8.3 million inhabitants were 90.58, 89.16, 85, and 68.82 μg/m 3 , respectively. These values are more than standards defined by EPA and WHO. Therefore, as expected, air pollution is the main casualty of excess 2194 out of total 47284 deaths in a year. According to a recent report, SO 2 , NO 2 , and O 3 , respectively, have caused about additional 1458, 1050, and 819 cases of total mortality in 2011.[ 128 ] According to an official report in 2013, air pollution leaves almost 4,460 deaths annually only in Tehran.[ 129 ]

Reports of the World Bank in 2005 show that mortality due to urban air pollution in Iran has led to about 640 million dollars annual losses which contribute to 0.57% of the gross domestic product.[ 130 ] Another report has also shown that Iran is the world's third main polluted country in the world, which results in 16 billion $ annual loss for the country.[ 16 ] Many regulatory programs including planting projects have been developed to reduce urban air pollution in Iran, but due to lack of enough stewardship and standardization of new technologies including those related to car engines and also nonstandard energy production, no significant output has been obtained so far.[ 17 ]

Practical measures to reduce air pollution in Iran

The industrialization of societies is necessary to develop, but a long-term health problem and ecological impacts of such growth should always be considered prior to imposing a large financial burden on the societies. Therefore, it is suggested to adopt a balance between economic development and air pollution by legislating policies to control all activities resulting in air pollution.[ 131 , 132 , 133 ] There are some temporary but not trustworthy strategies to reduce air pollution in Iran. For example, increasing the price of fuels, planting trees around and inside the city, replacing old cars with modern ones, and increasing road taxes and car insurance may reduce the amount of air pollutants, but in order to keep the constancy or even optimization, these strategies should be continued. The most air-polluted capital cities of Asia are Delhi and Tehran.[ 134 ] Causes of air pollutions including cheap and low quality of vehicle's fuel particularly gas oil, nonstandard motor engines, inappropriate public transport, overuse of fossil fuel, lack of public awareness and transparency, legislation, and cooperation between different departments and green societies are similar in the two cities. Therefore, urgent and concerted actions at national and international levels are required.

Some mega capital cities in the other countries like London and Tokyo have controlled their air pollutions over the years following appropriate legislations and strict controls, whereas moving the capital cities in India and Pakistan in the last century have not solved the problem of air pollution in the long term in these countries. Therefore, moving capital city will not solve the problem of air pollution and only reduces the problem in the short term. Some recommended strategies to reduce the air pollution in Iran are summarized as the followings:

• Standardization of vehicle's fuel as much as possible and also finding a new source of energy for motor engines has attracted great attention. A great part of emission comes from vehicle exhaust, especially those which use diesel and gasoline. Using other clean source of energy such as compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG), and alcohol is of great interests. Hence, exhorting researchers and also companies in the era of interest to find a way for replacing petrol and other fossil fuels with new suitable power generation sources will be beneficial.[ 135 , 136 ] Expanded of more CNG and LNG stations in big cities of Iran and producing more vehicles using CNG and LNG are recommended
• Standardization of motor engines and manufacturing engines with low fuel consumption is another strategy to reduce the level of air pollutants. Surely, motor vehicles will not use fossil fuel and derivatives anymore in the near future. Recently, some car makers in Japan and Western countries have made electrical cars that use electricity from a battery storage for low speeds which is usually enough for driving inside the cities with traffic and/or controlled speeds. Hence, designing new motor engines, companies of interests should look forward.[ 137 ] This might be implemented in Iran in the future
• Improving public transportation systems by using more subways (metro), trams, and electrical bus routes. Reducing the costs for the people who are using such systems is an optimal solution for lowering air pollution.[ 14 ] The people and governments will gain profits from reducing air contaminations in the long term, both economically and in cases of health issues.[ 138 , 139 , 140 ] At the present, there are only limited metro lines in Tehran, Mashhad, and Esfahan. It is recommended to expand the metro lines in these cities. Trams and electrical buses have unfortunately not been established in Iran. They should be implemented soon in big cities of Iran
• Increasing the cost of fuel in Iran can be considered as an effective solution to reduce the proportion of air contaminants. According to the report by Barnett and Knibbs, higher fuel price is associated with lower air pollution level[ 141 ]
• Imposing penalties for polluting industries and implementing low tax policy for clean technologies. Applying more taxes on automobiles in Iran, particularly on those older than 20 years to distinguish between dirty and clean vehicles. The government should establish exhorting plans for car makers and other producers who adhere to environmental standards. Moreover, exhorting plans should be designed for all sources of emissions. These plans may contain discount on taxes or other financial supports for customers and producers
• Since the phenomenon of air pollution was a global issue over the centuries since the industrial revolution, it is proposed to establish an interdisciplinary academic field on air pollution. It is also suggested that more communication and collaboration between specialists in different sciences including toxicology, environmental health, analytical chemistry, mechanics, and applied physics will be performed
• Continuous monitoring of air quality, designing and developing tools to identify the pollutants, finding the origin of the particles, and the use of particulate filter for diesel engines and other nonroad cars are other suggested practical approaches to reduce air pollution
• Extensive media campaign to increase public awareness about air quality, environmental, and public health issues.

Inadequate legislation and also a lack of appropriate policies in Iran result in higher levels of environmental pollution and its impact on the incidence of diseases, which will undeniably impose a heavy financial burden on the community. Increasing risk of diseases due to air contamination has necessitated defining the standard values for air quality and also a normal range for pollutants and daily control of air pollution. Thus, monitoring air quality plays an important role in developing regulatory policies.[ 142 ] These should be implemented in all big cities of Iran.

Regulatory programs should apply high taxes per unit of emission not only as a penalty for air polluters but also should give rise to the cost of pollution for them in order to ensure the efficient reduction of pollutants. Final achievement is to reduce the pollution and not only paying the cost of damages by polluters.[ 143 ]

Advantages and breakpoints of these strategies should be carefully documented. Tax on vehicles is the most controversial issue in controlling and management of air pollution. It would be helpful providing all necessary facilities including subway, and other transportation systems prior to applying penalties. In other word, taxes should be applied, but public transportation systems should be improved, and also its cost should be reasonable enough.

It is important to balance between all suggested strategies, and discuss all aspects of each plan. Each of these controlling policies has an impact on each other and also on the society. Ideally, an optimum solution for the problem of air pollution is that in which no additional problem resulted from controlling policies impose on the society. Therefore, a suitable controlling policy should contain penalties for each unit of air pollutants’ emission. The sources of emission vary from small unit of cigarettes to large volume of emission from motor engines of automobiles and industrial activities.[ 144 ]

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Air pollutions have major impacts on human health, triggering, and inducing many diseases leading to high morbidities and mortalities, particularly in the developing countries such as Iran. Therefore, air pollutions control is vital and should be on the top of priority list of the governments. The policy makers and legislators in these countries must update all laws and regulations related to air pollutions. Coordination between different departments involving in air pollutions must be leaded by a powerful environmental protection organization. An effective environmental protection organization should have enough budgets for administration, research, development, monitoring, and full control of the environment including air pollution.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS

AGA, BRZ, and MBM contributed in study concept, design, and critical revision of the manuscript. AGA and BRZ participated in the drafting of the manuscript. MBM contributed in revision and final approval of the manuscript.

Deadly and growing impact of air pollution laid bare in new UNICEF-backed report

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The State of Global Air (SoGA) report published in partnership with the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) warns on Wednesday that air pollution is increasingly impacting human health - and is now the second leading global risk factor for premature death.

The fifth edition of the report, released by the Health Effects Institute (HEI), revealed that air pollution caused 8.1 million deaths worldwide in 2021 and many millions are dealing with debilitating chronic diseases , leaving healthcare systems, economies, and societies.

Further, it found that children under five are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, leaving over 700,000 in this age group dead in 2021.

‘Accurate predictor’

The SoGA report found that pollutants like outdoor fine particulate matter (PM2.5) - which comes from burning fossil fuels and biomass in sectors like transportation, residential homes, wildfires, and more - caused more than 90 per cent of global air pollution deaths and were found to be the “most consistent and accurate predictor of poor health outcomes around the world .”

Other pollutants like household air pollution, ozone (O3), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - which can be found in traffic exhaust - also contribute to the global deterioration of human health.

 HEI President Dr. Elena Craft said she hopes the information in the report will inspire change.

 “Air pollution has enormous implications for health. We know that improving air quality and global public health is practical and achievable ,” she said.

 In addition to affecting people’s health, pollutants like PM2.5 add to greenhouse gases that are warming the planet. As the earth warms, regions with high levels of NO2 will experience great levels of ozone, which can result in greater health effects.

 Dr. Pallavi Pant, HEI’s Head of Global Health said, “This new report offers a stark reminder of the significant impacts air pollution has on human health, with far too much of the burden borne by young children, older populations, and low- and middle-income countries .”

 She continued, “This points sharply at an opportunity for cities and countries to consider air quality and air pollution as high-risk factors when developing health policies and other noncommunicable disease prevention and control programmes.”

Children ‘uniquely vulnerable’

The report reveals that children are “uniquely vulnerable” to air pollution and effects can begin in the womb . It states that young children’s exposure to air pollution has resulted in one in five deaths globally, pneumonia and asthma and affects children with inequities more than it does those in high-income countries.

UNICEF Deputy Executive Director Kitty van der Heijden said that nearly 2,000 children under five die every day due to the effects of air pollution .

‘The global urgency is undeniable ,” she said. “It is imperative governments and businesses consider these estimates and locally available data and use it to inform meaningful, child-focused action to reduce air pollution and protect children’s health.”

Progress made

In addition to sharing details on the negative effects of air pollution on human health, the SoGA report also claims that there has been better awareness about the harms of being exposed to household air pollution and a 53 per cent decrease in the death rate of children under five since 2000 due to increased access to clean energy for cooking.

Also, regions experiencing the highest levels of air pollution have begun to address the issue by installing air pollution monitoring networks, implementing stricter air quality policies and more - particularly in Africa, Latin America and Asia.

• air pollution

Air Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health

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• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
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Common health problems associated with air pollution

Vulnerability of children to pollutants, needs assessment process and the role of health educator.

Indoor and outdoor air pollution causes several common health problems which according to the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2009) are grouped according to the major pollutants. To begin with, carbon monoxide compromises the heart activities hence lethargy and fatigue. It also causes nausea, dizziness, and headaches and in large amounts may even lead to death. Nitrogen dioxide causes nasal and throat irritation and increases the risk of developing respiratory infections. Ozone causes irritation of the respiratory system leading to coughs, chest and throat pains. Particulates cause damage to respiratory tract tissues especially lung tissue leading to lung diseases. Sulfur dioxide is known to make worse existing lung diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia and tuberculosis. Lead on the other hand causes damage to the brain and the nervous system with children being most susceptible (New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 2009; California Air Resources Board 2007a). From these, it is evident that air pollution has adverse common effects on the respiratory system and to some extent other body parts.

The most common health problems in children associated with air pollution occurs in the respiratory system. This is due to the fact that children’s respiratory system is not fully developed therefore immature. This means that the structures are weak and are prone to damage at the slightest exposure to air pollutants. The children’s health study by the California air resources board reported that children are more vulnerable to effects of air pollutants as they are exposed to more air pollution than adults as they have higher respiratory rates and are normally outdoors (California Air Resources Board 2007b). Other factors may include the underdeveloped immune system in children that is not able to effectively and efficiently fight off the effects of air pollution on the body and large surface area to volume ratio that exposes a large surface area to air pollution.

Community needs assessment is a systematic process in which the health educator, the nurse and other health care professionals together with the members of the community determine the health problems & needs of the community & develop plans of action and implement those plans. In this case the needs assessment process will be in relation to air pollution. The first step is exploration which involves mapping out the community with the purpose of obtaining baseline information that help plan for the rest of the assessment process. The second is step is planning for assessment exercise where by the necessary resources are put into place and objective designed, in this case it will be; to assess health impacts of air pollution and how to combat these effects. The third step is recruitment and training of assistants, fourth step is pretesting and reworking of the tool as it helps to detect faults and shortcomings after which corrections are made. The fifth step is execution of the assessment which basically involves actual going to the community and engaging the community into discussions and giving them the assessment tools so that they can feel it with relevant information. The sixth step is critical analysis of the findings and recommendations. The collected data is analyzed and then findings and recommendations are drawn. One of fundamental recommendation that will be made is to initiate Health Education and Promotion to combat the effects of air pollution. Health education/promotion empowers an individual with the much needed and relevant information that can be of great assistance in management of his/her health and other related issues. The health education and promotion will involve sources of air pollutants, their effects on human health, management and prevention measures. The health educator, the nurse and other stakeholders can carry out this activity with the help of the local health professionals working within the community and even train some community members who will be educating their colleagues; this creates a sense of belonging and ownership among the community members in that they will participate in the health education/promotion activities as their own. This empowers the community and the information stays with them even years after the time of carrying out the assessment. The final step is evaluation and just as in nursing process, evaluations helps in checking if the assessment was a success and whether there has been any positive impact and if interventions put in place had desired results. Evaluation also helps in knowing if the set goals and objectives were met, determining success or failure of the problem and to put corrective measure into place (Zerwekh, 112; Holloway, & Wheeler, 76; Grol 361). The health educator works hand in hand with the community health nurse and other health professionals in the above process where by he/she acts the overall supervisor.

Air pollution has adverse effects on health and majorly affects the respiratory system with children being most vulnerable due to their under developed respiratory system. Health educators are charged with the overall responsibility of overseeing planning, implementation and evaluation of education programs in the community. They also function as consultants to the other health care professionals involved in health education and promotion.

• “Air Pollutants and their health effects”. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. 2009. Web.
• “ Health Effects Research .” California Air Resources Board. 2007a. Web.
• The Children’s Health Study . California Air Resources Board. 2007b. Web.
• Grol R. “National standard setting for quality of care in general practice: attitudes of general practitioners and response to a set of standards.” Br J Gen Pract 40 (2000): 361–4.
• Holloway, I., & Wheeler, S. Qualitative Research in Nursing. 2nd Ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.
• Zerwekh, J. Nursing Today: Transition and Trends. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 2003.
• Why Is It Important to Spend Time Outdoors
• Respiratory Disorder and Nursing Treatment Plan
• Indoor Air Pollution: The Silent Killer in Rural India
• Drugs Affecting the Respiratory System: Bronchodilators
• Asthma Is a Chronic Inflammatory Disorder
• Asthma: Leading Chronic Illness Among Children in the US
• Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• Pharmacotherapy for Respiratory Disorders
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, March 10). Air Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health/

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1. IvyPanda . "Air Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health." March 10, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Air Pollution and Its Impact on Human Health." March 10, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health/.

Effects of Distracted Driving on Traffic Flow and Emissions

16 Pages Posted: 22 Jun 2024

sunbola zatmeh-kanj

Ariel University

Tomer Toledo

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Traffic emissions are one of the main sources of air pollution, causing significant risks to human health. Several studies have found an effect on air pollution between city with contrasts to traffic flow. The effect of driving behaviour is still poorly understood.The use of microscopic simulations enables finding acceptable reasons for traffic composition, flow congestion, and the volume of exhaust gases. We aim to explore whether driving behaviors impact environmental air pollution, traffic flow, and safety implications.This study focuses on the effect of car-following behavior in the context of distracting activities on traffic flow and emissions. The parameters of the well-known General-Motors model were estimated under various distraction scenarios using data collected with a driving simulator. The estimated model implemented in a microscopic traffic simulation model. The results show deterioration of traffic flow with texting and talking on the phone: average speeds are lower, and COV of speeds are higher. The impact on the emissions of, fuel consumption,[[EQUATION]], increased when drivers are involved with distraction activities such as texting.

Keywords: traffic flow, car-following model, microscopic traffic simulation, distracted driving, air pollution, driving simulator

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Sunbola Zatmeh-kanj (Contact Author)

Ariel university ( email ), affiliation not provided to ssrn ( email ).

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• Open access
• Published: 05 June 2024

Light painting photography makes particulate matter air pollution visible

• Francis D. Pope   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6583-8347 1   na1 ,
• Robin Price 2   na1 ,
• Katherine E. Woolley   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3743-9925 3 ,
• Carlo Luiu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1157-008X 1 ,
• Mohammed S. Alam   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5427-3122 4 ,
• William R. Avis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7207-3992 5 ,
• Suzanne E. Bartington   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8179-7618 3 ,
• Dawit Debebe 6 ,
• Zerihun Getaneh 6 ,
• Sheila M. Greenfield 3 ,
• Rachel Howells 7 ,
• Mukesh Khare   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5848-2159 8 ,
• Abel Weldetinsae   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2946-6077 9 ,
• Chloe Lawson 10 ,
• Sumit K. Mishra 11 ,
• Ben Neal   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-8622-0832 10 ,
• Karen Newman 10 ,
• Ajit Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0986-2064 1 , 3 ,
• Bikila Teklu Wodajo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8788-1685 6 ,
• G. Neil Thomas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2777-1847 3 &
• Faye Wilder 1  

Communications Earth & Environment volume  5 , Article number:  294 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Developing world
• Environmental impact

The World Health Organization estimates that air pollution causes approximately seven million premature deaths worldwide each year. Solutions to air pollution are well known, yet this rarely equates to easily actionable. Here we demonstrate how art science collaboration can successfully highlight the issue of air pollution and create wider civic discourse around its amelioration. We document a light painting photographic technique that uses data from calibrated low-cost particulate matter sensors to measure and depict air pollution. We also use a postcard technique to grasp individuals’ sentiments regarding air pollution. The photographs from three countries, Ethiopia, India and United Kingdom, visually highlight the importance of location and occupation upon human exposure. The photographs are used as a proxy to communicate and create dialogues, spaces and places about air pollution. The sentiment analysis shows how this approach can foster awareness and create agency for stakeholders to take actions to tackle air pollution.

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Introduction.

Air pollution is one of the main threats to both environmental and human health, and is a leading cause of premature death globally 1 . Indeed, the World Health Organization estimates 99% of the global population breathe polluted air, causing ~7 million premature deaths worldwide each year 2 , 3 . The situation is particularly challenging in Asia, where air pollution remains a problem in countries like India and China, despite many air quality policies and actions 4 , 5 . Similarly, African countries have been experiencing exponential deterioration in air quality over the last five decades, with several cities presenting levels of pollution 5–10 times higher than World Health Organization recommendations 6 . Particulate matter (PM) is the air pollutant most responsible for human morbidity and mortality. It has multiple impacts upon physical health and is responsible for diseases including heart disease, stroke and cancers 7 . A growing body of literature highlights that PM not only affects physical, but also mental and cognitive health 8 , 9 . As a consequence of the increasing evidence of the harmful effects of air pollution even at relatively low concentrations, in 2021, the World Health Organization decided to revise its air quality guidelines and reduce its recommendations for PM 2.5 annual concentrations from 10 to 5 μg m-3 and PM 10 from 20 to 15 μg m-3 10 .

Knowledge, perceptions and attitudes towards air pollution are key factors for achieving air pollution exposure reductions through behavioral change 11 . Moreover, perceptions of environmental harms are key determinants to changes in behavior 12 . Previous work on air pollution has highlighted the need for raising awareness of both the problem of air pollution and potential solutions with which to achieve reductions, especially in low-income settings 13 , 14 .

From an epidemiological perspective, the serious impacts of poor air quality upon morbidity and mortality are well understood. However, this body of knowledge is rarely translated into individual perceptions of air quality. Multiple interacting processes can cause public indifference to the issues of air pollution. First, the ubiquity of air pollution can cause disempowerment and subsequent ambivalence to its presence. Secondly, in most situations, air pollution is invisible. Unlike some other environmental hazards, (e.g. flooding), air pollution is difficult for the public to observe and react to. The individual PM particles are too small to be seen by the naked eye. However, PM scatters and absorbs light, resulting in hazes and loss of visibility under sufficiently high concentrations 15 . When hazes appear, air pollution becomes the subject of media and public interest (see for example the London smogs of the 1950s and contemporary Asian smogs). But when the observable hazes diminish, so does the newsworthiness of air pollution, despite its still present threat. Thirdly, individual agency over air pollution exposure is limited. This limitation is especially true with respect to outdoor pollution, with multiple sources that an individual has no control over 16 . Indoor air pollution offers more agency to individuals who can choose how to generate heat and light within dwellings. However, this agency is often limited by economic and infrastructure constraints 17 and lack of access to alternatives. Finally, excluding the most susceptible, the wider day-to-day risks of air pollution are small for the overall population, resulting in a correspondingly low motivation for individual changes in behavior. Furthermore, other contemporary issues, like access to food, water and housing, are more immediate.

Collaboration between the arts and sciences can be a useful tool for both informal knowledge dissemination and fostering citizen engagement and/or activism 18 . Art experiences are aligned with the affective domain of learning 19 . Art provides engagement, and elicits emotions and changes in attitude, while science education emphasizes cognitive understanding through logic 20 , creating reciprocal pathways for public engagement 21 . By holistically drawing from both the affective and cognitive domains, such collaboration encourages a more intuitive understanding of subjects. In this sense, art-science collaboration can be particularly effective in the context of climate change and environmental issues 22 . Art science collaboration can provide innovative, challenging and provocative ways to engage communities and, despite not providing solutions, can help in stimulating individuals’ perceptions, behavioral changes and raising awareness of the climate crisis 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 . This project was devised to creatively represent air pollution in different contexts and, by doing so, to provide places and spaces for discourse. The project follows the concepts of eco-didacticism 21 , 22 , 27 , 28 and aims to make invisible air pollution visible. This approach will provide an easy-to-comprehend artistic engagement tool to compare air pollution in different contexts. The team required artists and scientists to produce output that was scientifically robust, but also visually arresting, which could be understood by those uneducated in scientific practices.

Light painting is a photographic technique using long exposure times. Its effect is that only objects that are very still or bright are recorded in the final image. The technique was pioneered by Étienne-Jules Marey and Georges Demeny in 1889 as part of a research program using photography as a scientific tool to investigate biological motion. It was used for similar purposes by the Gilbreths to scientifically record the movements of clerical and factory workers as part of their time and motion research studies before being taken up and popularized by photographic artists such as Vilho Setälä, Man Ray, Wynn Bullock and Gijon Mili. Digital light painting uses digitally controlled light sources to create and control the effect within the image 20 . It was developed by Steve Mann as a means of visualizing sensor data 29 , and further advanced in recent work of Timo Arnall in the visualization of Wi-Fi strength 30 .

We applied digital light painting to visualize air pollution. Low-cost air pollution sensors that have previously been shown to provide accurate measurements were used to measure PM mass concentrations 31 , 32 . The real time signal from the sensor was used to control a moving Light Emitting Diode (LED) array, which was programmed to rapidly flash as a function of PM concentration. A relevant location was then chosen in which a story about air pollution could be told. A long exposure photograph is taken with the artist moving the LED array in front of the camera within the chosen scene. The duration of an individual LED flash is sufficiently short so that the flash becomes a dot on the photograph. The artist is not observed in the photo because they are moving, whereas the light flashes from the LED array are seen because they are bright. The photographs represent the PM concentration by creating an equivalency between the measured PM particles and the number of light dots in the photographs. This creates in the camera a visualization of the pollution, thus creating an affective visual metaphor of the PM being put under a microscope and lit up. The strength of the metaphor is that it allows for pollution levels to be instantly visually understood. Furthermore, it allows for easy comparisons between different locations.

Once developed, the light painting technique was used to document the levels of air pollution in multiple and contrasting international contexts. Port Talbot in Wales was the initial focus of the project. The interest came from the tension between the economic benefits of the Port Talbot steelworks in the community, being the city’s largest employer, and the environmental consequences of having one of the largest steelworks in Europe and a major source of local pollution 33 . Figure  1 shows the light painting for Port Talbot. The scene shows the Prince Street air quality monitoring site situated in front of the steelworks. Port Talbot Steelworks is an integrated steelmaking plant, using imported iron ore and coal as the major inputs. The air quality monitoring and light painting were performed at 9 pm (dusk) on 27/07/2017 and measured PM 2.5 concentrations in the range of 30–40 μg m-3. The PM 2.5 hourly average value measured at the regulatory Automatic Urban and Rural Network monitoring site for the same time was 24 μg m-3. There were large variations within the same day with no clear diurnal cycle: the mean average for the day (±1σ) was 21.9 ± 13.0 μg m-3.

Photo from the Prince Street air quality monitoring site with Tata Steelworks in the background - PM 2.5 30 − 40 μg m-3.

Figure  2 presents a diptych of two light paintings both taken in children’s playgrounds in India, but ~500 km distant from each other. The left-hand image is taken in Delhi, a megacity with an estimated population of 32 million in 2022, often observed to be one of the cities with the worst air quality globally 34 . The right-hand image was taken in Palampur, a hill station in the state of Himachal Pradesh which has some of the cleanest air in India. The images were taken within 5 days of each other. The Delhi air pollution was recorded in the range of 500–600 μg m-3, at least 40 times greater than the World Health Organization’s guideline values (15 μg m-3) for 24 h mean average 35 . The PM 2.5 values measured at the Palampur playground were in the range of 30–40 μg m-3, a factor of at least 12.5 times less than that measured in Delhi, highlighting how air pollution concentrations depend upon location, thereby setting up intra-country environmental inequalities.

a Children’s playground in Palampur (CSIR-IHBT), India, measured PM 2.5 30–40 μg m-3. b Nursery playground in Delhi (IIT Delhi), India, measured PM 2.5 500–600 μg m-3.

Figure  3 presents a diptych from Ethiopia, this time exploring how air pollution can vary dramatically between indoor and outdoor locations. Ethiopia, and more generally East African countries, are undergoing rapid economic development, industrialization and socio-demographic transition, with associated increases in ambient air pollutant levels 36 . The two light paintings were taken in the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, in 2020 within days of each other. The left-hand image shows an image taken outdoors on the Airport Road, an area of the capital that is well developed, with high-quality surfaces both on the road and surrounding pavement. Measured PM 2.5 concentrations were in the range of 10–20 μg m-3, a relatively low range observed by many cities around the world. Data from the https://www.airnow.govair website measuring PM 2.5 in Addis Ababa indicates this value is not unusual for the season. The outdoor image is juxtaposed with the indoor image, taken of a kitchen using multiple large biomass stoves for food preparation for a canteen. Even with a large room volume and reasonable ventilation to the outside, the PM 2.5 concentrations measured in the room were in the range of 150–200 μg m-3, a factor of ~10–20 times greater than what was measured nearby outdoors. The diptych visually makes apparent the vast differences in exposure to PM, which is dependent on where you live, work, and how you travel between these locations.

a Airport Road, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia - PM 2.5 10–20 μg m-3. b Indoor Biomass Burning Kitchen, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia—PM 2.5 150–200 μg m-3.

Figures  4 and 5 provide an example of how the light painting technique can be used as an engagement and advocacy tool for air quality data visualization and create spaces and places for discussion about air pollution. The light painting images from Addis Ababa, shown in Fig.  3 , were printed onto posters (Fig.  4 ) and postcards (Fig.  5 ), with supplementary information about the air pollution situation in Addis Ababa, both within indoor and ambient environments. They also provided simple messages on how to reduce personal air pollution contributions and exposure to provide the observers with potential agency. The posters were placed in areas around the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology to engage with the student body. After discussions with the students about the posters, a postcard technique for real-time data collection was used to grasp their thoughts on the air pollution situation in Addis Ababa. The team distributed five types of postcards depicting photos of both ambient and household air pollution situations and asked students about what they thought about air pollution, what actions could be taken to address air pollution, and who should address air pollution. The postcards returned a set of 63 responses comprising 143 statements that were analyzed using the behavioral change wheel technique 37 . This qualitative analysis provides insights into the ‘capability’, ‘opportunity, and ‘motivation’ of the students regarding air pollution. The thematic analysis of the statements collected reveals a good level of awareness among the students of both household and ambient air pollution: “Addis air quality is poor” (Postcard_C15), and its causes. Students highlighted the impacts on the environmental impacts and health effects of exposure to air pollution and the associated types of diseases, including respiratory diseases, cancer and eye issues. They also identified as main causes of ambient air pollution transport-related air pollution and waste burning. Transport-related air pollution was predominantly associated with motorized traffic congestion, poor maintenance and the performance of vehicles’ engines, and polluting second-hand imported vehicles: “The exhaust in cars, I feel sorry for people walking on the street who have to breathe in, and for children as well” (Postcard_C9). Students identified waste burning as a cause of air pollution both in terms of industrial waste disposal: “We have to decrease industrial waste” (Postcard_CW3), and household waste disposal, especially related to burning plastic: “I wish people could stop burning their trash and dispose of their waste properly” (Postcard_C8). They reported smoke from industrial factories and people smoking as contributors to ambient air pollution. Indoor air pollution was mainly associated with the burning of domestic fuels, particularly charcoal for indoor cooking: “It will be good if we use alternatives to charcoal indoors” (Postcard_A5).

Posters with light paintings from Addis Ababa located at a bus stop outside the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology.

a Depicts the level of air pollution on Airport Road, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, recording PM 2.5 levels of 10–20 μg m-3; b Depicts the level of air pollution of biomass burning in a commercial kitchen at the University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, recording PM 2.5 levels of 150–200 μg m-3; c Depicts level of air pollution in an open area; d Depicts level of air pollution at a bus station in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; e Depicts level of air pollution during a traditional Ethiopian coffee ceremony; f Example of back of postcard with student’s statements.

In the context of advocating for change, students identified relevant stakeholders, suggesting they have the knowledge to engage with and bring about change, advocating for top-down measures to raise awareness to tackle air pollution: “The United Nations and other authorities should give awareness to people and make an effort to solve this global problem” (Postcard_A17); “The government should give awareness to the people about air pollution. Alternatives for charcoal should be used” (Postcard_A8). Similarly, they suggested the government intervention to tackle transport-related air pollution: “I wish the government of Ethiopia can reduce the toxic gas released by cars” (Postcard_C8); “The government should stop importing second-hand cars” (Postcard_CW1). Nonetheless, very few students identified mitigation mechanisms, suggesting a limited lack of knowledge of solutions. They focused particularly in addressing the need to plant more trees to tackle air pollution: “We should plant more plants in the cities to reduce air pollution” (Postcard_C5), but also to tackle deforestation for wood burning: “If we cut trees, we have to plant two-thirds of what we cut” (Postcard_A1). Moreover, they mentioned measures to reduce transport-related air pollution, especially in terms of incentivizing the use of more sustainable transport modes, including building more non-motorized transport infrastructure for walking and cycling, better car emissions regulation for imported cars, improvements in vehicles’ maintenance and fleet electrification: “Access to cheaper auto parts would decrease emissions, same with consistent electricity and CO 2 ” (Postcard_C16). Similarly, electrification and the incentivization for the use of more sustainable forms of power were suggested to reduce the use of charcoal for domestic use: “Promote and encourage people to use electricity for cooking” (Postcard_CW2).

Due to air pollution being ingrained in external factors (e.g., industry) and solutions requiring governmental influence, participants reported little individual opportunity to combat air pollution; nor were they able to express the physical or social opportunities they had to reduce pollution. Nonetheless, the students’ motivations and aspirations to reduce air pollution were high, although reported with broad comments: “I want to move around freely without getting polluted” (Postcard_A19); “We want to see a clean city, green and clean residential areas” (Postcard_A1). Overall, the postcards were a useful medium for initiating discussions around air pollution and indicated that there are still multiple barriers faced by individuals to improve air quality in Addis Ababa, despite their knowledge of the presence of air pollution and its impacts upon human and ecological health.

The Air of the Anthropocene project has experienced widespread recognition across multiple stakeholders, including publications in the New Scientist 38 , The Guardian 39 , Quest 40 , Source Magazine 41 , and gallery shows in Los Angeles, Belfast, and Birmingham. The project has also been utilized to raise air pollution awareness by UN International Organization for Migration (IOM), the Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO) and UN-Habitat. For example, UN-Habitat commissioned four pollution light painting posters, see Fig.  6 for one of the commissioned light painting posters. The posters incorporated a light painting with accompanying text. The four light paintings all contained different messages that provided both information about air pollution and steps to reduce exposure to the air pollution. The use of the light painting provided the initial interest to create the place of discussion, where the additional messaging could be introduced. The four light paintings were displayed during the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) “Placemaking awareness raising event” (Kampala, Uganda 17th–19th January 2018).

Example awareness raising light painting poster used for the UN Habitat—Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) “Kampala Placemaking Campaign”. The image was photographed and contextualized, then printed and displayed on site in Luwum Street, the location of the placemaking campaign.

The work of Ostrom on common pool resources highlights that environmental management is more likely to be successful when four conditions hold 16 , 42 : (1) the environmental problem is visible, (2) the cause and effect relationships are understood, (3) the problem is reversible, and (4) management of the environmental resource (the air in this case) results in clear benefits to key constituencies. The Air of the Anthropocene project aimed at making invisible air pollution visible and to provide an easy-to-comprehend artistic engagement tool to compare air pollution in different contexts. By doing so, it fulfils the first of Ostrom’s conditions by making something that was largely invisible visible. It allows for the causes and effects of air pollution to be more readily understood and helps to achieve the second condition. By providing a visual understanding of air pollution that is accessible to a wide array of stakeholders, who do not necessarily have a scientific background, the light painting approach can help to demonstrate that the third and fourth criteria can hold for air pollution.

Due to its photographic art science connotation, the Air of the Anthropocene differs from more recent air quality community engagement projects 43 , 44 , creating spaces and places for discussion about air pollution, and thereby raising awareness, in an innovative manner. The project uses art, in this case, photography, as a proxy to communicate and create dialogs about the issues associated with air pollution. The visual depiction of PM and the associated storytelling highlighting the causes, contexts, and levels of air pollution, can make the issues of air pollution more tangible and understandable by the community. The use of photography, thanks to the power of images, has also the function of evoking people’s emotions and stimulating reflections upon the contextual environmental conditions. Moreover, as Addis Ababa’s example shows, this approach can foster awareness, space and places for dialogs, agency and community action, allowing different stakeholders to share their perspectives, solutions and take actions to tackle air pollution.

Measuring and understanding the impacts of art science collaboration in the context of climate change and environmental-related projects is challenging, due to the intrinsic long-term time scale associated with behavioral change 22 . Nonetheless, the approach presented in this paper can enhance individual and communities experience, emotions and reflections upon the relationships between spaces and environmental issues. The paper highlights the need for a holistic approach to understanding perceptions of air pollution, efforts to monitor pollution, efforts to communicate findings and ultimately efforts to affect change through interventions. It demonstrated that artistic interventions in scientific practice can create informative discussions, activate public engagement, and can become part of the air quality management toolkit. To quote John Butler “Art changes people and people change the world”.

In the future, this collaboration between art and science strives to develop open-sourced techniques that will generate new tools to effectively engage and empower communities to measure air quality and create air pollution narratives. For example, expanding the digital representation technique beyond lens-based techniques into augmented reality camera use is a possible further air pollution visualization technique. The adoption of open-source methodologies and the creation of open-source documentation would also allow the impact of the project to be sustained beyond the timescale and budget constraints of the individual projects. The development of new devices and techniques for visualizing air pollution data through different artistic tools will enable interested members of the public to create their own artistic aesthetic representations of their environment. The showcasing of these images can become a powerful advocacy tool to promote collective action, motivating community members to get involved in activist work and instigating transformational change in their localities.

Light painting equipment

An Alphasense OPC-N2 optical particle counter was used to conduct the PM measurements 45 . It was polled at one-second intervals by a Raspberry Pi 0 W which translated that real-time signal data into instructions for a LED array driven at high frequency by an Arduino-compatible microcontroller. The sensor, microcontrollers and LEDs were all powered by a single USB mobile battery charger pack and designed to be worn on the artist’s wrist. The fading in and out of the LEDs was controlled by a handheld trigger button. The LED array comprised a long thin strip of LEDs attached by Velcro to an adapted retractable boom pole intended for film and TV work. The number display of the PM reading and working controls were initially handled by an e-ink display/button unit though this was later adapted for wireless display/control by Wi-Fi connected smartphone. The design was intended to be both accurate scientifically whilst highly portable for ease of travel.

Light painting methodology

A camera (Nikon D5200) and tripod would be set up at a relevant photo location decided in collaboration with environmental scientists or other relevant stakeholders. The purpose of a location was to help tell the story of the causes, effects, differences in and possible ameliorations of particulate air pollution. After framing up the image the artist would wait until light levels allowed for a long exposure photograph to be taken without oversaturation of the camera. This would either take place during a seven-minute period at dawn or dusk or in an appropriately street lit area at night. Setting the camera for exposure priority was first given to the length of exposure (10 s–30 s), then aperture was set to give appropriate depth of field with visual subjects wholly in focus then finally setting ISO as low as possible within this. Once the equipment was in place and ready a series of photographs would be taken with the artist slowly walking with the sensor and LED array in front of the camera, calling out to an assistant when to release the shutter. After shutter release, the artist would hand trigger a fade-in using the trigger button and count out loud the passing seconds to ensure a fade-out was triggered before the camera’s shutter closing. This process would be repeated until the artist was satisfied a suitably aesthetic photograph had been taken or the light had changed sufficiently to halt the process. During and after the photography a number of readings from the equipment were noted to give a range description of the PM at that brief point in time, along with the location functioned as the photograph’s title. Minimal post-processing in Lightroom was used to ensure balanced color and exposure. Any unwanted stray light traces from the LED present on the pi zero would be removed with the heal tool.

Postcard technique for real-time data collection and analysis

Sentiments regarding air pollution from students of the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology were captured using a postcard data collection approach 46 . Postcards were filled out in English or Aramaic. Students’ responses were extracted and translated from Aramaic to English. Deductive thematic analysis 47 was undertaken on these responses, using the COM-B behavior change wheel framework 37 to understand individuals’ ‘capability’, ‘opportunity’ and ‘motivation’ of being able to change their behavior to reduce air pollution. Data management and coding was undertaken in NVivo, with the responses being assigned initial codes, and then categorized into the final themes. A robustness check and discussion confirmed the interpretation.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

Data are provided in the format of photographs (see figures), as this project is an art science collaboration study. Given the contextual conditions related to the lighting required for the use of the light painting technique, data from this study are not reproducible.

Code availability

Code for the light painting photo technique is contained in an open GitHub repository at https://github.com/robin-price/pollution-painter .

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Acknowledgements

The work was funded by the following grants NERC (NE/T001968/1), EPSRC (EP/T030100/1), and the UK Department for International Development (DFID) via the East Africa Research Fund (EARF) grant ‘A Systems Approach to Air Pollution (ASAP) East Africa’.

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These authors contributed equally: Francis D. Pope, Robin Price.

Authors and Affiliations

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Francis D. Pope, Carlo Luiu, Ajit Singh & Faye Wilder

Vault Artist Studios, Belfast, UK

Robin Price

Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Katherine E. Woolley, Suzanne E. Bartington, Sheila M. Greenfield, Ajit Singh & G. Neil Thomas

School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Mohammed S. Alam

International Development Department, School of Government, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

William R. Avis

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Dawit Debebe, Zerihun Getaneh & Bikila Teklu Wodajo

National Union of Journalists (NUJ) Training Wales, Swansea, UK

Rachel Howells

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Mukesh Khare

Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abel Weldetinsae

Birmingham Open Media (BOM), Birmingham, UK

Chloe Lawson, Ben Neal & Karen Newman

CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India

Sumit K. Mishra

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Contributions

F.D.P. and R.P. conceived and design the experiment, performed the experiment, analyzed the data, contributed to materials and analysis tools, wrote the paper; K.E.W. and C.L. analyzed the data, contributed to materials and analysis tools and wrote the paper; M.S.A., W.R.A., S.E.B., D.D., Z.G., S.M.G., R.H., M.K., A.K., Ch.L., S.K.M., B.N., K.N., A.S., B.T.W., G.N.T., F.W. contributed to materials and analysis tools and reviewed and edited the paper.

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Correspondence to Francis D. Pope .

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Pope, F.D., Price, R., Woolley, K.E. et al. Light painting photography makes particulate matter air pollution visible. Commun Earth Environ 5 , 294 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01409-4

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Received : 22 November 2023

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How does digital economy affect synergy of carbon mitigation and pollution reduction? Evidence from next-generation internet demonstration city construction in China

• Published: 27 June 2024

Cite this article

• Yuan Feng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5242-8936 1 ,
• Jiaxin Liu 1 &
• Changfei Nie   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0958-2142 2  

Promoting the synergy of carbon mitigation (CM) and pollution reduction (PR) (SOCMPR) is crucial for sustainable development, and digital economy creates new opportunities for achieving the synergy of CM and PR (SOCMPR). Therefore, we use a difference-in-differences (DID) model to investigate the effects of the next-generation internet demonstration city (NGIDC) on carbon emissions and air pollutants based on panel data of 281 Chinese cities from 2010 to 2020. Empirical results demonstrate that the NGIDC policy can promote SOCMPR. Through mechanism analysis, we find that technological innovation, entrepreneurial activities, and economic agglomeration are effective approaches for the NGIDC policy to boost SOCMPR. Furthermore, the NGIDC policy’s impact on SOCMPR differs by regions, being pronounced in eastern and large cities. Finally, we discover that the NGIDC policy has considerable spatial spillover effects. The ramifications of our findings for policymakers are significant as they may better utilize digital economy to accomplish the sustainable development goals (SDGs).

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Abbreviations

Carbon mitigation

Pollution reduction

• Synergy of carbon mitigation and pollution reduction
• Difference-in-differences
• Next-generation internet demonstration city

Sustainable development goals

Propensity score matching-difference-in-differences

Instrumental variable

Information and communication technology

Variance inflation factor

Likelihood-ratio

Spatial durbin model

Spatial autoregressive model

Spatial error model

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Acknowledgements

National Social Science Youth Fund of China (22CJL007); Jiangxi Social Science Foundation Youth Project (24YJ21).

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Feng, Y., Liu, J. & Nie, C. How does digital economy affect synergy of carbon mitigation and pollution reduction? Evidence from next-generation internet demonstration city construction in China. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05178-0

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Received : 10 February 2024

Accepted : 23 June 2024

Published : 27 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05178-0

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