water disputes essay

Seven western states share water from the Colorado River.

Interstate water wars are heating up along with the climate

Regents Professor and Morris K. Udall Professor of Law & Public Policy, University of Arizona

Disclosure statement

Robert Glennon received funding from the National Science Foundation in the 1990s and 2000s.

University of Arizona provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

View all partners

Interstate water disputes are as American as apple pie. States often think a neighboring state is using more than its fair share from a river, lake or aquifer that crosses borders.

Currently the U.S. Supreme Court has on its docket a case between Texas, New Mexico and Colorado and another one between Mississippi and Tennessee . The court has already ruled this term on cases pitting Texas against New Mexico and Florida against Georgia .

Climate stresses are raising the stakes. Rising temperatures require farmers to use more water to grow the same amount of crops. Prolonged and severe droughts decrease available supplies. Wildfires are burning hotter and lasting longer . Fires bake the soil, reducing forests’ ability to hold water, increasing evaporation from barren land and compromising water supplies.

As a longtime observer of interstate water negotiations , I see a basic problem: In some cases, more water rights exist on paper than as wet water – even before factoring in shortages caused by climate change and other stresses. In my view, states should put at least as much effort into reducing water use as they do into litigation, because there are no guaranteed winners in water lawsuits.

Dry times in the West

The situation is most urgent in California and the Southwest, which currently face “ extreme or exceptional” drought conditions . California’s reservoirs are half-empty at the end of the rainy season. The Sierra snowpack sits at 60% of normal . In March 2021, federal and state agencies that oversee California’s Central Valley Project and State Water Project – regional water systems that each cover hundreds of miles – issued “ remarkably bleak warnings ” about cutbacks to farmers’ water allocations.

The Colorado River Basin is mired in a drought that began in 2000 . Experts disagree as to how long it could last . What’s certain is that the “ Law of the River ” – the body of rules, regulations and laws governing the Colorado River – has allocated more water to the states than the river reliably provides .

The 1922 Colorado River Compact allocated 7.5 million acre-feet (one acre-foot is roughly 325,000 gallons) to California, Nevada and Arizona, and another 7.5 million acre-feet to Utah, Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. A treaty with Mexico secured that country 1.5 million acre-feet, for a total of 16.5 million acre-feet. However, estimates based on tree ring analysis have determined that the actual yearly flow of the river over the last 1,200 years is roughly 14.6 million acre-feet .

The inevitable train wreck has not yet happened, for two reasons. First, Lakes Mead and Powell – the two largest reservoirs on the Colorado – can hold a combined 56 million acre-feet, roughly four times the river’s annual flow.

But diversions and increased evaporation due to drought are reducing water levels in the reservoirs . As of Dec. 16, 2020, both lakes were less than half full.

Second, the Upper Basin states – Utah, Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico – have never used their full allotment. Now, however, they want to use more water. Wyoming has several new dams on the drawing board. So does Colorado, which is also planning a new diversion from the headwaters of the Colorado River to Denver and other cities on the Rocky Mountains’ east slope.

Much of the U.S. Southwest and California are in extreme or exceptional drought.

Utah stakes a claim

The most controversial proposal comes from one of the nation’s fastest-growing areas: St. George, Utah, home to approximately 90,000 residents and lots of golf courses. St. George has very high water consumption rates and very low water prices . The city is proposing to augment its water supply with a 140-mile pipeline from Lake Powell , which would carry 86,000 acre-feet per year.

Truth be told, that’s not a lot of water, and it would not exceed Utah’s unused allocation from the Colorado River. But the six other Colorado River Basin states have protested as though St. George were asking for their firstborn child.

In a joint letter dated Sept. 8, 2020, the other states implored the Interior Department to refrain from issuing a final environmental review of the pipeline until all seven states could “ reach consensus regarding legal and operational concerns .” The letter explicitly threatened a high “probability of multi-year litigation .”

Utah blinked. Having earlier insisted on an expedited pipeline review, the state asked federal officials on Sept. 24, 2020 to delay a decision . But Utah has not given up: In March 2021, Gov. Spencer Cox signed a bill creating a Colorado River Authority of Utah , armed with a US$9 million legal defense fund, to protect Utah’s share of Colorado River water. One observer predicted “ huge, huge litigation .”

How huge could it be? In 1930, Arizona sued California in an epic battle that did not end until 2006. Arizona prevailed by finally securing a fixed allocation from the water apportioned to California, Nevada and Arizona .

Litigation or conservation

Before Utah takes the precipitous step of appealing to the Supreme Court under the court’s original jurisdiction over disputes between states, it might explore other solutions. Water conservation and reuse make obvious sense in St. George, where per-person water consumption is among the nation’s highest .

St. George could emulate its neighbor, Las Vegas, which has paid residents up to $3 per square foot to rip out lawns and replace them with native desert landscaping. In April 2021 Las Vegas went further, asking the Nevada Legislature to outlaw ornamental grass .

The Southern Nevada Water Authority estimates that the Las Vegas metropolitan area has eight square miles of “nonfunctional turf” – grass that no one ever walks on except the person who cuts it. Removing it would reduce the region’s water consumption by 15% .

Water rights litigation is fraught with uncertainty. Just ask Florida, which thought it had a strong case that Georgia’s water diversions from the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River Basin were harming its oyster fishery downstream.

That case extended over 20 years before the U.S. Supreme Court ended the final chapter in April 2021. The court used a procedural rule that places the burden on plaintiffs to provide “clear and convincing evidence.” Florida failed to convince the court , and walked away with nothing.

Climate change
US Supreme Court
Water conservation
Water rights
Colorado River
Georgia (US state)

School of Social Sciences – Public Policy and International Relations opportunities

Partner, Senior Talent Acquisition

Deputy Editor - Technology

Sydney Horizon Educators (Identified)

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic and Student Life)

Advisory Board
Publications
Diplomacy and Development
Government Accountability Office
Homeland Security
Intelligence
National Academy of Sciences
White House and Interagency
Non-U.S. Governments, Regional and Int’l Institutions
Academic, Think Tank & NGO
Additional Sources

The Center for Climate & Security

Exploring The Security Risks of Climate Change

Home » climate and security » Why Water Conflict is Rising, Especially on the Local Level

Why Water Conflict is Rising, Especially on the Local Level

By Peter Schwartzstein

That future wars will be fought over water, rather than oil, has become something of a truism, particularly with regard to the Middle East. It’s also one that most water experts have refuted time and time and time again. But while this preference for cooperation over conflict may (and emphasis on may ) remain true of interstate disputes, this blanket aversion to the ‘water wars’ narrative fails to account for the rash of other water-related hostilities that are erupting across many of the world’s drylands. As neither full-on warfare nor issues that necessarily resonate beyond specific, sometimes isolated areas, these ‘grey zone’ clashes don’t seem to be fully registering in the broader discussion of water conflicts. In failing to adequately account for the volume of localized violence, the world is probably chronically underestimating the extent to which water insecurity is already contributing to conflict.

Since the late 1990s, both intrastate and interstate clashes in which water has featured as a victim, weapon, or cause of conflict have soared, according to the World Water Conflict Chronology . But the number of intrastate ‘events’ has generally been about four or five times greater than the number of country-to-country ones, with an average of 30 to 40 intrastate incidents a year over the past decade. In 2018, for example, one man was killed and many more injured when Iranian police cracked down on illicit water pumps.

None of this necessarily undermines the logic of water practitioners downplaying the risk of ‘water wars’– even if some of them have been overly dismissive of water’s destabilizing potential. It’s just that most sub-national clashes sway to a slightly different beat than their transboundary counterparts. With higher stakes among agriculture-dependent districts, for example, there can be more incentive to violence among individual communities than there is for nation states, few of whom could hope to pilfer more water from their neighbors, no matter how desperate they might be. Their options for winning over more water are severely limited. That’s not so at a more local level, where resources can be more easily secured and where the balance of power can be much more fluid than it is among nation states.

Since many of these localized clashes are likely to arise in rural or marginalized areas, where the inequities that underlie water disputes can be extra pronounced, state governments and multilateral organizations may have fewer means – or less of a desire – to rein them in. Who, after all, is going to devote the same attention to stifling a village dispute as you would a cross-border conflagration? Many of the states that are suffering through water woes are, not uncoincidentally, among the very same states that lack the capacity and often the wherewithal to address the root causes of much of this shortfall.

Given that citizens are generally much more exposed to the poor or heavy-handed governance of their own authorities – with all the unsatisfactory water outcomes often accompanying that – it’s only natural that domestic decision-making can provide particularly dry kindling for public fury against the state or against one another in ways that interstate disputes seldom do. All told, the rational inducements and emotional pull to violence over water can be greater at a local level, just as the barriers to remonstrating with accessible local targets can be much lower. Roll on turmoil.

Relatedly, people might have even more reason to chafe against domestic water management than they realize. With national honor seen to be on the line, the quality of transboundary water management personnel usually surpasses local administration, much of which is seemingly entrusted to underfunded, under scrutinized, insufficiently empowered, and perhaps less able officials. As one Bangladeshi think tanker put it to me: “When we deal with India and China, we are prepared. We put our best people on the job. But it’s not like that, of course, when you deal with squabbles between one village and another. You get whatever poor sod is closest to sort it out.”

One of the most notable things about localized water violence is where much of it is occuring. While interstate water-related violence has yet to materialize, it’s no coincidence that many of these smaller-scale clashes are playing out in precisely the places where observers have warned of future large-scale trouble. The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has not yet spilled over into state on state violence, but that hasn’t stopped the Nile basin from turning into a hotbed of sometimes fatal water-related intrastate clashes covering at least 17 incidents and within no fewer than six riparian states since 2018 by my analysis. After torching a police car during a demonstration in 2015, a villager who’d been displaced by the construction of Sudan’s Merowe dam told me why his people’s protests had turned violent. “We tried to use every peaceful channel possible to get the government to act, to follow through on their promises of new villages. But they didn’t,” he said. “And sometimes there’s violence when all peaceful options seem exhausted.”

A similar dynamic is at play in Iraq. Policymakers in Baghdad appear unlikely to express their fury with dam construction by Ankara or Tehran through anything other than strongly worded communiques. Yet at the local level within Iraq and, to a certain but lesser extent, Iran and Turkey, water-related disputes among tribes and provinces are cropping up throughout the Euphrates and Tigris basins. The reality is that the forces that anger national governments along these rivers and others, such as the Indus, Ganges, and Mekong, are also contributing to lower-level disputes. It’s just that in many of those instances there’s been no ability, no desire, and/or no understanding by national governments or NGOs as to how to stop them.

So what’s next? As the international focus on transboundary water disputes intensifies, one might hope for a similar determination to address their regional, district, and communal equivalents. This appears challenging, however, given the dual pressures posed by increased dam construction and climate change. Dams, so often a public grievance because many are erected with insufficient regard for or consultation with the marginalized communities who tend to be the most affected, are having another moment in the sun. Ironically, much of this new wave is seemingly fueled by a push for cheap, clean, reliable electricity as fossil fuel attractiveness wavers. In 2018, there were 3,500 new dams under construction or under consideration, while East Asia added 10,000 MW of hydropower in 2017 alone.

Climate-induced variations in rainfall also bode ill for inter-communal relations – though not necessarily for the reasons one might expect. Water disputes are rarely wholly or even mostly grounded in scarcity, but erratic access can become an additional source of tension among communities with histories of conflict or mutual distrust, as has happened in parts of the Sahel and Central Asia .

Most importantly, because most of these water-related clashes are intimately wrapped up with poor governance, and because climate change stresses and population pressures only compound governance failures, even greater patches of the planet will become vulnerable to shortfalls in water quality and access. As water insecurity increases, it will be state and local governments and their neighbors to whom people will direct their fury. It can be hard to avoid the conclusion that water conflict is upon us. So far, at least, it just looks a bit less dramatic, a bit more local, and perhaps a lot more prolific than we might have imagined.

Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
Click to print (Opens in new window)
Click to share on Telegram (Opens in new window)
Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)

Tags: climate , conflict , water

Follow Blog via Email

Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

Email Address

Follow us on Twitter

Resource Hub

Discover more from The Center for Climate & Security

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Type your email…

Press Release | Water crises threaten world peace (report)

Paris, 22 March 2024 – The United Nations World Water Development Report 2024, published by UNESCO on behalf of UN-Water, highlights that tensions over water are exacerbating conflicts worldwide. To preserve peace, States must boost international cooperation and transboundary agreements.

Click here to view the full report

“As water stress increases, so do the risks of local or regional conflict. UNESCO’s message is clear: if we want to preserve peace, we must act swiftly not only to safeguard water resources but also to enhance regional and global cooperation in this area,” said Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO.

“Water, when managed sustainably and equitably, can be a source of peace and prosperity. It is also the literal lifeblood of agriculture, the major socio-economic driver for billions of people,” said Alvaro Lario, President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and Chair of UN-Water.

According to the new report published by UNESCO, on behalf of UN-Water, today 2.2 billion people still live without access to safely managed drinking water and 3.5 billion lack access to safely managed sanitation. The UN goal of ensuring this access for all by 2030 is therefore far from being attained, and there is reason to fear that these inequalities may continue to rise.

Between 2002 and 2021 droughts affected more than 1.4 billion people. As of 2022, roughly half of the world’s population experienced severe water scarcity for at least part of the year, while one quarter faced ‘extremely high’ levels of water stress, using over 80% of their annual renewable freshwater supply. Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and severity of these phenomena, with acute risks for social stability.

Girls and women are the first victims of a lack of water

The first impact is the deterioration of living conditions, leading to heightened food insecurity and health risks. Water scarcity also has consequences on social development, particularly for girls and women. In many rural areas, they are the primary water collectors, spending up to several hours a day on this task. Reduced access to water supply exacerbates this burden, which undermines women’s education, economic participation and safety. This may also contribute to the higher secondary school dropout rate among girls compared to boys.

The lack of water security has also been identified as one of the drivers of migration. This displacement can, in turn, contribute to water insecurity by placing added strain on water systems and resources in settlement locations, thereby fuelling social tensions. A study conducted in Somalia indicates a 200% increase in gender-based violence against a group of displaced people.

An urgent need for transboundary agreements

This water scarcity can increase the risk of conflict. In the Sahel region, wetland degradation – often due to ill-advised water development projects – has exacerbated local disputes over access to water and productive land, causing tensions.

While approximately 40% of the world’s population lives in transboundary river and lake basins, only a fifth of countries have cross border agreements to jointly manage these shared resources equitably. Many transboundary basins are already located in areas marked by current or past interstate tensions. In the Arab region, seven countries were in conflict in 2021 – some dating back many years –which has had wide-ranging implications for water supply, infrastructure, and potential cooperation on water-related issues.

Africa remains especially vulnerable to interstate tensions relating to water: 19 out of 22 states studied suffer from water scarcity, and two-thirds of the continent’s freshwater resources are transboundary. Of the 106 transboundary aquifers mapped in Africa, interstate cooperation has only been formalized in seven.

Concrete progress in cooperation in several regions

In this context, cooperation on transboundary water management appears to be a powerful lever for maintaining peace. By creating conditions for regular dialogue between all parties and instituting the necessary legal frameworks, this cooperation has the potential to resolve most disputes relating to water, and therefore prevent the emergence or exacerbation of wider-ranging conflicts.

The Framework Agreement on the Sava River Basin (FASRB), signed in 2002 by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia, was the first multilateral, development-oriented agreement in South-East Europe. It has successfully laid the groundwork for sustainable water management. Two decades after its adoption, it has become a key driver of stability in the region, and now serves as an example of best practice for other regions of the world.

The decline in volume of Lake Chad – which has decreased in size by 90% over 60 years – has led to a broad range of economic and security challenges in the region. Yet in recent years, Cameroon, Chad, the Central Africa Republic, Libya, Niger and Nigeria have given a new impetus to the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC). LCBC’s mandate has expanded to ensure the most efficient use of the basin’s waters, coordinate local development, and prevent the emergence of disputes that might arise among these countries and local communities. LCBC is today the most appropriate institution for addressing the specific needs of the basin, including socio-economic development and security issues.

These two examples highlight the fact that, even in complex situations, states have the means to enact policies around access to water and shared resource management that are both fair and equitable thanks to international cooperation and the support of the United Nations system.

The United Nations World Water Development Report is published by UNESCO on behalf of UN-Water and its production is coordinated by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme. The report gives insight into the main trends concerning the state, use and management of freshwater and sanitation, based on work by Members and Partners of UN-Water. Launched in conjunction with World Water Day, the report provides decision-makers with knowledge and tools to formulate and implement sustainable water policies. It also offers best practice examples and in-depth analyses to stimulate ideas and actions for better stewardship in the water sector and beyond.

About UNESCO

With 194 Member States, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization contributes to peace and security by leading multilateral cooperation on education, science, culture, communication and information. Headquartered in Paris, UNESCO has offices in 54 countries and employs over 2300 people. UNESCO oversees more than 2000 World Heritage sites, Biosphere Reserves and Global Geoparks; networks of Creative, Learning, Inclusive and Sustainable Cities; and over 13 000 associated schools, university chairs, training and research institutions. Its Director-General is Audrey Azoulay.

“Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed” – UNESCO Constitution, 1945.

More information: www.unesco.org

About UN-Water

UN-Water is the United Nations inter-agency coordination mechanism for all freshwater-related matters, including sanitation. It represents 36 UN Agencies, Funds and Programs and 47 international organizations who work together to address the cross-cutting nature of water and sanitation issues, to identify gaps and opportunities and to maximise system-wide coordinated action at the global, regional and country levels and across the United Nations pillars.

More information: https://www.unwater.org/

Media Contacts

Inter-State Water Disputes in India: Challenges, Solutions, and the Path to Equitable Sharing

Table of Contents

INEQUITABLE SHARING OF RESOURCES: INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES

(relevant for general studies paper prelims/mains).

Inter-State Water Disputes in India: Challenges, Solutions, and the Path to Equitable Sharing, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus.

In a world where the significance of water resources for sustenance and development is widely acknowledged, ensuring fair and adequate access to water remains an urgent concern.

In a diverse and populous country like India, the recurring challenge of inter-state river water disputes has sparked tensions among regions and hindered progress. These disputes go beyond the realm of politics and often spill over into social life and discussions. Consequently, finding a lasting solution becomes imperative to avoid delays in water resources utilization, cost overruns, and even law and order issues.

The equitable sharing of river waters is not only vital for meeting the immediate needs of communities and agriculture but also crucial for promoting harmonious interstate relations and fostering sustainable growth.

Scenario of Inter-State Water Disputes

Recently, the Pennaiyar river dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu has been making headlines. This issue is followed by the Mahadayi river dispute, a longstanding water dispute, between Karnataka and Goa.
Numerous other disputes, such as the Sutlej-Yamuna link canal, Krishna Water Dispute involving Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, Mahanadi Water Dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and the Cauvery Water Dispute involving Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Puducherry, are frequently seen in the news.

Challenges in Effective Functioning of ISRWD Tribunals

A tribunal is established to adjudicate ISRWDs (Inter-State River Water Disputes) only when the Center grants its approval.
The lack of universally accepted water data currently poses challenges in establishing a baseline for adjudication.
The current mechanism of these tribunals is marked by prolonged delays and non-compliance with the awards given by ISRWD Tribunals.
A commonly held perspective is that adjudication may not be the ideal approach to settle ISRWDs. Many of these disputes do not involve legal questions but rather pertain to matters in the domain of hydrology, environment, engineering, agriculture, climate, sociology, and other related fields.
Frequently, there are challenges in sharing data and discrepancies in data between the states involved in the disputes.
Political parties often exploit these disputes for political gains, making it challenging to approach the issue objectively and reach consensus-based solutions.
The rising demand for water, driven by population growth, urbanization, and industrialization, intensifies the competition among states for water resources.

Can Equitable Distribution of Resources Resolve ISRWDs

A crucial element in finding a lasting and acceptable solution lies in ensuring fair, equitable, and reasonable use of natural resources.
However , the lack of a clear definition for fair, equitable, and reasonable use can pose challenges during implementation of this concept.
Such usage can typically be determined through the assessment of various factors, considering the historical context, present circumstances, and social conditions in the regions of interest.
The allocation of equitable shares should be designed in a manner that maximizes the benefits for each party using water while causing minimal harm to others.
Scientifically determining equitable distribution can be challenging due to the limited availability of data.
As stated in the Berlin Rules of 2004 , the transparency of information concerning water resources is crucial for achieving equity.
States should be incentivized and encouraged to adopt best practices in water usage to derive maximum benefits while ensuring equitable utilization and minimizing harm to others.

Effective governance in sustainable water management can be most effectively accomplished by comprehending gender disparities and actively addressing the unique obstacles they present.

Inter-State Water Disputes, ISRWD, Equitable Sharing, Water Resources, River Disputes, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Sutlej-Yamuna link canal, Krishna Water Dispute, Mahanadi Water Dispute, Cauvery Water Dispute, ISRWD Tribunals, Water Management, Sustainable Growth, Pennaiyar river, Mahadayi river, Gender Disparities in Water Management, Berlin Rules, Hydrology, Environment, Agriculture, Urbanization, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus, cooperative based economic development

Sociology Optional Syllabus Course Commencement Information

Enrolment is limited to a maximum of 250 Seats.
Course Timings: Evening Batch
Course Duration: 4.5 Months
Class Schedule: Monday to Saturday
Batch Starts from: Admission Open Online Batch

Book Your Seat Fast Book Your Seat Fast

We would like to hear from you. Please send us a message by filling out the form below and we will get back with you shortly.

Instructional Format:

Each class session is scheduled for a duration of two hours.
At the conclusion of each lecture, an assignment will be distributed by Vikash Ranjan Sir for Paper-I & Paper-II coverage.

Study Material:

A set of printed booklets will be provided for each topic. These materials are succinct, thoroughly updated, and tailored for examination preparation.
A compilation of previous years’ question papers (spanning the last 27 years) will be supplied for answer writing practice.
Access to PDF versions of toppers’ answer booklets will be available on our website.
Post-course, you will receive two practice workbooks containing a total of 10 sets of mock test papers based on the UPSC format for self-assessment.

Additional Provisions:

In the event of missed classes, video lectures will be temporarily available on the online portal for reference.
Daily one-on-one doubt resolution sessions with Vikash Ranjan Sir will be organized post-class.

Syllabus of Sociology Optional

FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY

Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology.
Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences.
Sociology and common sense.
Science, scientific method and critique.
Major theoretical strands of research methodology.
Positivism and its critique.
Fact value and objectivity.
Non- positivist methodologies.
Qualitative and quantitative methods.
Techniques of data collection.
Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity.
Karl Marx- Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation, class struggle.
Emile Durkheim- Division of labour, social fact, suicide, religion and society.
Max Weber- Social action, ideal types, authority, bureaucracy, protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism.
Talcott Parsons- Social system, pattern variables.
Robert K. Merton- Latent and manifest functions, conformity and deviance, reference groups.
Mead – Self and identity.
Concepts- equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
Theories of social stratification- Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory.
Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups, gender, ethnicity and race.
Social mobility- open and closed systems, types of mobility, sources and causes of mobility.
Social organization of work in different types of society- slave society, feudal society, industrial /capitalist society
Formal and informal organization of work.
Labour and society.
Sociological theories of power.
Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups, and political parties.
Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology.
Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution.
Sociological theories of religion.
Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults.
Religion in modern society: religion and science, secularization, religious revivalism, fundamentalism.
Family, household, marriage.
Types and forms of family.
Lineage and descent.
Patriarchy and sexual division of labour.
Contemporary trends.
Sociological theories of social change.
Development and dependency.
Agents of social change.
Education and social change.
Science, technology and social change.

INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE

Introducing indian society.

Indology (GS. Ghurye).
Structural functionalism (M N Srinivas).
Marxist sociology (A R Desai).
Social background of Indian nationalism.
Modernization of Indian tradition.
Protests and movements during the colonial period.
Social reforms.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The idea of Indian village and village studies.
Agrarian social structure – evolution of land tenure system, land reforms.
Perspectives on the study of caste systems: GS Ghurye, M N Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille.
Features of caste system.
Untouchability – forms and perspectives.
Definitional problems.
Geographical spread.
Colonial policies and tribes.
Issues of integration and autonomy.
Social Classes in India:
Agrarian class structure.
Industrial class structure.
Middle classes in India.
Lineage and descent in India.
Types of kinship systems.
Family and marriage in India.
Household dimensions of the family.
Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division of labour
Religious communities in India.
Problems of religious minorities.

SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA

Idea of development planning and mixed economy
Constitution, law and social change.
Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programme, cooperatives,poverty alleviation schemes
Green revolution and social change.
Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture.
Problems of rural labour, bondage, migration.

3. Industrialization and Urbanisation in India:

Evolution of modern industry in India.
Growth of urban settlements in India.
Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization.
Informal sector, child labour
Slums and deprivation in urban areas.

4. Politics and Society:

Nation, democracy and citizenship.
Political parties, pressure groups , social and political elite
Regionalism and decentralization of power.
Secularization

5. Social Movements in Modern India:

Peasants and farmers movements.
Women’s movement.
Backward classes & Dalit movement.
Environmental movements.
Ethnicity and Identity movements.

6. Population Dynamics:

Population size, growth, composition and distribution
Components of population growth: birth, death, migration.
Population policy and family planning.
Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health.

7. Challenges of Social Transformation:

Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability
Poverty, deprivation and inequalities.
Violence against women.
Caste conflicts.
Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism.
Illiteracy and disparities in education.

Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus, BEST SOCIOLOGY OPTIONAL TEACHER, SOCIOLOGY OPTIONAL TEACHER

Mr. Vikash Ranjan, arguably the Best Sociology Optional Teacher , has emerged as a versatile genius in teaching and writing books on Sociology & General Studies. His approach to the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus is remarkable, and his Sociological Themes and Perspectives are excellent. His teaching aptitude is Simple, Easy and Exam Focused. He is often chosen as the Best Sociology Teacher for Sociology Optional UPSC aspirants.

About Triumph IAS

Innovating Knowledge, Inspiring Success We, at Triumph IAS , pride ourselves on being the best sociology optional coaching platform. We believe that each Individual Aspirant is unique and requires Individual Guidance and Care, hence the need for the Best Sociology Teacher . We prepare students keeping in mind his or her strength and weakness, paying particular attention to the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus , which forms a significant part of our Sociology Foundation Course .

Course Features

Every day, the Best Sociology Optional Teacher spends 2 hours with the students, covering each aspect of the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus and the Sociology Course . Students are given assignments related to the Topic based on Previous Year Question to ensure they’re ready for the Sociology Optional UPSC examination.

Regular one-on-one interaction & individual counseling for stress management and refinement of strategy for Exam by Vikash Ranjan Sir , the Best Sociology Teacher , is part of the package. We specialize in sociology optional coaching and are hence fully equipped to guide you to your dream space in the civil service final list.

Specialist Guidance of Vikash Ranjan Sir

The Best Sociology Teacher helps students to get a complete conceptual understanding of each and every topic of the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus , enabling them to attempt any of the questions, be direct or applied, ensuring 300+ Marks in Sociology Optional .

Classrooms Interaction & Participatory Discussion

The Best Sociology Teacher, Vikash Sir , ensures that there’s explanation & DISCUSSION on every topic of the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus in the class. The emphasis is not just on teaching but also on understanding, which is why we are known as the Best Sociology Optional Coaching institution.

Preparatory-Study Support

Sociology Optional Syllabus, Sociology Syllabus, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus, BEST SOCIOLOGY OPTIONAL TEACHER, SOCIOLOGY OPTIONAL TEACHER

Online Support System (Oss)

Get access to an online forum for value addition study material, journals, and articles relevant to Sociology on www.triumphias.com . Ask preparation related queries directly to the Best Sociology Teacher , Vikash Sir, via mail or WhatsApp.

Strategic Classroom Preparation

Comprehensive Study Material

We provide printed booklets of concise, well-researched, exam-ready study material for every unit of the Sociology Optional Syllabus / Sociology Syllabus , making us the Best Sociology Optional Coaching platform.

Why Vikash Ranjan’s Classes for Sociology?

Proper guidance and assistance are required to learn the skill of interlinking current happenings with the conventional topics. VIKASH RANJAN SIR at TRIUMPH IAS guides students according to the Recent Trends of UPSC, making him the Best Sociology Teacher for Sociology Optional UPSC.

At Triumph IAS, the Best Sociology Optional Coaching platform, we not only provide the best study material and applied classes for Sociology for IAS but also conduct regular assignments and class tests to assess candidates’ writing skills and understanding of the subject.

Choose T he Best Sociology Optional Teacher for IAS Preparation?

At the beginning of the journey for Civil Services Examination preparation, many students face a pivotal decision – selecting their optional subject. Questions such as “ which optional subject is the best? ” and “ which optional subject is the most scoring? ” frequently come to mind. Choosing the right optional subject, like choosing the best sociology optional teacher , is a subjective yet vital step that requires a thoughtful decision based on facts. A misstep in this crucial decision can indeed prove disastrous.

Ever since the exam pattern was revamped in 2013, the UPSC has eliminated the need for a second optional subject. Now, candidates have to choose only one optional subject for the UPSC Mains , which has two papers of 250 marks each. One of the compelling choices for many has been the sociology optional. However, it’s strongly advised to decide on your optional subject for mains well ahead of time to get sufficient time to complete the syllabus. After all, most students score similarly in General Studies Papers; it’s the score in the optional subject & essay that contributes significantly to the final selection.

“ A sound strategy does not rely solely on the popular Opinion of toppers or famous YouTubers cum teachers. ”

It requires understanding one’s ability, interest, and the relevance of the subject, not just for the exam but also for life in general. Hence, when selecting the best sociology teacher, one must consider the usefulness of sociology optional coaching in General Studies, Essay, and Personality Test.

The choice of the optional subject should be based on objective criteria, such as the nature, scope, and size of the syllabus, uniformity and stability in the question pattern, relevance of the syllabic content in daily life in society, and the availability of study material and guidance. For example, choosing the best sociology optional coaching can ensure access to top-quality study materials and experienced teachers. Always remember, the approach of the UPSC optional subject differs from your academic studies of subjects. Therefore, before settling for sociology optional , you need to analyze the syllabus, previous years’ pattern, subject requirements (be it ideal, visionary, numerical, conceptual theoretical), and your comfort level with the subject.

This decision marks a critical point in your UPSC – CSE journey , potentially determining your success in a career in IAS/Civil Services. Therefore, it’s crucial to choose wisely, whether it’s the optional subject or the best sociology optional teacher . Always base your decision on accurate facts, and never let your emotional biases guide your choices. After all, the search for the best sociology optional coaching is about finding the perfect fit for your unique academic needs and aspirations.

To master these intricacies and fare well in the Sociology Optional Syllabus , aspiring sociologists might benefit from guidance by the Best Sociology Optional Teacher and participation in the Best Sociology Optional Coaching . These avenues provide comprehensive assistance, ensuring a solid understanding of sociology’s diverse methodologies and techniques. Sociology, Social theory, Best Sociology Optional Teacher, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus. Best Sociology Optional Teacher, Sociology Syllabus, Sociology Optional, Sociology Optional Coaching, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Best Sociology Teacher, Sociology Course, Sociology Teacher, Sociology Foundation, Sociology Foundation Course, Sociology Optional UPSC, Sociology for IAS,

Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals, Road Safety, Global Goals ,

🔎 https://www.instagram.com/triumphias

🔎 www.triumphias.com

🔎https://www.youtube.com/c/TriumphIAS

https://t.me/VikashRanjanSociology

Find More Blogs

Water Rights and Water Fights: Preventing and Resolving Conflicts Before They Boil Over

Both authors contributed equally to the writing of the editorial.

Scarcity of freshwater is an increasingly critical public health problem in many parts of the world. World leaders, including United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, have urged that this issue be given high priority. Inadequate access to safe freshwater contributes to waterborne disease, malnutrition, poverty, economic and political instability, and conflict—potentially violent conflict—between countries or groups within countries.

Approximately 97.5% of all water is either salt water or water that has become polluted. Of the remaining 2.5%, nearly 70% is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps. Less than 0.01% of all water worldwide is available for human use in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and easily accessible aquifers.

About three fifths of water flowing in all rivers is shared by two or more countries—in 263 river basins in 145 countries, where two fifths of the world's population lives. 1 As a result, many countries are highly dependent on water resources that originate from outside their national territory. For example, 34% of water resources in India and 76% of water resources in Pakistan originate from outside these countries. 2 As another example, the Nile River Basin is shared by 11 countries that are mutually dependent for their water resources.

The World Bank estimates that people generally require 100 to 200 liters of water daily to meet basic needs (36.5–73.0 m 3 of water per person annually). If one includes other uses of water, such as agriculture, industry, and energy production, the total annual average requirement of water per person is 1000 cubic meters. 3 In 1990, 11 countries in arid or semiarid regions of Africa and the Middle East had less than 1000 cubic meters of freshwater available per person. 3 Given anticipated major population increases, each of these 11 countries will have substantially less water per person in 2025.

One billion people do not have access to safe water—a problem that will likely increase as the world population grows from 6.8 billion people now to about 9.0 billion by 2050. This problem likely will become especially severe in countries with high population growth rates that share a major source of freshwater with other countries. 4

Conflicts over water, both within countries and between countries, are sharply increasing ( Table 1 ). However, few of these conflicts have led to violence. Major underlying reasons for these conflicts include (1) low rainfall, inadequate water supply, and dependency on one major water source; (2) high population growth and rapid urbanization; (3) modernization and industrialization; and (4) a history of armed combat and poor relations between countries and among groups within countries. Water scarcity alone, however, is infrequently the cause of armed conflict over water. Immediately precipitating causes include sociopolitical tensions; disputes over dams, reservoirs, and other large-scale projects; and disputes concerning environmental and resource issues. 5

Global Water Conflicts, 1900–2007

Source . Adapted from Gleick. 5

Although few conflicts over water have become violent, most have arisen in areas in which violence is widespread, and most of these conflicts could have become violent. Violent conflict over water, like other armed conflict, can have disastrous health consequences for individuals and populations, including not only death, injury, illness, and long-term physical and mental impairment, but also destruction of the health-supporting infrastructure of society, including systems that provide freshwater; forced migration, which generally decreases access to freshwater; and diversion of human and financial resources, including resources to maintain and improve access to freshwater. 6

PREVENTING CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Several possible approaches can prevent conflicts over water. One set of approaches consists of measures to increase the availability of water, including (1) reducing use of water, such as by decreasing wasteful uses and increasing efficient uses; (2) increasing availability of clean water, such as by reducing industrial pollution and sewage contamination of water, improving sewage and wastewater treatment, and improving watershed management; (3) establishing and maintaining new groundwater wells; (4) designing and implementing improved methods of desalinization; and (5) expanding use of greywater (wastewater from domestic activities that can be recycled for some uses), as has been done extensively in Singapore and Israel.

Another set of approaches aims to resolve conflicts over water before they boil over—that is, before they become violent or have other serious consequences. Such preventive measures include (1) laws and regulations at the local, state or provincial, national, or international level; (2) proactive cooperation among nations or among states or provinces within nations; and (3) mediation and arbitration. Internationally, there have been more than 3800 unilateral, bilateral, or multilateral declarations or conventions concerning water, including 286 treaties. 7 In addition, throughout the world there have been numerous laws and regulations concerning water use at the local, state or provincial, and national levels. Much needs to be done to strengthen the enforcement of existing laws and regulations and to develop new ones to address current issues.

Proactive cooperation can help resolve conflicts over water and help maintain public health, food security, and social, environmental, and economic stability. It can also help prevent violent conflict over water and help build sustainable peace. Two examples of such cooperation in the Middle East have been the Good Water Neighbors Project and the Nile Basin Initiative. The Good Water Neighbors Project, established in 2001, has brought together Israeli, Jordanian, and Palestinian communities to protect shared water resources and has significantly improved the local water sector and helped to build peace at the local level. 8 The Nile Basin Initiative, which began in 1999, is an international venture in which nine countries have developed the Nile in a cooperative manner, shared substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promoted regional peace and security. 9

Much cooperation over water use also exists in other parts of the world. For example, the Autonomous Water Authority created by Bolivia and Peru, which share Lake Titicaca, has enabled these countries to work together on the management of water resources. 10 Another excellent example of cooperative water use can be found by examining the situation of the freshwater basin of the Aral Sea, which is shared by six countries. The surface of the sea had shrunk between the 1960s and 2007 to 10% of its original size by diversion of water, which drained two rivers feeding it and devastated the environment. With the completion of the Kok-Aral Dam, the Aral Sea has now begun to fill again. 11

While men make most of the decisions about water policy, the role of women is often inappropriately neglected. Women are the gatherers of water in most developing countries and make most of the decisions about its use for drinking and for personal sanitation. Women are also involved in 70% of food production in developing countries, and, although food production is a major use of water, women have little voice in this aspect of water policy. The targets of Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 3 (promote gender equality and empower women) are far from being achieved.

Despite the great challenges to peace that are posed by current and imminent conflicts over water, there is reason for hope that these dangers can be transformed into opportunities. As the United Nations has stated:

Despite widespread perceptions that water basins shared by countries tend to engender hostility rather than collaborative solutions, water is an often untapped resource of fruitful cooperation. 7

WHAT PUBLIC HEALTH WORKERS CAN DO

Public health workers can play many roles in ensuring equitable access to freshwater 12 and in reducing the likelihood of armed conflict over water. These roles include (1) raising awareness about the importance of access to freshwater 13 ; (2) documenting conflicts over water and their adverse health effects; (3) promoting efforts to prevent contamination of water, to conserve it, and to use it more efficiently; (4) promoting nonviolent approaches to resolving conflicts over water; (5) promoting proactive cooperation among countries or groups within countries; and (6) supporting a key target of MDG 7 (reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015). Public health is what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions in which people can be healthy. Two of these critically important conditions are adequate access to freshwater and sustainable peace. By preventing conflicts over water, public health workers can help ensure these two basic requirements for public health.

Acknowledgments

A version of this editorial was presented at the 137th Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association in Philadelphia on November 9, 2009.

Understanding and preventing conflict over water

Stanford water and climate experts discuss climate impacts on shared water sources and potential solutions.

Since time immemorial, people have fought over natural resources. The most precious of those – water – could be the focus of more frequent conflicts as global warming raises temperatures and dries out landscapes. Over 3 billion people depend on water that crosses national borders, but only 24 countries have transboundary water basin agreements, according to the UN.

In recognition of World Water Day today, an annual UN-organized observance focused on “water for peace” this year, Anna Michalak , Founding Director of the new Carnegie Climate and Resilience Hub, and Rafael Schmitt , a lead scientist at Stanford’s Natural Capital Project , discussed climate impacts on shared water sources and potential solutions.

Why is there more potential for conflict over water now than in the past?

Michalak : Water quality has traditionally been thought of as a local or regional issue, with factors such as urbanization, agriculture, and wastewater treatment being the main determinants of outcomes. In recent decades, however, our global impact via climate change is becoming a key additional factor. This interdependence increases the potential for conflict locally, regionally, and internationally, especially as climate change accelerates. Being able to anticipate and respond to water quality shocks, for example extreme events such as unprecedented harmful algal blooms in lakes and along coasts, will help to manage impacts in effective and equitable ways.

Schmitt : Conflicts about water have been quite common in the past, being recorded several thousand years back. In the more recent past, such conflicts have typically concerned countries that share rivers and thus water basins. Going forward, trade could alleviate some water conflicts and impacts of climate change – but trade and globalization also open the door to trading more water-intensive goods, such as cash crops or hydrogen. That will lead to a greater value for water and increased potential for conflict.

What is an example of how climate change affects water supply or quality?

Michalak : In the U.S., concentrations of microcystin, a toxin that attacks the liver and is produced by cyanobacteria or blue green algae in lakes, are highest when water temperatures are in the 70s Fahrenheit. We are seeing the band of lakes where the risks of high concentrations are highest move North as climate warms. The high-risk regions will increasingly overlap with the Midwest agricultural corn belt where high nutrient concentrations from fertilizers will get into water and supercharge the effect. Some of our recent work has shown that increases in nutrient pollution in rivers across the U.S. over the past three decades are more closely tied to climatic changes, specifically the amount and intensity of rainfall, rather than changes in land use and land management.

Are there any surprising examples of how climate change impacts to land or water in one country or region might affect the water in another country or region?

Schmitt : Some of our research shows that it is often not climate change alone that impacts water, but rather adaptation to climate change in other sectors. For instance, in Peru we found that hydropower is not very vulnerable to climate change, but agriculture is. If agriculture increases irrigation to deal with hotter, drier weather, this could have huge impacts on downstream hydropower.

Are there any potential hotpots for water-related conflict that you are keeping an eye on?

Schmitt : Among other potential hotspots, I would keep a keen eye on the Mekong Basin. In the Mekong, there is increasing awareness and tension around how Chinese dams and reservoirs impact downstream communities, as well as water security and climate resilience. For instance, Chinese dams are mostly operated to meet China’s hydropower needs, without consideration for the needs of downstream countries and farmers. The most productive farmland downstream is the Mekong Delta. Farmers there might choose to use groundwater to replace less reliable surface water supply. But groundwater use, together with sediment trapping in upstream dams, will increase land subsidence, and thus make the delta and its agriculture more vulnerable to climate change.

What are some of the most promising pathways to cooperation on water conflict issues across around the world?

Schmitt : I think it is critical is to make water management decisions more transparent. For instance, I work with the Mekong Dam Monitor , which uses satellites to track the operation of nearly all dams in the Mekong. This information is otherwise not shared between countries and often not even within a country. We already see that having this information out in the open changes debates in the basin, by holding actors accountable, opening pathways for communication, and eventually democratizing water management. For instance, downstream exceptional low and high flows can now be explicitly linked to upstream dam operations. While it is hard to keep people accountable, it will create awareness in the basin and accelerate political processes.

Michalak : The fact that water quality is now being impacted by climate change means that everyone's actions everywhere impact everyone else's water quality everywhere else. Addressing these challenges will require an unprecedented amount of coordination and collaboration across local, regional, national, and international boundaries. It’s a huge challenge, but also a great opportunity for working towards common goals.

Michalak is also a professor (by courtesy) in the department of Earth system science at the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability and the department of biology at the Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences .

Explore More

A cream-colored branched coral on the ocean floor

Helping coral reefs adapt to a warming ocean

Stanford researchers are searching for heat-resistant corals that could ensure the survival of vulnerable reefs.

In Focus: Big Ideas for Oceans

In Texas, as in California, big fires lead to big lawsuits

Michael Wara discusses utilities' preparedness in the wake of extreme weather events.

In the Media

California is finally digitizing its 100-year-old paper water rights. Why that's a big deal

Felicia Marcus applauds digitizing water rights as the system as it would help "implement the system and institute fairness."

Cauvery Water Dispute Summary, Essay & Case Study

Table of Contents

Cauvery Water Dispute Summary

The Cauvery water dispute is a longstanding issue between the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka over the sharing of water from the Cauvery River. Here is a summary of the dispute:

The Cauvery River originates in the state of Karnataka and flows through Tamil Nadu before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The river is an important water source for both states, supporting agriculture, drinking water, and industrial needs.

The dispute dates back to the colonial era, with conflicts arising between the Madras Presidency (now Tamil Nadu) and the princely state of Mysore (now Karnataka) over water sharing. – After India’s independence, the issue continued, and various agreements and tribunals were set up to determine the sharing of the river’s waters between the two states. The primary agreements include the 1892 and 1924 agreements and the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) set up in 1990.

The major point of contention has been the allocation of water between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Tamil Nadu argues for a larger share, stressing historical usage and its need for adequate water for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. On the other hand, Karnataka claims that it needs more water to meet the increasing demands of its growing population and expanding agriculture.

The dispute has led to protests, violence, and occasional disruptions in both states. The implementation of the tribunal’s orders and the release of water have been disputed, leading to tensions and occasional clashes between farmers and authorities. – Over the years, there have been attempts at mediation and negotiations between the two states. However, finding a mutually acceptable solution has proved challenging, primarily due to conflicting interests and the emotional significance attached to the issue.

The Supreme Court of India has played a crucial role in overseeing the dispute and issuing directives to ensure the release of water as per allocated shares. However, implementing these orders has often been met with resistance and further disagreements.

The Cauvery water dispute is a complex and sensitive issue that continues to be unresolved. It represents the challenges surrounding water sharing in India, where numerous rivers flow through multiple states, leading to disputes over equitable distribution and competing interests. Efforts for a long-term and sustainable solution to the dispute are ongoing.

Cauvery Water Dispute Case Study

Case study:, the cauvery water dispute in india introduction:.

The Cauvery water dispute is a long-standing water-sharing conflict between the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. This case study aims to explore and analyze the various dimensions of the dispute, including its historical background, legal interventions, socio-political implications, and potential solutions.

Historical Background: –

Discuss the historical origins of the Cauvery water dispute, dating back to the colonial era. – Highlight conflicts between the Madras Presidency (now Tamil Nadu) and the princely state of Mysore (now Karnataka) over water sharing. – Explain the 1892 and 1924 agreements and their role in shaping perceptions and expectations from both states.

Allocation and Sharing of Water: –

Detail the primary issue of contention: the allocation of water between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. – Explore Tamil Nadu’s argument based on historical usage, emphasizing the importance of the Cauvery River for its agricultural needs. – Examine Karnataka’s stance, emphasizing its growing population demands and agricultural requirements.

Legal and Political Interventions: –

Describe the establishment and functioning of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) in 1990. – Analyze the role of the Supreme Court of India in overseeing the dispute and issuing directives for water release. – Discuss the implementation challenges faced in meeting allocated water shares and the subsequent protests and conflicts.

Socio-Political Implications: –

Assess the socio-political impact of the dispute on regional relationships, public sentiment, and political dynamics. – Explore the role of grassroots movements, political parties, and civil society in shaping public discourse and mobilizing support. – Highlight protests, violence, and disruptions that have occurred as a result of the dispute.

Environmental Concerns: –

Examine the environmental impact of the dispute on the Cauvery River’s health, including pollution, habitat degradation, and ecosystem disruptions. – Discuss the need for sustainable water management practices and the conservation of natural resources in resolving the dispute.

Potential Solutions and Future Outlook: –

Present potential solutions to the Cauvery water dispute, considering alternative water management strategies and the involvement of expert committees. – Analyze the challenges in reaching a mutually agreed resolution and the implications of finding a balance between competing interests. – Discuss the importance of cooperation, dialogue, and understanding between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka for achieving a long-term and sustainable resolution.

Conclusion:

Summarize the key findings and insights from the case study, emphasizing the need for equitable water sharing, cooperation, and the sustainable management of water resources. Highlight the broader societal and environmental significance of resolving water disputes like the Cauvery water dispute in India.

Analysis, Moral & Summary of Poet, Lover, Birdwatcher by Nissim Ezekiel

Maternity Leave Application for Teachers, Government Employees, Male & Office

Inter-State River Water Disputes in India: Is it time for a new mechanism rather than tribunals?

Last updated on September 18, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

Various Inter-State Water Disputes Tribunals have been constituted so far, but it had its own problems. In this article, we analyze whether it’s time for a new mechanism.

Table of Contents

Water in the Constitution of India

Water is a State subject as per entry 17 of State List and thus states are empowered to enact legislation on water.

Entry 17 of State List deals with water i.e. water supply, irrigation, canal, drainage, embankments, water storage and water power.
Entry 56 of Union List gives power to the Union Government for the regulation and development of inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent declared by Parliament to be expedient in the public interest.

Article 262 of the Indian Constitution:

Constituent Assembly anticipated the emergence of water disputes in future. A specific provision of Article 262 is mentioned in the constitution itself due to the sensitivity of such disputes.

In the case of disputes relating to waters, Article 262 provides:

Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or river valley.
Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.

Parliament has enacted two laws according to Article 262:

1) river board act, 1956.

The purpose of this Act was to enable the Union Government to create Boards for Interstate Rivers and river valleys in consultation with State Governments. The objective of Boards is to advise on the inter-state basin to prepare development scheme and to prevent the emergence of conflicts.

Note: Till date, no river board as per above Act has been created.

2) Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956

Provisions of the Act: In case, if a particular state or states approach to Union Government for the constitution of the tribunal:

Central Government should try to resolve the matter by consultation among the aggrieved states.
In case, if it does not work, then it may constitute the tribunal .

Note: Supreme Court shall not question the Award or formula given by tribunal but it can question the working of the tribunal.

The composition of the River Water Tribunal: Tribunal is constituted by the Chief Justice of India and it consists of the sitting judge of Supreme Court and the other two judges who can be from Supreme Court or High Court.

The Present Mechanism to resolve the inter-state river water disputes in India

Thus it can be seen that – the resolution of water dispute is governed by the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956. According to its provisions, a state government can approach the Centre to refer the dispute to a tribunal, whose decision is considered final.

Active River Water sharing Tribunals in India

Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal II (2004) – Karnataka, Telengana,Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra
Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (2018) – Odisha& Chattisgarh
Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal (2010)- Goa,Karnataka, Maharashtra
Ravi& Beas Water Tribunal (1986)- Punjab, Haryana,Rajasthan
Vansdhara Water Disputes Tribunal (2010)- Andra Pradesh & Odisha.

Inter-State river water disputes under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), 1956

Note: You can check the verdicts and latest status of each of these river water tribunals in this link .

Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956: Extra Ordinary Delays in the execution and implementation

Many times there have been extraordinary delays in constituting the tribunal. For example, in the case of Godavari water dispute , the request was made in 1962. The tribunal was constituted in 1968 and the award was given in 1979 which was published in the Gazette in 1980.
Similarly, in Cauvery Water Dispute, Tamil Nadu Government requested to constitute the tribunal in 1970. Only after the intervention of Supreme Court, the tribunal was constituted in 1990.
Due to delay in constituting the tribunal, state governments continued to invest resources in the construction and modification of dams, thus strengthening their claims.

Solution: Amendments to the Act in 2002

In 2002, an Amendment was made in the Act by which the tribunal has to be constituted within a year of getting the request.
It has also been mandated that the tribunal should give the award within 3 years. In certain situations, two more years can be given. Thus the maximum time period was 5 years within which the tribunal should give the award.
Tribunal award is not immediately implemented. Concerned parties may seek clarification within 3 months of the award.
It has also been clarified that the Tribunal Awards will have the same force as the order or decree of Supreme Court. The award is final and beyond the jurisdiction of Supreme Court.

But still, there were issues…

Though Award is final and beyond the jurisdiction of Courts, either States approach Supreme Court under Article 136 (Special Leave Petition) or private persons approach Supreme Court under Article 32 linking issue with the violation of Article 21 (Right to Life).
The composition of the tribunal is not multidisciplinary and it consists of persons only from the judiciary. Thus there is not much difference in tribunal and Supreme Court Bench.
Tribunals work gets delayed due to the lack of availability of the data.

New Solution: Inter-State Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2017 – Dispute Resolution Committee and Single Permanent Tribunal

The government has introduced this Bill in the present session of the Lok Sabha seeking to speed up the interstate water dispute resolution.
The centre is to set up Dispute Resolution Committee having experts from the different fields in case of water disputes. The Committee will try to resolve the dispute within 1 year. The tribunal will be approached only when this committee fails to settle the dispute.
According to this Bill, a Single Permanent Tribunal is to be set up which will have multiple benches.
The Bill calls for the transparent data collection system at the national level for each river basin and a single agency to maintain data bank and information system.

The Case Studies of recent Inter-State River Water Disputes in the news

1) cauvery water dispute.

Cauvery is an inter‐State basin having its origin Karnataka and flowing through Tamil Nadu and Puducherry before out falling in the Bay of Bengal. The states concerned are Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Puducherry (UT).

In 1892, there was an agreement between the princely state of Mysore and British province of Madras.
In 1924, a new agreement for 50 years i.e. till 1974.
In 1970, Tamil Nadu Government approached to Central Government to constitute the tribunal and also in the same year Tamil Nadu Farmers Association filed a civil suit in Supreme Court.
In 1986, Tamil Nadu again made a formal request to constitute the tribunal.
In 1990, the tribunal was set up on the directions of Supreme Court.
The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal passed an Interim order in 1991 directing the State of Karnataka to release Water from its reservoirs in Karnataka so as to ensure 205 Thousand Million Cubic Feet (TMC) of water into Mettur reservoir of Tamil Nadu in a water year (1 st June to 31st May) with monthly and weekly stipulations. Karnataka government refused to obey the interim award.
After 16 years of hearing and an interim order, the Tribunal announced its final order in 2007 allocating 419 tmcft water to Tamil Nadu and 270 tmcft to Karnataka. Kerala was given 30 tmcft and Puducherry got 7 tmc ft. Both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu filed review petitions in Supreme Court.
Karnataka has not accepted the order and refused to release the water to Tamil Nadu. In 2013, Contempt of Court was issued against Karnataka.
In 2016, a petition was filed in Supreme Court to seeking the release of water by Karnataka as per the guidelines of the tribunal. When Supreme Court ordered Karnataka to release water, Kannada people protested the decision saying they do not have enough water.
The matter is still sub judice (under judicial consideration).

2) Satluj Yamuna Link Canal Issue

The issue links to the dispute between Punjab and Haryana after the formation of the Haryana in 1966. The parties involved are Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
To enable Haryana to use its share of the waters of the Satluj and Beas, a canal linking the Satluj with the Yamuna was planned and in 1982 its construction was started.
Due to the protest by Punjab, the tribunal was set up in 1986 which gave an award in 1987 recommending Punjab’s share as 5 Million Acre Feet (MAF) of water and Haryana’s as 3.83 MAF.
Punjab contested the award and held that the tribunal overestimated the availability of the water. Haryana approached Supreme Court for the construction of the SYL canal in 2002. Supreme Court directed Punjab to complete the construction of canal within 12 months.
In July 2004, Punjab Assembly passed Punjab Termination of Agreements Act scrapping water-sharing agreements with other states and thus jeopardising the construction of the canal. This Act has been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 2016 under President Advice (Article 143). In response, Punjab Assembly passed the Act according to which the land acquired for the canal would be denotified and returned to the original owners.
Supreme Court has directed both Punjab and Haryana to maintain status quo in the Sutlej Yamuna Link canal controversy .
In the recent hearing, Centre has offered as a mediator to both Punjab and Haryana.

Inter-State River Water Disputes: The Conclusion

India has 2.4% of the World’s land, 18% of the world population but only 4% of the renewable water resource. If sufficient steps are not taken, the uneven water distribution will increase the possibility of water conflicts.

Inter-state river water disputes hinder the cooperative federalism of our nation and provide parochial mindset making regional issues superior to national issues. One should realise that our nation is a family in which all states are its members.

So disputes must be resolved by dialogue and talks and the political opportunism must be avoided. The issue can be resolved by discussing the dispute in Inter-State Council which can be beneficial in providing a platform for the talks. Such disputes must be resolved as early as possible to ensure greater cooperation between the states.

Article by: Rahul Sharma, UPSC Topper 2016, With All India Rank 76

Aim IAS, IPS, or IFS?

Admissions open:, upsc prelims cum mains (pcm) course 2025: live.

Target UPSC CSE 2025

UPSC Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Course 2025: Self-Paced

Upsc prelims cum mains (pcm) course 2026: self-paced.

Target UPSC CSE 2026

UPSC Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Course 2027: Self-Paced

Target UPSC CSE 2027

About ClearIAS Team

ClearIAS is one of the most trusted learning platforms in India for UPSC preparation. Around 1 million aspirants learn from the ClearIAS every month.

Our courses and training methods are different from traditional coaching. We give special emphasis on smart work and personal mentorship. Many UPSC toppers thank ClearIAS for our role in their success.

Download the ClearIAS mobile apps now to supplement your self-study efforts with ClearIAS smart-study training.

Reader Interactions

April 18, 2017 at 8:09 am

October 2, 2017 at 1:55 pm

Wise information

January 17, 2018 at 4:55 am

Thanks a lot.

March 15, 2018 at 1:59 am

Supper .Thanks a lot

July 12, 2018 at 3:01 pm

excellent please provide more essays related to current issues useful for both upsc and ssc

September 3, 2018 at 12:08 pm

Very concise and to the point. Thank you clearIAS.

January 15, 2019 at 10:36 pm

Quite informativ

June 8, 2019 at 3:45 pm

Superb. Thank you !

September 26, 2023 at 7:57 pm

thanks very good information

Don’t lose out without playing the right game!

Follow the ClearIAS Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Integrated Approach.

Join ClearIAS PCM Course Now

UPSC Online Preparation

Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
Indian Administrative Service (IAS)
Indian Police Service (IPS)
IAS Exam Eligibility
UPSC Free Study Materials
UPSC Exam Guidance
UPSC Prelims Test Series
UPSC Syllabus
UPSC Online
UPSC Prelims
UPSC Interview
UPSC Toppers
UPSC Previous Year Qns
UPSC Age Calculator
UPSC Calendar 2024
About ClearIAS
ClearIAS Programs
ClearIAS Fee Structure
IAS Coaching
UPSC Coaching
UPSC Online Coaching
ClearIAS Blog
Important Updates
Announcements
Book Review
ClearIAS App
Work with us
Advertise with us
Privacy Policy
Terms and Conditions
Talk to Your Mentor

Featured on

and many more...

India’s Largest Career Transformation Portal

Inter-State River Water Disputes in India

October 11, 2019 by Sandeep

Rivers are the lifeline and necessary asset of any country. Our country is gifted with many great rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Cauvery, Narmada, Godavari etc. All these rivers provide fresh water supply for a variety of purposes in day-to-day lives and we cannot imagine life running smoothly without the flow of water in our taps through these river systems.

Rivers have helped the birth and growth of many civilizations in the past. As of today, the pollution levels in rivers have increased at such an alarming rate that it is high time we work to conserve and clean our river systems, for our future.

What if we get up in the morning and find our taps running dry in every corner of our house. We would be unable to even start thinking of our daily chores without the supply of water in our taps. Our country largely depends on rainfall for its river water supply. When rivers are full, dam gates are opened and water stored and let into reservoirs. When summers are high and temperatures start soaring, water levels start receding in these rivers and a drought situation looms large.

So, on one hand rain brings floods in some parts of our nation and on the other hand, a pitiable drought situation. To balance the both, successive governments have suggested river-linking schemes as a major breakthrough in the whole geography of the nation. The future implementation and working of this linking system is currently underrated and is to be waited and watched for in the times to come.

River water disputes between states

Owing to the vast land distribution, the rivers of one state flow into neighbouring states, but the distribution is quite naturally unequal at different places. This has caused the states within the country to war at each other and knock on the doors of higher courts for justice.

There has been no one-stop solution for the inter-state water disputes in our country and every following year, these disputes have taken on multi-dimensional colors and expansions at various levels. Some of the most common water disputes occurring every year in our country are:

Cauvery water dispute

The distribution of Cauvery waters between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is one of the oldest disputes in our country, almost 124 years old.

Every year, the water-sharing ratio between the two states take on political colors, resulting in widespread violence and regional disturbances between the local people of both the states.

People from both states are heavily dependent on the river for both domestic needs and agricultural purposes.

Usually, in summers, the basin around the Cauvery delta becomes very dry and arid, thanks to poor rainfall during the hot months. The cause of the dispute between the two states is quite clear in these dry months.

The state of Karnataka claims for a higher share of the river water as the river originates at Talakaveri in Madikeri, Karnataka.

Almost more than half of the Cauvery water resources are present in the state of Karnataka, and hence they claim a higher share.

There has not been any solution found for this river water sharing crisis, and we have to wait and watch when a resolution comes in place.

Sutlej Yamuna canal linking dispute

The sharing of waters from Sutlej and Yamuna rivers between the states of Punjab and Haryana became a major dispute during the ruling of Indira Gandhi in the year 1976.

Around 1990, a major issue cropped up between the two states, regarding not just the sharing of waters but about the construction of the canal linking the river to the two states.

The canal was gradually constructed amidst a lot of controversies and issues. The Punjab government passed the Punjab Termination of waters agreement act, 2004, and even now, it’s a row of conflict to repeal the case in the Supreme Court.

Mahadayi river issue in Goa, Karnataka, and Maharashtra

The Mahadayi River, popularly called as the Mandovi River in Goa takes its birth in Karnataka but flows to Goa. Starting from 1980, the three states of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra have been fighting to get a solution for the sharing of the Mahadayi waters.

Karnataka is especially prominently surging in this battle of water after a tribunal formed to request for water release to Karnataka was rejected by a Supreme Court order.

Associated problem areas

The Indian subcontinent has faced many water disputes, some even before the country got its independence. Most of the water disputes face legal conflicts and some aren’t peacefully resolved even to this current day. The legal battles take on political colors, especially during elections. Political parties take maximum advantage out of these water disputes and draw people to believe that they actually sympathize with the common man.

The interstate river water disputes (amendment) bill 2017 is a boon in this regard. It was introduced by Miss Uma Bharathi in the year 2017. A ‘dispute resolution committee’ was formed to look into water disputes arising between any two states and work out an amicable resolution for the same. A higher tribunal was also formed in case the dispute resolution committee failed to come up with an amicable resolution.

The setting up of this tribunal found new ways to uphold the co-operative federalism of our nation. The water disputes of our nation between states are bound to bring down the cooperative federalism and water crisis and fight for water is only going to rise without a smooth solution for the same.

Solutions for water disputes

A good solution for the interstate water disputes is to have the central government form a centralized body that will look into such conflicts and resolve water issues between warring states. A central body can engage itself in data acquisition through local agencies of every state to know the plight of water resources and assess current situation of any looming water crisis at present.

After data collection, the committee can then act upon disputes and settle them in a fair manner. For every river basin present in the country, a state level data collection and assessing point should be set up. This point or agency should report to a central level data assessing unit. The state level points should carefully acquire every possible information, like water necessity, their current share, holding etc and submit details to the central unit.

The central assessing unit should double up as an information centre cum data assessing bank to act upon issues at times. A permanently constructed tribunal, a centralized one, a single unit can fairly advocate water dispute policies and amend bills to look after fair judgement to states and ensure proportional sharing of interstate waters.

Water resources are an important asset to our nation. Agriculture is the backbone of our nation and a majority of rural population, even to this day is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Whenever there is a water dispute, whenever a water conflict takes on political colors, it is these people in the river basin and catchment areas that are most affected.

IAS Preparation
UPSC Preparation Strategy
Inter State Water Disputes In India

What are Inter-State Water Disputes?

Interstate water disputes arise when there is a dispute between two or more states on the use, distribution and control of rivers flowing in two or more states. When the concerned states cannot resolve disputes through negotiations then the Central Government constitutes a water dispute tribunal for resolving the water dispute.

To resolve such disputes and provide for the adjudication of disputes related to water of the inter-state river and river valleys, the Inter-State River Water Disputes (ISRWD) Act, 1956 was passed in the parliament.

These water disputes constitute an important part of the UPSC Mains GS Paper II and III of the IAS Exam . These disputes are one of the most contentious issues in Indian federalism today.

Inter-state Water Disputes in India [UPSC Notes]:- Download PDF Here

What is Water Dispute Resolution?

All the major river basins and some among the medium river basins are of inter-state nature. As the development of projects by one state on an inter-state river may affect the interests of other basin states, inter-state differences arise with regard to the use, distribution and control of waters of inter-state river basins.

Agreements on inter-State rivers

The first step to resolving inter-state water disputes in mutual discussions and negotiations. The states or parties involved can mutually negotiate on the terms and conditions and form an agreement.

In case, these negotiations do not work out, the next initiative is taken by the government, under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956. Then comes the Inter-state Water Disputes Tribunals in India into force. The active tribunals in the country include:

Check out the related links given below with crisp answers to the frequently asked questions about water disputes within Indian states:

Constitutional Provisions for Inter-state Water Disputes

Article 246 of the Constitution deals with the subject matter of laws to be made by the Parliament and by the Legislatures of the States.

Discussed below are the laws and the provisions under the Indian Constitution for inter-state water disputes:

Issues related to water supplies, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and water power are mentioned under Entry 17 of State List
The regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys for the interest of the public falls under Entry 56 of the Union List . This provision empowers the Union government
Article 262 (1) – “Parliament may, by law, provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or river valley.”
Article 262 (2) – “Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law, provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint as is referred to in clause (1).”

What is the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956?

The Interstate River Water Disputes Act, 1956 was enacted under Article 262 of the Constitution of India. to resolve the water disputes that would arise in the use, control and distribution of an interstate river or river valley.

Over the years many amendments have been made in this Act to further simplify and ease out the agreements and settlements between the related states.

Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019

The latest amendment to this Act was introduced in Lok Sabha on July 25, 2019. It will further streamline the adjudication of inter-State river water disputes . The Bill seeks to amend the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 with a view to streamline the adjudication of inter-state river water disputes and make the present institutional architecture robust.

IAS 2024 - Your dream can come true!

Download the ultimate guide to upsc cse preparation.

Share Share

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

New World Water Day report shows dwindling supply could amplify conflict

M arch 22 marks World Water Day, which is a day meant to highlight the importance of fresh water for life on Earth. But this year, it comes as major cities across the world are running out of their supply, and a new United Nations report shows that if that problem continues to spread, so does the risk of global conflict.

Within just the past few weeks, two heavily populated cities in the world saw their taps run dry. In Mexico City , officials said at the beginning of March that they fear a "day zero" could be coming when their water system no long has enough water to supply its nearly 22 million residents. That day, they said, could come as soon as June 26, and last until September.

Many have already gone "days, if not weeks, without running water in their houses," CBS News contributor Enrique Acevedo said.

It's a problem also being felt in Johannesburg, the largest city in South Africa . There, thousands of people have been lining up for whatever water they can get as extreme heat shrinks their reservoirs and decades of neglect have allowed infrastructure to crumble. Local officials have said that if conservation efforts are not escalated soon, they could face a total collapse of the water system.

Sicily is also facing diminishing supplies.

"There is no water," Rosaria, a resident of Agrigento, told Reuters.

Another local, Antonio, told the outlet that it's been a "long-standing issue."

"Water in Agrigento is gold," he said.

The issue appears to be escalating worldwide, and a new United Nations report published this week explains that if it does, so will global tensions at a time that are already proving difficult.

"As water stress increases, so do the risks of local or regional conflict," Audrey Azoulay, director-general of UNESCO said in a news release on Friday. "UNESCO's message is clear: if we want to preserve peace, we must act swiftly not only to safeguard water resources but also to enhance regional and global cooperation in this area."

What the report says

The 2024 World Water Development Report says that 2.2 billion people currently don't have access to safely managed drinking water, and that as of 2022, about half of the entire global population experienced at least temporary severe water scarcity.

As global temperatures increase, largely due to the burning of fossil fuels, those numbers are expected to worsen, as higher temperatures will also bring more frequent and intense extreme weather events, including drought.

But climate change isn't the only factor. The report says that freshwater consumption has been growing by just under 1% every year, with agriculture accounting for roughly 70% of freshwater withdrawals, and industrial and domestic uses accounting for 20% and 10%, respectively.

The U.N. has established a set of targets to ensure that water – a vital source of life on Earth – remains available. Those targets say that by 2030, there should be, among other things, universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene, reduced water pollution, and increased water-use efficiency.

But according to the World Water Day report, none of those targets "appear to be on track."

"Four out of five people lacking at least basic drinking water services lived in rural areas. The situation with respect to safely managed sanitation remains dire, with 3.5 billion people lacking access to such services," the report's executive summary says. "Cities and municipalities have been unable to keep up with the accelerating growth of their urban populations."

But it's not just individual and communal well-being that is impacted by the problem. The U.N. says having safe, plentiful and affordable water resources is directly linked to global prosperity and peace. Water doesn't "trigger" conflict, the report says, but recent events have seen civilian water infrastructure attacked and unrest itself has sparked issues with vulnerable groups getting access to water supplies.

"Water nurtures prosperity by meeting basic human needs, supporting health and livelihoods, underpinning food and energy security, and defending environmental integrity and economic development," the report says.

Women and girls are those immediately impacted by water shortages, as these demographics are often relied upon for gathering whatever supply they can. This can occupy several hours a day, and in many cases, means less time in school and potentially, putting them more at-risk of safety issues.

In Somalia last year, for example, an estimated 43,000 people died from the nation's longest drought on record, half of them being children. That happened amid ongoing battles with al Qaeda affiliate al-Shabaab. In Gaza, officials have said that the conflict with Israel has also weakened water supplies.

It's not just cities on other continents. The story has also started to unfold in the U.S., with the Colorado River serving as a prime example of what could come. Many reservoirs served by the Colorado River faced serious shortages last year, emptying reservoirs and further complicating where dwindling supplies should be allocated – a war that broke out into several battles between states, sectors and communities.

"The saying is: whiskey's for drinking and water's for fighting and that old adage is getting to become more and more of a realization as we move forward here," Bob Brachtenback, who lives on a Colorado farm, told CBS Colorado in December.

The U.N. report makes clear that the relationship between conflict and basic human needs is complex, but nonetheless linked. What it boils down to, they signify, is that if the world does not rapidly work to address dwindling water resources, global issues regarding wars, agriculture, migration and other aspects that allow humanity to prosper, will only intensify.

A woman fills a bucket with bottled water at an apartment unit in the Las Peñas neighborhood in Iztapalapa on February 27, 2024 in Mexico City, Mexico. / Credit: TOYA SARNO JORDAN / Getty Images

भाषा : हिंदी
Classroom Courses
Our Selections
Student Login
About NEXT IAS
Director’s Desk
Advisory Panel
Faculty Panel
General Studies Courses
Optional Courses
Interview Guidance Program
Postal Courses
Test Series
Current Affairs
Student Portal

Recently, the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) has ordered the Karnataka government to release the Cauvery water due for September forthwith.

Keep reading

The sundarbans dilemma: islands swallowed by water, and nowhere else to go, how israel’s flooding of gaza’s tunnels will impact freshwater supply, palestinian boy drinks from puddle amid gaza water crisis.

Girls and women are the first victims of a lack of water, said the report, published by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), especially in rural areas where they have the primary responsibility of collecting supplies.

Spending several hours a day on fetching water, coupled with a lack of safe sanitation, is a contributing factor to girls dropping out of school.

“Water shortages not only fan the flames of geopolitical tensions but also pose a threat to fundamental rights as a whole, for example, by considerably undermining the position of girls and women,” UNESCO chief Audrey Azoulay said.

While the report did not examine specific current conflicts, Israel has severely restricted access to fresh, clean water during its war on Gaza .

UN agencies have long warned that not only are children and women at grave risk of thirst and starvation, but the lack of clean water also has disrupted medical treatment and hygiene.

The lack of water security drives migration, and displaced people strain resources in locations where they settle. The report cited a study in Somalia that indicated a 200 percent increase in gender-based violence against a group of displaced people.

At least 10 percent of global migration is linked to water stress as the world faces a more erratic climate, the researchers found.

The report also said: “ Global warming is projected to … further increase the frequency and severity of droughts and floods, with more wet and very dry weather and climate events.”

Titled Water for Prosperity and Peace, the report found that roughly half of the world’s population is experiencing severe water scarcity with some areas lacking water almost year-round.

Much of the consequences are felt in poorer countries , which find it harder to adapt. The report estimated that it would cost $114bn annually to provide safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in 140 low- to middle-income countries.

Quentin Graft from Water Justice Hub, a UNESCO affiliate, told Al Jazeera: “It’s not just a water problem for people in Syria. It’s not just a water problem for people in Sudan. … It’s a water problem for all of us because we grow our food with freshwater whether it’s irrigated or whether it’s rain-fed, and when you have climate change on top of an already existing water crisis, then we have an inability to feed ourselves.”

While 153 countries share water resources, only 24 have signed onto cooperation agreements covering all of their shared water, UN chief Antonio Guterres said in a statement marking World Water Day on Friday.

More than 60 percent of all freshwater resources are shared by two or more countries, including major rivers like the Rhine and Danube in Europe, the Mekong in Asia, the Nile in Africa and the Amazon in South America, Sonja Koeppel, secretary of the UN Water Convention, told the Agence France-Presse news agency.

The convention was established in 1992 to help foster responsible joint management of water resources in Europe but opened up in 2016 to countries around the world. It currently has 52 state parties, mainly in Europe, Asia and Africa.

Water Dispute Between States in Federal India | UPSC Mains Essay Preparation PDF Download

India is the seventh-largest country globally, surrounded by sea on three sides, and has a population of about 1.3 billion. There are bound to be disputes between people, states, and regions over a multitude of issues. India has a federal government with three tiers of government: central government, state government, and local government. Each level of the government is responsible for a particular set of issues or ‘items’ that are specified in the Lists. In other words, their areas of jurisdiction are clearly laid in the Lists (The Union List for the central government, the State List for state governments, and a Concurrent List, which contains items that come under both their jurisdiction). One of the most common reasons for disputes between states is the sharing of river water. With so many rivers flowing across India, many states have to share the water. River water is used for a wide variety of purposes, including irrigation, energy production, and household work, so it is an essential resource.

Disputes Between States

With so many states sharing the same river water, there are many disputes and issues that have arisen. Many states continue to fight for their rights over river water, while others have managed to reach a consensus on how to use river water without affecting the other state. This has mainly been possible due to center intervention and consequent changes in in-laws. Here are some of the river water disputes which have arisen in recent years:

Godavari Water Dispute: This was a legal dispute over the sharing of Godavari river water between the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.
Narmada Water Dispute: This was primarily a water dispute between Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
Cauvery Water Dispute: During the late 19th century, a major water dispute began between Karnataka, Kerala, Puducherry, and Tamil Nadu.
Krishna Water Dispute: The states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and later Telangana as well were involved in a dispute over the sharing of Krishna river water.
Ravi and Beas Water Dispute: Around the 1980s, the states of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana were involved in a dispute revolving around the sharing of Ravi and Beas river water.

Causes for Water Dispute

Uneven Water Distribution: Since rivers are a natural resource, no one can control how they flow and how much water a state would really get. Often, a river flows through multiple states, but the distribution is quite uneven. So, one of the states can get more water than the others, which becomes a cause of dispute because some states will have a greater share of water than the others.
Increasing Need for Water: River water is mainly used for irrigation purposes and farming besides other household work such as cleaning, washing, etc. With more and more people settling down, the usage of water increases. People would need to use greater quantities of water, which creates a water shortage problem, especially in areas or states with an already smaller share of the water.
Polluting of Water Bodies: Besides agriculture, river water is also used by industries for manufacturing. In both cases, the river water is polluted, either due to fertilizers, chemicals, industrial waste, household waste, etc. This creates a general problem of water pollution, but it also reduces the amount of clean river water available to other states, especially those which are located downriver. Having to use dirty water or facing issues of inadequate water flow becomes one of the common reasons for water disputes in India.
Absence of an Authority on Water Distribution and Disputes: Unfortunately, there is no real authority or government agency which deals with the issue of river water allocation, usage of the water, consequences of polluting it, etc. Unless the inhabitants are faced with an issue, or a major dispute arises, there is no agency or authority which focuses on the general issue of river water distribution and its uses. The Tribunal exists, but it cannot implement any orders.

Solutions for Inter-State Water Disputes

The fact that disputes arise over the use and sharing of river water is not the real problem. Problems arise when multiple people use the same resources for multiple uses, but it is important that these problems are resolved to the satisfaction of all concerned and also do not take longer time than usual. Here are some ways to solve the issues: -

People Should Be More Careful and Considerate: Knowing that many people use the very resources of water for various purposes, it is important that the users utilize it with care and do not waste water, do not pollute it, and do not create any unnecessary problems with regards to the usage. With resources only depleting, people should be made more aware of the situation and should be considerate when using them. Water is an essential resource, and people should use it economically.
Mutual Cooperation: It is the state government’s responsibility to manage river water sharing, especially since it comes under the State List. Different states that share the same river water must reach a consensus or an agreement so that it is made clear what the demarcation of river water is. Such agreements must lay out the terms of water usage so that individuals and industries only use a certain amount of river water and for a particular reason.
Creation of a Private Authority or Agency: Besides government agencies, it is important to create private or non-governmental agencies that would monitor river water utilization and sharing. While government agencies focus on such issues, having organizations working solely on matters concerning river water and its use makes it easier to assess the problems and find solutions quicker.
Change in Laws: Laws must be changed or altered to fit the needs of the people. Since the states use river water for many purposes, it becomes important that more laws are devised. Existing ones are revised to make sharing of water resources easier, which could possibly speed up the process of seeking redressal from such problems. The Interstate River Water Disputes Act is one such example.

Water is an essential resource, and life cannot exist without it. In cases such as that of India, where multiple states and thousands of people have to use the same river water in their day to day needs, it is of utmost importance that there is a proper way to solve any disputes which might arise and that measures are taken to avoid disputes in the first place.

Top Courses for UPSC

Faqs on water dispute between states in federal india - upsc mains essay preparation, how to prepare for upsc, extra questions, water dispute between states in federal india | upsc mains essay preparation, study material, practice quizzes, objective type questions, important questions, viva questions, previous year questions with solutions, sample paper, mock tests for examination, semester notes, video lectures, past year papers, shortcuts and tricks.

Water Dispute Between States in Federal India Free PDF Download

Importance of water dispute between states in federal india, water dispute between states in federal india notes, water dispute between states in federal india upsc questions, study water dispute between states in federal india on the app, welcome back, create you account for free.

Forgot Password

Unattempted tests, change country.

IMAGES

Inter State Water Disputes Essay
Inter State Water Disputes Essay
School essay: Water crisis essay
(PDF) Inter-State River Water Disputes: A study in the light of the
Inter-State Water Disputes in India
≫ Drinking Water Crisis Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com

VIDEO

Essay on Water Conservation/ 10 Lines on Water Conservation #shorts #treyankushlearning
Water Act, 1974
Water Act, 1974
Water Scarcity Essay in English
Major Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD)......#maps #viral
Essay on water conversation #writingclasses #shorts #waterconversation

COMMENTS

Water Stress: A Global Problem That's Getting Worse
Water stress or scarcity occurs when demand for safe, usable water in a given area exceeds the supply. On the demand side, the vast majority—roughly 70 percent—of the world's freshwater is ...
Inter State Water Disputes Essay
Long Essay on Inter-State Water Disputes 500 Words in English. Long Essay on Inter State Water Disputes is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10. According to section 17 of the State List, water is a State subject, and consequently, states are enabled to enact enactment on water.
Inter-State River Water Sharing Disputes
The Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2017. In order to further streamline the adjudication of inter-State river water disputes, the Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2017 was introduced in Lok Sabha in March 2017 by amending the existing ISRWD Act, 1956.; The Bill envisages to constitute a standalone Tribunal with permanent establishment and permanent office ...
Interstate water wars are heating up along with the climate
Interstate water disputes are as American as apple pie. States often think a neighboring state is using more than its fair share from a river, lake or aquifer that crosses borders.
Why Water Conflict is Rising, Especially on the Local Level
Water disputes are rarely wholly or even mostly grounded in scarcity, but erratic access can become an additional source of tension among communities with histories of conflict or mutual distrust, as has happened in parts of the Sahel and Central Asia. Most importantly, because most of these water-related clashes are intimately wrapped up with ...
Press Release
In the Arab region, seven countries were in conflict in 2021 - some dating back many years -which has had wide-ranging implications for water supply, infrastructure, and potential cooperation ...
Inter-State Water Disputes in India: Challenges, Solutions, and the
Explore the complexities of Inter-State Water Disputes (ISRWDs) in India, as tensions rise over equitable sharing. From the Pennaiyar and Mahadayi disputes to the challenges faced by ISRWD Tribunals, this blog delves into the intricacies of water resource management, governance, and the urgent need for fair, scientific solutions. Read to understand the historical context, contemporary ...
Water Rights and Water Fights: Preventing and Resolving Conflicts
WHAT PUBLIC HEALTH WORKERS CAN DO. Public health workers can play many roles in ensuring equitable access to freshwater 12 and in reducing the likelihood of armed conflict over water. These roles include (1) raising awareness about the importance of access to freshwater 13; (2) documenting conflicts over water and their adverse health effects; (3) promoting efforts to prevent contamination of ...
Water: source of life and conflict in the Land of Rivers
Water is cause for conflict in many instances, but it also has the potential to bring communities together to build the necessary foundations for lasting peace in the Middle East. ... Think 30,000+ words of revolutionary brainfood. A dozen or more thought-provoking essays from some of the leading thinkers and most inspiring activists out there ...
Water Conflicts: From Ancient to Modern Times and in the Future
Since prehistoric times, water conflicts have occurred as a result of a wide range of tensions and/or violence, which have rarely taken the form of traditional warfare waged over water resources alone. Instead, water has historically been a (re)source of tension and a factor in conflicts that start for other reasons. In some cases, water was used directly as a weapon through its ability to ...
Understanding and preventing conflict over water
That will lead to a greater value for water and increased potential for conflict. What is an example of how climate change affects water supply or quality? Michalak: In the U.S., concentrations of microcystin, a toxin that attacks the liver and is produced by cyanobacteria or blue green algae in lakes, are highest when water temperatures are in ...
Trans-Boundary Water Conflicts
India-Pakistan Water Dispute. Both India and Pakistan since partition have experienced friction over various water conflicts.; The countries early leaders anticipated this fierce rivalry over the waters that connect their volatile border.; As a result, after numerous dialogues and through careful negotiations, both countries signed an accord called the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, which ...
Cauvery Water Dispute Summary, Essay & Case Study
The Cauvery water dispute is a long-standing water-sharing conflict between the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. This case study aims to explore and analyze the various dimensions of the dispute, including its historical background, legal interventions, socio-political implications, and potential solutions.
Inter-State River Water Disputes in India: Is it time for a new
The Present Mechanism to resolve the inter-state river water disputes in India. Thus it can be seen that - the resolution of water dispute is governed by the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956. According to its provisions, a state government can approach the Centre to refer the dispute to a tribunal, whose decision is considered final.
Essay On Water Disputes
Essay On Water Disputes. 1417 Words 6 Pages. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of water users, public or private. Poor governance of international transboundary water resources often results in water conflicts of varying intensities. Though the potential for outright war between countries over ...
Inter-State Water Disputes in India by Rishi Pandey :: SSRN
"Inter-state water disputes" are on the rise, becoming more complex and acrimonious as the demand for water, which is mostly under the jurisdiction of the states, grows and with the states exerting their legal and political influence. The mechanism for settling such water conflicts is reviewed and analyzed in this article.
Major Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD)
Inter-state water disputes are conflicts between different states over the allocation and use of water resources from shared rivers, often requiring the intervention of tribunals to resolve the disputes. ... Previous Years Papers; Prelims Special. Sambhav - 2024; PT Sprint 2023; Sambhav - 2023; Path To Prelims; 60 Steps To Prelims; Prelims ...
Inter-State River Water Disputes in India
The interstate river water disputes (amendment) bill 2017 is a boon in this regard. It was introduced by Miss Uma Bharathi in the year 2017. A 'dispute resolution committee' was formed to look into water disputes arising between any two states and work out an amicable resolution for the same. A higher tribunal was also formed in case the ...
Nation and International River Water Disputes
ADVERTISEMENTS: Today, water is considered as the heart of an economy of any country and all economic activities depend on it. However at the national as well as international level, river water disputes are being created because of continuously increasing demand for water, its decreasing availability, and its deteriorating quality. Rivers flow in their natural […]
Kaveri River water dispute
Kaveri River water dispute. The sharing of waters of the Kaveri River has been the source of a serious conflict between the two Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The genesis of this conflict rests in two agreements in 1892 and 1924 between the Madras Presidency and Kingdom of Mysore. The 802 kilometres (498 mi) Kaveri river has 44,000 ...
Inter-State Water Disputes in India
Article 262 (1) - "Parliament may, by law, provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or river valley.". Article 262 (2) - "Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law, provide that neither the ...
New World Water Day report shows dwindling supply could amplify conflict
The 2024 World Water Development Report says that 2.2 billion people currently don't have access to safely managed drinking water, and that as of 2022, about half of the entire global population ...
Inter-State Water Dispute
About: The Inter-State River Water Disputes are one of the most contentious issues in Indian federalism today. The recent cases of the Krishna Water Dispute, Cauvery Water Dispute and the Satluj Yamuna Link Canal are some examples. Various Inter-State Water Disputes Tribunals have been constituted so far, but they had their own problems.
Cauvery Water Disputes
Constitutional Provisions related to Interstate water dispute Article 262 of the Constitution deals with the adjudication of water disputes. The provisions in this regard are: Article 262 (1) Parliament may, by law, provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or river valley.
Inter State River Water Disputes
The only legislation dealing with inter-state water disputes is the Inter-state Water Disputes Act, 1956. In this essay, I will argue that the constitutional provision of keeping the Supreme Court out of the decision making process, though enacted with cogent reasoning, is flawed and has not been effective. In Part I, I will give a brief ...
Global water crisis fuelling more conflicts, UN report warns
Increasing global water scarcity is fuelling more conflicts and contributing to instability, the United Nations warns in a new report, which says access to clean water is critical to promoting peace.
Water Dispute Between States in Federal India
Ans. Some common causes for water disputes between states in federal India include unequal distribution of water resources, competing demands for water from agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors, disputes over dam construction and water diversion projects, and disagreements over sharing of river waters. 3.

Interstate water wars are heating up along with the climate

Disclosure statement

Dry times in the West

Utah stakes a claim

Litigation or conservation

School of Social Sciences – Public Policy and International Relations opportunities

Partner, Senior Talent Acquisition

Deputy Editor - Technology

Sydney Horizon Educators (Identified)

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic and Student Life)

The Center for Climate & Security

Why Water Conflict is Rising, Especially on the Local Level

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Follow Blog via Email

Recent Posts

Follow us on Twitter

Discover more from The Center for Climate & Security

Press Release | Water crises threaten world peace (report)

Inter-State Water Disputes in India: Challenges, Solutions, and the Path to Equitable Sharing

INEQUITABLE SHARING OF RESOURCES: INTER-STATE WATER DISPUTES

Scenario of Inter-State Water Disputes

Challenges in Effective Functioning of ISRWD Tribunals

Can Equitable Distribution of Resources Resolve ISRWDs

Sociology Optional Syllabus Course Commencement Information

Book Your Seat Fast Book Your Seat Fast

Instructional Format:

Study Material:

Additional Provisions:

Syllabus of Sociology Optional

INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA

About Triumph IAS

Course Features

Specialist Guidance of Vikash Ranjan Sir

Classrooms Interaction & Participatory Discussion

Preparatory-Study Support

Online Support System (Oss)

Strategic Classroom Preparation

Comprehensive Study Material

Why Vikash Ranjan’s Classes for Sociology?

Choose T he Best Sociology Optional Teacher for IAS Preparation?

Find More Blogs

Water Rights and Water Fights: Preventing and Resolving Conflicts Before They Boil Over

PREVENTING CONFLICTS OVER WATER

WHAT PUBLIC HEALTH WORKERS CAN DO

Acknowledgments

Understanding and preventing conflict over water

Explore More

Helping coral reefs adapt to a warming ocean

In Texas, as in California, big fires lead to big lawsuits

California is finally digitizing its 100-year-old paper water rights. Why that's a big deal

Cauvery Water Dispute Summary, Essay & Case Study

Cauvery Water Dispute Summary

Cauvery Water Dispute Case Study

Historical Background: –

Allocation and Sharing of Water: –

Legal and Political Interventions: –

Socio-Political Implications: –

Environmental Concerns: –

Potential Solutions and Future Outlook: –

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Inter-State River Water Disputes in India: Is it time for a new mechanism rather than tribunals?

Water in the Constitution of India

Article 262 of the Indian Constitution:

Parliament has enacted two laws according to Article 262:

2) Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956

The Present Mechanism to resolve the inter-state river water disputes in India

Active River Water sharing Tribunals in India

Inter-State river water disputes under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), 1956

Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956: Extra Ordinary Delays in the execution and implementation

Solution: Amendments to the Act in 2002

But still, there were issues…

New Solution: Inter-State Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2017 – Dispute Resolution Committee and Single Permanent Tribunal

The Case Studies of recent Inter-State River Water Disputes in the news

2) Satluj Yamuna Link Canal Issue

Inter-State River Water Disputes: The Conclusion

Aim IAS, IPS, or IFS?

UPSC Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Course 2025: Self-Paced

UPSC Prelims cum Mains (PCM) Course 2027: Self-Paced