social impact of covid 19 essay for students

How to Write About Coronavirus in a College Essay

Students can share how they navigated life during the coronavirus pandemic in a full-length essay or an optional supplement.

Writing About COVID-19 in College Essays

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Experts say students should be honest and not limit themselves to merely their experiences with the pandemic.

The global impact of COVID-19, the disease caused by the novel coronavirus, means colleges and prospective students alike are in for an admissions cycle like no other. Both face unprecedented challenges and questions as they grapple with their respective futures amid the ongoing fallout of the pandemic.

Colleges must examine applicants without the aid of standardized test scores for many – a factor that prompted many schools to go test-optional for now . Even grades, a significant component of a college application, may be hard to interpret with some high schools adopting pass-fail classes last spring due to the pandemic. Major college admissions factors are suddenly skewed.

"I can't help but think other (admissions) factors are going to matter more," says Ethan Sawyer, founder of the College Essay Guy, a website that offers free and paid essay-writing resources.

College essays and letters of recommendation , Sawyer says, are likely to carry more weight than ever in this admissions cycle. And many essays will likely focus on how the pandemic shaped students' lives throughout an often tumultuous 2020.

But before writing a college essay focused on the coronavirus, students should explore whether it's the best topic for them.

Writing About COVID-19 for a College Application

Much of daily life has been colored by the coronavirus. Virtual learning is the norm at many colleges and high schools, many extracurriculars have vanished and social lives have stalled for students complying with measures to stop the spread of COVID-19.

"For some young people, the pandemic took away what they envisioned as their senior year," says Robert Alexander, dean of admissions, financial aid and enrollment management at the University of Rochester in New York. "Maybe that's a spot on a varsity athletic team or the lead role in the fall play. And it's OK for them to mourn what should have been and what they feel like they lost, but more important is how are they making the most of the opportunities they do have?"

That question, Alexander says, is what colleges want answered if students choose to address COVID-19 in their college essay.

But the question of whether a student should write about the coronavirus is tricky. The answer depends largely on the student.

"In general, I don't think students should write about COVID-19 in their main personal statement for their application," Robin Miller, master college admissions counselor at IvyWise, a college counseling company, wrote in an email.

"Certainly, there may be exceptions to this based on a student's individual experience, but since the personal essay is the main place in the application where the student can really allow their voice to be heard and share insight into who they are as an individual, there are likely many other topics they can choose to write about that are more distinctive and unique than COVID-19," Miller says.

Opinions among admissions experts vary on whether to write about the likely popular topic of the pandemic.

"If your essay communicates something positive, unique, and compelling about you in an interesting and eloquent way, go for it," Carolyn Pippen, principal college admissions counselor at IvyWise, wrote in an email. She adds that students shouldn't be dissuaded from writing about a topic merely because it's common, noting that "topics are bound to repeat, no matter how hard we try to avoid it."

Above all, she urges honesty.

"If your experience within the context of the pandemic has been truly unique, then write about that experience, and the standing out will take care of itself," Pippen says. "If your experience has been generally the same as most other students in your context, then trying to find a unique angle can easily cross the line into exploiting a tragedy, or at least appearing as though you have."

But focusing entirely on the pandemic can limit a student to a single story and narrow who they are in an application, Sawyer says. "There are so many wonderful possibilities for what you can say about yourself outside of your experience within the pandemic."

He notes that passions, strengths, career interests and personal identity are among the multitude of essay topic options available to applicants and encourages them to probe their values to help determine the topic that matters most to them – and write about it.

That doesn't mean the pandemic experience has to be ignored if applicants feel the need to write about it.

Writing About Coronavirus in Main and Supplemental Essays

Students can choose to write a full-length college essay on the coronavirus or summarize their experience in a shorter form.

To help students explain how the pandemic affected them, The Common App has added an optional section to address this topic. Applicants have 250 words to describe their pandemic experience and the personal and academic impact of COVID-19.

"That's not a trick question, and there's no right or wrong answer," Alexander says. Colleges want to know, he adds, how students navigated the pandemic, how they prioritized their time, what responsibilities they took on and what they learned along the way.

If students can distill all of the above information into 250 words, there's likely no need to write about it in a full-length college essay, experts say. And applicants whose lives were not heavily altered by the pandemic may even choose to skip the optional COVID-19 question.

"This space is best used to discuss hardship and/or significant challenges that the student and/or the student's family experienced as a result of COVID-19 and how they have responded to those difficulties," Miller notes. Using the section to acknowledge a lack of impact, she adds, "could be perceived as trite and lacking insight, despite the good intentions of the applicant."

To guard against this lack of awareness, Sawyer encourages students to tap someone they trust to review their writing , whether it's the 250-word Common App response or the full-length essay.

Experts tend to agree that the short-form approach to this as an essay topic works better, but there are exceptions. And if a student does have a coronavirus story that he or she feels must be told, Alexander encourages the writer to be authentic in the essay.

"My advice for an essay about COVID-19 is the same as my advice about an essay for any topic – and that is, don't write what you think we want to read or hear," Alexander says. "Write what really changed you and that story that now is yours and yours alone to tell."

Sawyer urges students to ask themselves, "What's the sentence that only I can write?" He also encourages students to remember that the pandemic is only a chapter of their lives and not the whole book.

Miller, who cautions against writing a full-length essay on the coronavirus, says that if students choose to do so they should have a conversation with their high school counselor about whether that's the right move. And if students choose to proceed with COVID-19 as a topic, she says they need to be clear, detailed and insightful about what they learned and how they adapted along the way.

"Approaching the essay in this manner will provide important balance while demonstrating personal growth and vulnerability," Miller says.

Pippen encourages students to remember that they are in an unprecedented time for college admissions.

"It is important to keep in mind with all of these (admission) factors that no colleges have ever had to consider them this way in the selection process, if at all," Pippen says. "They have had very little time to calibrate their evaluations of different application components within their offices, let alone across institutions. This means that colleges will all be handling the admissions process a little bit differently, and their approaches may even evolve over the course of the admissions cycle."

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Covid-19’s Impact on Students’ Academic and Mental Well-Being

The pandemic has revealed—and exacerbated—inequities that hold many students back. Here’s how teachers can help.

The pandemic has shone a spotlight on inequality in America: School closures and social isolation have affected all students, but particularly those living in poverty. Adding to the damage to their learning, a mental health crisis is emerging as many students have lost access to services that were offered by schools.

No matter what form school takes when the new year begins—whether students and teachers are back in the school building together or still at home—teachers will face a pressing issue: How can they help students recover and stay on track throughout the year even as their lives are likely to continue to be disrupted by the pandemic?

New research provides insights about the scope of the problem—as well as potential solutions.

The Achievement Gap Is Likely to Widen

A new study suggests that the coronavirus will undo months of academic gains, leaving many students behind. The study authors project that students will start the new school year with an average of 66 percent of the learning gains in reading and 44 percent of the learning gains in math, relative to the gains for a typical school year. But the situation is worse on the reading front, as the researchers also predict that the top third of students will make gains, possibly because they’re likely to continue reading with their families while schools are closed, thus widening the achievement gap.

To make matters worse, “few school systems provide plans to support students who need accommodations or other special populations,” the researchers point out in the study, potentially impacting students with special needs and English language learners.

Of course, the idea that over the summer students forget some of what they learned in school isn’t new. But there’s a big difference between summer learning loss and pandemic-related learning loss: During the summer, formal schooling stops, and learning loss happens at roughly the same rate for all students, the researchers point out. But instruction has been uneven during the pandemic, as some students have been able to participate fully in online learning while others have faced obstacles—such as lack of internet access—that have hindered their progress.

In the study, researchers analyzed a national sample of 5 million students in grades 3–8 who took the MAP Growth test, a tool schools use to assess students’ reading and math growth throughout the school year. The researchers compared typical growth in a standard-length school year to projections based on students being out of school from mid-March on. To make those projections, they looked at research on the summer slide, weather- and disaster-related closures (such as New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina), and absenteeism.

The researchers predict that, on average, students will experience substantial drops in reading and math, losing roughly three months’ worth of gains in reading and five months’ worth of gains in math. For Megan Kuhfeld, the lead author of the study, the biggest takeaway isn’t that learning loss will happen—that’s a given by this point—but that students will come back to school having declined at vastly different rates.

“We might be facing unprecedented levels of variability come fall,” Kuhfeld told me. “Especially in school districts that serve families with lots of different needs and resources. Instead of having students reading at a grade level above or below in their classroom, teachers might have kids who slipped back a lot versus kids who have moved forward.” 

Disproportionate Impact on Students Living in Poverty and Students of Color

Horace Mann once referred to schools as the “great equalizers,” yet the pandemic threatens to expose the underlying inequities of remote learning. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center analysis , 17 percent of teenagers have difficulty completing homework assignments because they do not have reliable access to a computer or internet connection. For Black students, the number spikes to 25 percent.

“There are many reasons to believe the Covid-19 impacts might be larger for children in poverty and children of color,” Kuhfeld wrote in the study. Their families suffer higher rates of infection, and the economic burden disproportionately falls on Black and Hispanic parents, who are less likely to be able to work from home during the pandemic.

Although children are less likely to become infected with Covid-19, the adult mortality rates, coupled with the devastating economic consequences of the pandemic, will likely have an indelible impact on their well-being.

Impacts on Students’ Mental Health

That impact on well-being may be magnified by another effect of school closures: Schools are “the de facto mental health system for many children and adolescents,” providing mental health services to 57 percent of adolescents who need care, according to the authors of a recent study published in JAMA Pediatrics . School closures may be especially disruptive for children from lower-income families, who are disproportionately likely to receive mental health services exclusively from schools.

“The Covid-19 pandemic may worsen existing mental health problems and lead to more cases among children and adolescents because of the unique combination of the public health crisis, social isolation, and economic recession,” write the authors of that study.

A major concern the researchers point to: Since most mental health disorders begin in childhood, it is essential that any mental health issues be identified early and treated. Left untreated, they can lead to serious health and emotional problems. In the short term, video conferencing may be an effective way to deliver mental health services to children.

Mental health and academic achievement are linked, research shows. Chronic stress changes the chemical and physical structure of the brain, impairing cognitive skills like attention, concentration, memory, and creativity. “You see deficits in your ability to regulate emotions in adaptive ways as a result of stress,” said Cara Wellman, a professor of neuroscience and psychology at Indiana University in a 2014 interview . In her research, Wellman discovered that chronic stress causes the connections between brain cells to shrink in mice, leading to cognitive deficiencies in the prefrontal cortex. 

While trauma-informed practices were widely used before the pandemic, they’re likely to be even more integral as students experience economic hardships and grieve the loss of family and friends. Teachers can look to schools like Fall-Hamilton Elementary in Nashville, Tennessee, as a model for trauma-informed practices . 

3 Ways Teachers Can Prepare

When schools reopen, many students may be behind, compared to a typical school year, so teachers will need to be very methodical about checking in on their students—not just academically but also emotionally. Some may feel prepared to tackle the new school year head-on, but others will still be recovering from the pandemic and may still be reeling from trauma, grief, and anxiety. 

Here are a few strategies teachers can prioritize when the new school year begins:

• Focus on relationships first. Fear and anxiety about the pandemic—coupled with uncertainty about the future—can be disruptive to a student’s ability to come to school ready to learn. Teachers can act as a powerful buffer against the adverse effects of trauma by helping to establish a safe and supportive environment for learning. From morning meetings to regular check-ins with students, strategies that center around relationship-building will be needed in the fall.
• Strengthen diagnostic testing. Educators should prepare for a greater range of variability in student learning than they would expect in a typical school year. Low-stakes assessments such as exit tickets and quizzes can help teachers gauge how much extra support students will need, how much time should be spent reviewing last year’s material, and what new topics can be covered.
• Differentiate instruction—particularly for vulnerable students. For the vast majority of schools, the abrupt transition to online learning left little time to plan a strategy that could adequately meet every student’s needs—in a recent survey by the Education Trust, only 24 percent of parents said that their child’s school was providing materials and other resources to support students with disabilities, and a quarter of non-English-speaking students were unable to obtain materials in their own language. Teachers can work to ensure that the students on the margins get the support they need by taking stock of students’ knowledge and skills, and differentiating instruction by giving them choices, connecting the curriculum to their interests, and providing them multiple opportunities to demonstrate their learning.

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Students enjoy lunch and talk amongst themselves while wearing masks. Photo by Andrew Hsieh.

Coronavirus Coverage

The social impact of covid-19 on students.

Alexander Tran

School plays a fundamental role in the development of the brain for all children. It provides structure and routine as well as a sense of normality in the lives of students. Knowing what time to wake up and leaving school at the same time every day allows students to actively focus more energy into their assignments. But when schools shut down  in March 2020, this entire structure crumbled.

“At that time … for me and probably a lot of other students, [there] was a much wanted relief from all the stress,” senior Sean Zukle said.

But for a majority of students, school is not just academics. Many students participate in extracurricular activities such as sports or clubs.

“[Sports] are a huge part of … social interaction with other students,” senior Bryce Leach said.

Students walk through the hallway during passing period. (Photo by Alexander Tran)

At first, many students were delighted to hear that they would have time off from school, but months of being at home changed how students experience interaction.

“I felt like I lost a part of myself … It was like I was learning how to socialize again,” junior Vincent Hernandez said.

In one of the largest nationwide school studies by Challenge Success , with over 250,000 middle and high schoolers, 56% of students reported an increase in stress during the pandemic. In a 20-student survey conducted by Baron Banner, 16 students reported a struggle staying socially active during quarantine.

“I think a big part of the rise in stress is due to the lack of social interactions during the pandemic … We suddenly went from talking to 50 plus people a day to only talking to one or two friends,” sophomore Peter Thinh said.

However, by staying physically and socially active, some students were able to remain involved during the pandemic.

“It really helped having practice every day … and hanging out with my friends safely during the pandemic,” senior Daniel Treigherman said.

Studies back Treigherman’s experience as well, noting positive effects on mental health.

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Introduction

The global outbreak of COVID-19 has certainly taken an overwhelming toll on everyone. People have lost their jobs, their homes, and even their lives. There is no getting past the fact that the overall impact on the world has been negative, but it is important to realize that positive aspects of the pandemic have been overshadowed by the many negative ones. In an attempt to slow the spread of the disease, many governments made the decision to implement lockdowns, forcing billions to work and take classes from home, in many cases for the first times in their lives. Not only have these lockdowns altered the way that people work and go to school, but they have altered the mental health of everyone and the environmental health of the world around us.

Connection to STS Theory

The positive impacts of technology during the pandemic stems from the Modernization Theory, posing that there is a relationship between societal and technological advancements as societies shift to become updated as opposed to traditional. Technology has brought about lots of resistance to COVID that would not have been possible without the drastic advancements in science over the years. Thanks to these advancements, relationships can stay connected, students can continue to learn, jobs can stay open, and the environment can subtly improve. Our modernized world is well enough suited to take on the troubling times that COVID-19 has brought along.

Technology with School – Relates to College Students

Remote learning has allowed each of us to learn from the comfort of our homes. Working remotely has also allowed us to work from our living rooms. The perks of both are not having to wake up early to drive to work in the mornings, not having to sit at an office desk for eight hours a day, and not having to walk to class. Working remotely and remote learning has also been a time saver for many individuals.

According to Business Insider, there are a few tips that will help students be successful while being virtual. One tip is to clean your workspace. It is important to have a space, just like you would at a desk in a classroom, to ensure that you are paying attention to the professor. It is always important to engage with your professor. It is important to contact your professor outside of the class section to ensure that you are retaining the information. Another tip that the Business Insider recommends is to connect with your classmates. It is vital to build connections with your classmates that will help everyone have a comfortable environment to ask questions.

Personal Growth

In March 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak hit the United States. College students were forced to leave their beloved campuses and go home to finish their semesters online. For some, it meant their schoolwork load was lightened and they could sleep until noon. For others, it meant their plans of graduating and having a job for the summer were in jeopardy. Regardless of their situation, one thing was likely the same for all: lots of time alone. Students found things to do to pass the time. Some learned to cook, some started exercising at home, and others had more time to do what they already loved.

Ethan, a student at the University of South Carolina, used the time to start lifting weights in his home gym. In the United States, sales of home gym equipment doubled, reaching nearly $2.4 Billion in revenue. Store shelves were entirely sold out of exercise equipment. Many students like Ethan report that exercising was one of the biggest changes they made during COVID lockdown.

Other students, such as Cam, found an opportunity to get in a better place mentally. “I learned not to take things for granted. My relationship with my family has gotten better. I’m a much stronger person,” the Clemson student reported. Grayson, an athlete at Winthrop University, reported that it made him have a more positive outlook on being by himself. A student that elected to remain anonymous was just happy they could wake up later and not have to brush their teeth as much because of masks. Whether a dentist would approve of that habit or not, an improvement in mental health is a win in anyone’s book.

A select few students decided to challenge themselves in a world where all odds are stacked against them.  Dean, a freshman at the University of South Carolina, decided to start his own bracelet and T-Shirt business in a time when small businesses all over the country were facing a grave threat of going out of business. All the while, he learned to play the guitar and uploaded his songs to SoundCloud, he reported.

Whether college students decided to get a six-pack or learned how to sew, almost everyone found something constructive and positive to do with their extra free time. The college students of COVID-19 learned what it meant to make the best of an unfortunate situation. Things may have looked bleak and frightening, but they learned how to manage those feelings and make something positive out of it.

Change in Workforce

Before the pandemic, many companies did not allow employees to work from home. Also, many companies would not even allow employees to take home items, such as laptops, as a safety precaution. According to Stanford Medicine, rapid innovation and implementation of technology has allowed for the employees to navigate the challenges. It states that it is clear that technology has transformed our typical daily workflow. Technology has also made it easier to connect with the patients during the pandemic.

The Pew Research Center states “about half of new teleworkers say they have more flexibility now and that majority who are working in person worry about virus exposure.” In December 2020, 71% of the workers that were surveyed were doing their job from home all or most of the time. Of those workers, more than half said if they were given the choice that they would want to keep working from home even after the pandemic. Among those who are currently working from home, most say that it has been easy to meet deadlines and complete projects on time without interruptions.

Environmental Improvements

Before the COVID-19 outbreak, a typical day consisted of billions of people across the globe commuting to work or school, whether that be through public buses or trains, driving themselves in cars, or some other means of transportation. As all these vehicles were used, immeasurable amounts of gases and chemicals were released into the atmosphere. As infection numbers and the death toll increased, most nations began enforcing lockdown protocols, and these mandates affected almost 3 billion people (Rume & Islam, 2020). Businesses and factories shut down or people began working from home, meaning they no longer needed to drive to work. In an attempt to stunt transmission, the majority of international travel was halted, limiting tourism, which also had a great impact. Since industrialization has advanced in major cities across the globe, the amount of Greenhouse Gases that have been emitted is alarming. Cars, buses, trains, industries, factories all release harmful chemicals due to the burning of fossil fuels or other energy sources. When these pollutants enter the atmosphere, they cause a variety of issues. It decreases overall air quality and visibility, and can be dangerous to those inhali ng the m.

According to research performed by Shakeel Ahmad Bhat and a group of other scientists from India, China, and the United Kingdom, Delhi, India is one of the most polluted cities in the world (Bhat et al, 2021). The city is highly industrialized and densely populated, contributing to the elevated levels of particulate matter in the air. Particulate matter is small pollutant liquid droplets and solid particles in the air (Environmental Protection Agency, 2020). When inhaled, they can burrow deep into the lungs and even the bloodstream and cause serious damage to a person, “particularly respiratory ailments” (Bhat et al, 2021). The two types of particulate matter are PM10 and PM2.5, and their numbers correspond to the size of the particles (their diameters in units of micrometers). The smaller the particle, the more harmful they are. By National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), the level of particulate matter in Delhi is well above the tolerable limits. In 2016 alone, the amount of deaths caused by the poor air quality in India “was approximately 4.2 million” (Bhat et al, 2021).

Lockdowns positively affe cted more than just the air quality around the world; additionally, water quality and beaches were a major beneficiary. Tourism for centuries has led to a significant overuse of beach resources such as fishing and leisure activities, and these in turn led to pollution of the water. If people are using jet skis and boating in lakes or oceans, the fuel and exhaust often leak into the water which can cause significant harm to the wildlife that lives in it. Restricting beach access has allowed them to recover and regain their resources, and has also decreased the pollution levels in the water. The water flowing in the Venice canals are cleaner now than they have been before (Bhat et al, 2021). pH levels, electric conductivity, dissolved oxygen levels, biochemical oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand have all decreased as a result of the lockdowns (Rume & Islam, 2020). These decreases all contribute to the fact that overall water quality levels have increased.

Noise pollution is an often-overlooked type of pollution that affects the world, especially in highly urbanized regions. Noise pollution is elevated levels of sound which are typically caused by human activities including transportation, machines, factories, etc. When the noise levels are elevated for extended periods of time, it negatively affects all organisms in the area. It leads to hearing loss, lack of concentration, high stress levels, interrupted sleep, and many other issues in humans. As for the wildlife, their abilities to detect and avoid predators and prey are hindered by noise pollution. It affects the invertebrates responsible for the control of many environmental processes that maintain balance in the ecosystem (Rume & Islam, 2020). When lockdowns were implemented, traveling and transportation stopped, industries shut down, flights were canceled, and people stayed home. The environment was able to recover and the people and organisms within the ecosystem enjoy a higher quality of life as a result.

Reflection Questions

• What kinds of positive experiences have you had during the pandemic?
• As stated in the chapter, there are many students who spent their time working out or picked up new hobbies. What new things were you able to focus on during the lockdowns?

Bhat, Shakeel Ahmad et al. “Impact of COVID-Related Lockdowns on Environmental and Climate Change Scenarios.” Environmental research 195 (2021): 110839–110839. Web. https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy.clemson.edu/science/article/pii/S001393512100133X?via%3Dihub.

DiDonato, S., Forgo, E., & Manella, H. (2020, June 5). Here’s how technology is helping residents during the COVID-19 pandemic . Scope Blog. https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2020/06/04/how-technology-is-helping-residents-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2020, October 1). Particulate Matter (PM) Basics. EPA. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics.

Merkle, Steffen. “Positive Experiences During COVID-19.” Survey. 18 April 2021.

Parker, K., Horowitz, J. M., & Minkin, R. (2021, February 9). How Coronavirus Has Changed the Way Americans Work . Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/12/09/how-the-coronavirus-outbreak-has-and-hasnt-changed-the-way-americans-work/.

Rume, T., & Islam, S. M. D.-U. (2020, September 17). Environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic and potential strategies of sustainability. Heliyon. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7498239/#bib42.

Shaban, Hamza. “The Pandemic’s Home-Workout Revolution May Be Here to Stay.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 8 Jan. 2021, www.washingtonpost.com/road-to-recovery/2021/01/07/home-fitness-boom/.

Thompson, K. L. (2021, February 2). I’m a college professor who’s teaching virtually during the pandemic. Here are 7 things my most successful students do on Zoom. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/tips-for-zoom-success-as-remote-student-professor-advice-2021-2.

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PERSPECTIVE article

The psychological and social impact of covid-19: new perspectives of well-being.

A commentary has been posted on this article:

Commentary: The psychological and social impact of COVID-19: New perspectives of well-being

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• 1 Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio of Cassino, Cassino, Italy
• 2 Independent Researcher, Milan, Italy
• 3 Department of Political and Social Studies, Sociology, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

The recent Covid-19 pandemic has had significant psychological and social effects on the population. Research has highlighted the impact on psychological well-being of the most exposed groups, including children, college students, and health workers, who are more likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and other symptoms of distress. The social distance and the security measures have affected the relationship among people and their perception of empathy toward others. From this perspective, telepsychology and technological devices assume important roles to decrease the negative effects of the pandemic. These tools present benefits that could improve psychological treatment of patients online, such as the possibility to meet from home or from the workplace, saving money and time and maintaining the relationship between therapists and patients. The aim of this paper is to show empirical data from recent studies on the effect of the pandemic and reflect on possible interventions based on technological tools.

Introduction

The Covid-19 pandemic led to a prolonged exposure to stress. As a consequence, researchers showed an increased interest in measuring social and community uneasiness in order to psychologically support the population. This increased attention might help in managing the current situation and other possible epidemics and pandemics. The security measures adopted in managing the pandemic had different consequences on individuals, according to the social role invested. Some segments of the population seem to be more exposed to the risk of anxious, depressive, and post-traumatic symptoms because they are more sensitive to stress.

The following article has two focuses of interest: (1) the evaluation of the psychological and social effects of the pandemic on the population, mostly children, college students, and health professionals; and (2) the identification of new perspectives of intervention based on digital devices and in line with the social security measures and mental health promotion. Telepsychology, for instance, is a valid tool, effective in taking charge of the psychological suffering caused by the pandemic and in preventing the chronicity of the disease. The prolonged stress could involve anxiety, depression, and the inability to manage traumatic and negative emotions. Furthermore, the constant fear of contagion affects daily life and leads to social isolation, modifying human relations.

COVID-19 and At-Risk Populations: Psychological and Social Impact of the Quarantine

Studies of pandemics faced over time, such as SARS, Ebola, H1N1, Equine Flu, and the current COVID-19, show that the psychological effects of contagion and quarantine is not limited on the fear of contracting the virus ( Barbisch et al., 2015 ). There are some elements related to the pandemic that affect more the population, such as separation from loved ones, loss of freedom, uncertainty about the advancement of the disease, and the feeling of helplessness ( Li and Wang, 2020 ; Cao et al., 2020 ). These aspects might lead to dramatic consequences ( Weir, 2020 ), such as the rise of suicides ( Kawohl and Nordt, 2020 ). Suicidal behaviors are often related to the feeling of anger associated with the stressful condition widely spread among people who lived/live in the most affected areas ( Miles, 2014 ; Suicide Awareness Voices of Education, 2020 ; Mamun and Griffiths, 2020 ). In light of these consequences, a carefully evaluation of the potential benefits of the quarantine is needed, taking into account the high psychological costs ( Day et al., 2006 ; Mazza et al., 2020 ).

As reported in a recent survey administered during the Covid-19 pandemic, children and young adults are particularly at risk of developing anxious symptoms ( Orgilés et al., 2020 ). The research involved a sample of 1,143 parents of Italian and Spanish children (range 3–18). In general, parents observed emotional and behavioral changes in their children during the quarantine: symptoms related to difficulty concentrating (76.6%), boredom (52%), irritability (39%), restlessness (38.8%), nervousness (38%), sense of loneliness (31.3%), uneasiness (30.4%), and worries (30.1%). From the comparison between the two groups—Spanish and Italian parents—it emerged that the Italian parents reported more symptoms in their children than the Spanish parents. Further data collected on a sample of college students at the time of the spread of the epidemic in China showed how anxiety levels in young adults are mediated by certain protective factors, such as living in urban areas, the economic stability of the family, and cohabitation with parents ( Cao et al., 2020 ). On the contrary, having infected relatives or acquaintances leads to a worsening in anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, the economic problems and the slowdown in academic activities are related with anxious symptoms ( Alvarez et al., 2020 ). In addition, an online survey conducted on the general population in China found that college students are more likely to experiencing stress, anxiety, and depression than others during the pandemic ( Li et al., 2020 ). These results suggest monitoring and promoting mental health of youths in order to reduce the negative impact of the quarantine ( CSTS, 2020 ; Fessell and Goleman, 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ).

Health-care workers (HCWs) are another segment of population particularly affected by stress ( Garcia-Castrillo et al., 2020 ; Lai et al., 2020 ). HCWs are at risk to develop symptoms common in catastrophic situations, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, burnout syndrome, physical and emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and dissociation ( Grassi and Magnani, 2000 ; Mache et al., 2012 ; Øyane et al., 2013 ). However, an epidemic presents different peculiarities compared to a catastrophic event, for instance, the stigmatizing attitudes in particular toward health professionals, who are in daily contact with the risk of infection ( Brooks et al., 2020 ). During SARS, up to 50% of health-care professionals suffered from acute psychological stress, exhaustion, and post-traumatic stress, caused by the fear of contagion of their family members and the prolonged social isolation ( Tam et al., 2004 ; Maunder et al., 2006 ).

As a consequence of the pandemic, the health professionals who were overworked suffered high level of psychophysical stress ( Mohindra et al., 2020 ). Health professionals also lived/live in daily life a traumatic condition called secondary traumatic stress disorder ( Zaffina et al., 2014 ), which describes the feeling of discomfort experienced in the helping relationship when treatments are not available for all patients and the professional must select who can access them and who cannot ( Roden-Foreman et al., 2017 ; Rana et al., 2020 ). Data from a survey on 1,257 HCWs who assisted patients in Covid-19 wards and in second- and third-line wards showed high percentages of depression (50%), anxiety (44.6%), insomnia (34%), and distress (71.5%) ( Lai et al., 2020 ). Also, the constant fear of contagion leads to obsessive thoughts ( Brooks et al., 2020 ), increasing the progressive closure of the person and reducing social relationships. In line with these results, Rossi et al. (2020) evaluated mental health outcomes among HCWs in Italy during the pandemic, confirming a high score of mental health issues, particularly among young women and front-line workers. Furthermore, Spoorthy et al. (2020) conducted a review on the gendered impact of Covid-19 and found that 68.7–85.5% of medical staff is composed of women, and the mean age ranged between 26 and 40 years. Also, women are more likely to be affect by anxiety, depression, and distress ( Lai et al., 2020 ; Zanardo et al., 2020 ). Liang et al. (2020) also found a relation between age and depressive symptoms associated with the pandemic. Indeed, the medical staff at younger ages (<30 years) reports higher self-rated depression scores and more concern about infecting their families than those of older age. Staff > 50 years of age reported increased stress due to patient’s death, the prolonged work hours, and the lack of personal protective equipment. Cai et al. (2020) also found that nurses felt more nervous compared to doctors.

As emerged by the recent literature, the promotion of psychological interventions on the specific population who is more likely to develop pathologies and suffering is needed. The Lancet Global Mental Health Commission’s observation ( Patel, 2018 ) reported that the use of digital technologies can provide mental health interventions in order to reduce anxiety and stress levels and increase self-efficacy ( Kang et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ).

Telepsychology: Training and Promotion of Psychological Well-Being

In order to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms widespread among the population, the World Health Organization (2019) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020) proposed specific guidelines on the correct use of health protection with the aim to minimize the distress associated with health-care professions.

At the same time, as a consequence of the emerging issues, psychotherapists provided psychological support online, addressing the technological challenge ( Greenberg et al., 2020 ); Liu et al., 2020 ). In line with the technological progress, professional organizations promoted specific guidelines and policies related to customer protection, privacy, screening, evaluation, and development of self-help products ( Duan and Zhu, 2020 ; Zhou et al., 2020 ). Technological development in mental health foreshadows future trends that include “smart” mobile devices, cloud computing, virtual worlds, virtual reality, and electronic games in addition to the traditional psychotherapy tools. In this perspective, it is important to help future generations of psychologists and patients to collaborate in the potential growth areas, through education and training on the benefits and effectiveness of telepsychology ( Maheu et al., 2012 ).

Indeed, more awareness of the potentials of the online services is needed, exploring the main differences between the devices (chat, video-audio consultation, etc.) in order to use them in relation to the specific purposes identified by the professional. For example, the Italian Service of Online Psychology conducted a study based on a service of helpdesk on Facebook. This service guided people in asking for psychological help, working on their personal motivation. At the same time, another helpdesk on Skype provided some psychological sessions via webcam ( Gabri et al., 2015 ). In this line, telecounseling is a diffuse online method used by counselors and psychologists during the recent pandemic ( De Luca and Calabrò, 2020 ).

One of the future goals of public and private psychological organizations should be the promotion of specific training for psychologists and psychotherapists, with the following aims: (1) developing the basic skills in managing the effects of a pandemic and of emergency situations; and (2) sensitizing patients to online therapeutic relationship, providing the main rules and benefits of the process ( Stoll et al., 2020 ; Joint Task Force for the Development of Telepsychology Guidelines for Psychologists, 2013 ). On this line, a significant example is the Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) which proposed PhDs in telepsychology, with the aim of training future psychologists in managing the psychological effects of the pandemic through an online psychology service ( Baylor et al., 2019 ). The service provided by the VCU had been effective in reducing anxiety, depression ( Sadock et al., 2017 ), and hospital recoveries ( Lanoye et al., 2017 ). As shown, telepsychology assumes a key role in the improvement of health care. Online psychological services avoid geographical barriers and are suitable to become a useful integrated tool in addition to traditional psychotherapy ( APS, 2020 ; Perrin et al., 2020 ).

Advantages of Psychological Support and Online Psychotherapy

Online psychological services provide several advantages, especially in the current situation of pandemic. First of all, online services help people in a short period of time, reducing the risk of contagion and the strong feeling of anxiety in both psychotherapists and patients, who feel uncomfortable in doing traditional psychotherapy due to the pandemic ( Békés and Aafjes-van Doorn, 2020 ). Furthermore, Pietrabissa et al. (2015) identified some of the main advantages of telepsychology, such as the decrease in waiting for the consultation, because it takes place from home or from the workplace, saving time and expense, less travel and rental costs for the office, for those who provide the service and for those who use it. As reported by the authors, online psychological services facilitate access to people who struggle to find support close to their social environment, avoiding difficulties related to mobility. Also, online services help people who have less confidence in psychotherapy. Indeed, mostly online psychotherapy takes place in one’s comfort zone, facilitating the expression of problems and feelings.

According to the situations, online services could provide a different medium. For instance, the chat is a useful tool to establish a first assessment of a person who feels uncomfortable in using video. Indeed, the online psychotherapy is perceived as more “acceptable.” Suler (2004) defined the term online disinhibition effect demonstrating how the web, unlike the real life, leads to the failure of the hierarchical relationship based on dominant-dominated among individuals; this aspect, according to the author, allows a greater sense of freedom in expressing oneself and less concern related to judgment ( ibid .). Other researchers ( Mantovani, 1995 ; Tosoni, 2004 ) have integrated to the construct of online disinhibition effect the concept of social space, emphasizing the role of the “situation,” of the “social norms” ( Brivio et al., 2010 , p. 811), of the tools (“artifacts”), and of the cyberplace, which allow different levels of interaction. Each person has a different experience of the network and several levels of disinhibition. For instance, a mild disinhibition could be a person who chooses to ask for help talking with a psychologist about their problems; while a high disinhibition could be represented by flaming, an expression of online bullying or cyberstalking.

Online psychological services should be integrated with the various territorial services in order to provide the patients local references in relation to the specific health and economic needs. Finally, the possibility for the therapist and for the patient to record the sessions via chat and in audio/video mode—with the informed consent of the participants ( Wells et al., 2015 )—provides another useful tool to compare the sessions and to underline the positive outcomes and the effectiveness of the therapeutic process. According to this perspective, online psychological support and psychotherapy become a resource for psychotherapists and patients in a co-build relationship ( Algeri et al., 2019 ).

Psychological and Social Suffering and the Empathic Process

In analyzing the psychological impact of the quarantine, the importance for individuals to feel integral part of the society emerged, an aspect often undervalued in psychological well-being. Experts of public health believe that social distancing is the better solution to prevent the spread of the virus. However, although it is not possible to predict the duration of the pandemic, we know very well the serious impact of these measures on the society, on relationships and interactions, in particular on the empathic process. In the early 90s, empathy was described as a form of identification in the psychological and physiological states of others. This definition led to a debate between the disciplines of philosophy of psychology and philosophy of the mind ( Franks, 2010 ). Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) renewed attention to the debate on empathy with a thesis on the development of language and mind in the analytical philosophy. According to Quine, the attribution of the so-called intentional states, through which the psychology commonly explains human behavior, is based on empathy ( Treccani, 2020 ) and leads people to attribute beliefs, desires, and perceptions ( Quine, 1990 , 1992 , Pursuit of Truth: Revised Edition, 1992). Analyzing this aspect within the recent situation of the pandemic, an increment of antithetical positions and attitudes could be noticed. On the one hand, people identify themselves with those who suffer (neighbors, friends, relatives who are living stressful events), promoting activities such as the so-called “suspended expenses.” For instance, solidarity and humanitarian activities, food, and medicine delivery for people who are unable to go to the supermarket. On the other hand, there is a part of the population who experiences a feeling of “forced empathy.” This aspect could be also emphasized by the use of technological devices that might lead to a depersonalization of relationships, forcing the sense of closeness, at least virtually. The hyperconnection of feelings becomes a way to reduce the self-isolation and its consequences, representing the contrary of the idea of Durkheim (1858–1917), who considered society as a specific entity, built on social facts ( Durkheim, 1922 ). The sensation “to be forced to feel” could lead people to distance themselves from others after the emergency situation, incrementing social phobias.

Also, human communication is changing. The formal question “how are you?” at the beginning of a conversation is no longer just a formality, as before the pandemic. For example, the relationship between employee and the manager is different, leading to more responsibilities in listening and understanding feelings expressed during the video call, generating a forced reciprocity. Hence, the aforementioned “forced empathy” may be common in this period because the social distance and the emergency situation make people want to be heard and appreciated, and the simple question “how are you?” becomes an anchor to express fears and emotions ( Pasetti, 2020 ).

The Covid-19 pandemic has affected the way people live interpersonal relationships. The lockdown was characterized of a different organization of daily life, with an incrementation of time at home and a reduction of distance through digital devices. This period was also seen as an evolution in the concept of empathy, producing new perspectives in the study of the phenomenon according to a sociological and neurological points of view. Indeed, empathy—defined as the ability to understand and share the feelings of another—involves several elements, such as: (a) social context and historical period of the individual, (b) neurological mechanisms, and (c) psychological and behavioral responses to feelings of others. The neuro-sociological perspective analyzes the mechanisms involved in the empathic process, focusing on human communication and interpersonal relationships ( Singer and Lamm, 2009 ; Decety and Ickes, 2009 ). Specifically, in this historical period characterized by an increment in the man–machine relationship, neurosociology could become one of the principal sciences for the study of human relations and technology. “We live increasingly in a human–machine world. Anyone who doesn’t understand this, and who is not struggling to adapt to the new environment—whether they like that environment or not—is already being left behind. Adapting to the new, fast-changing, technologically enhanced context is one of the major challenges of our times. And that certainly goes for education” ( Prensky, 2012 , p. 64).

According to the abovementioned considerations, our suggestion consists in:

Primary prevention. Studying the impact of the pandemic toward an at-risk population to reduce symptoms related to stress and providing specific online psychological counseling based on the target (students, medical staff, parents, and teachers).

Secondary prevention. Overcoming the limitations of the human interaction based on digital devices: (1) developing new spaces of inter- and intrasocial communication and new tools of support and psychological treatment, reproducing the multisensory experienced during the face-to-face interaction (Virtual Reality, holograms, serious game etc.); (2) training the next generation of psychotherapists in managing online devices and in implementing their adaptive and personal skills; and (3) sensitizing the general population on telepsychology and its advantages.

Research according to the neurosociological perspective . Studying human interaction mediated by new technologies and the role of empathy, associating neuroscience, sociology, and psychology.

Author Contributions

VS, DA, and VA conceptualized the contribution. VS wrote the paper, reviewed the manuscript, and provided the critical revision processes as PI. All authors approved the submission of the manuscript.

This work did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : COVID-19, empathy, psychological disease, psychotherapy, social distancing, telepsychology

Citation: Saladino V, Algeri D and Auriemma V (2020) The Psychological and Social Impact of Covid-19: New Perspectives of Well-Being. Front. Psychol. 11:577684. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577684

Received: 29 June 2020; Accepted: 03 September 2020; Published: 02 October 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Saladino, Algeri and Auriemma. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Valeria Saladino, [email protected] ; [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational aspects of Saudi university students’ lives

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Faculty of Education, Umm al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia, Deanship of Scientific Research, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia

• Abdulelah A. Alghamdi

• Published: April 14, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026
• Reader Comments

The COVID-19 pandemic led to surprising and unexpected experiences for Saudi university students. Precautionary and preventive measures taken to contain this pandemic impacted the social and educational aspects of these students’ lives. All Umm Al-Qura University (UQU) students were invited to participate in an online survey on 30 impacts, both positive and negative, of the COVID-19 pandemic on their lives. Social impact theory (SIT) was applied to illustrate these impacts. The survey yielded 1,360 responses. The results showed high to moderate levels of agreement regarding students’ perceptions of the positive and negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their lives, with social aspects impacted more than educational ones; and no statistically significant gender differences. Weak correlations were found between the social aspects and the educational aspects of students’ lives in relation to the impact of the pandemic, although all aspects were correlated positively. The SIT framework provided insights into how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted students’ lives.

Citation: Alghamdi AA (2021) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational aspects of Saudi university students’ lives. PLoS ONE 16(4): e0250026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026

Editor: Ritesh G. Menezes, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, SAUDI ARABIA

Received: October 23, 2020; Accepted: March 29, 2021; Published: April 14, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Abdulelah A. Alghamdi. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. The data underlying the results presented in the study are available from ( https://figshare.com/s/b2705c0aff212ba447f8 ).

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1 Introduction

Since December 2019, when it was first identified in Wuhan, the capital of China’s Hubei province, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread globally, resulting in the continuing 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic [ 1 ]. Saudi Arabia confirmed its first COVID-19 case on March 2, 2020 [ 2 ] and has since has taken many drastic steps to contain the outbreak, including imposing a 24-hour curfew and closing schools and universities [ 3 , 4 ]. The 24-hour curfew went into effect almost immediately in many cities, including Makkah (commonly known in the western world as Mecca) which was one of the first Saudi cities to be placed under a full-day curfew from April 2, 2020 ‘until further notice’ [ 5 ]; residents were only permitted throughout the curfew to leave their houses for essential needs between 6 a.m. and 3 p.m. within their residential area [ 3 , 4 ]. The suspension of all universities and educational institutions to contain the COVID-19 outbreak was followed directly by the activation of online education during the suspension period [ 3 , 6 ].

That these measures and other precautionary and preventive measures were put in place in a short period of time resulted in many inquiries about their expected consequences on students’ lives as students shifted to an at-home, virtual learning experience during the COVID-19 outbreak [ 6 , 7 ]. This study aims to explore and identify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational lives of Saudi university students during the period of outbreak which is ongoing until the date of conducting this study in Makkah city.

2 Background

2.1 covid-19 outbreak in saudi arabia.

Saudi Arabia’s experience of a previous coronavirus outbreak informed how it approached the COVID-19 outbreak. A World Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2012 the outbreak of a disease called Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Corona Virus (MERS-COV), which spread throughout many countries globally [ 8 ]. The vast majority of MERS-COV cases were reported in the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in Saudi Arabia [ 9 ]. The outbreak of MERS-COV in Saudi Arabia began in a private hospital, but the illness subsequently spread to several hospitals; by 2014, about 25% of all Saudi MERS diagnoses were among healthcare workers [ 9 ].

The MERS-COV outbreak in Saudi Arabia demonstrated that the healthcare community was at the highest risk of infection, and students working in this field were impacted negatively. For example, a study by Al-Rabiaah et al. [ 10 ] involving 200 medical students from King Saud University concluded that there was a need to address medical students’ psychological wellbeing appropriately during the MERS-COV outbreak and suggested the establishment of psychological support programs for these students during an infectious disease outbreak. Stirling et al. [ 11 ] developed a program during an infectious period of the MERS-COV epidemic for Saudi students and faculty members of the College of Nursing at Princess Nourah University to support the emotional and informational needs of the students and staff who had the capacity to be conduits for the spread of disease to the broader population in the midst of an epidemic.

Taking into consideration the case of Saudi students during the MERS-COV intervention period from 2012 to 2014 [ 11 ], the COVID-19 outbreak scenario was approached differently, with precautionary and preventive measures taken to protect university students from infection. On March 2, 2020, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health confirmed the first case of COVID-19 in the kingdom. By January 10, 2021, there were 363,692 confirmed cases and 6,286 deaths had been reported in Saudi Arabia [ 2 ]. With increasing rates of COVID-19 infection, the Saudi Arabian government took quick and drastic steps to contain the outbreak. Among these urgent measures were a 24-hour curfew and the suspension of all universities and educational institutions with a shift to online education for all students [ 4 , 6 , 7 ].

The requirement to remain at home 24 hours per day and also continue the learning process in a different environment had the potential to impact university students’ interpersonal and intrapersonal lives both educationally and socially. Indeed, it was unprecedented globally in the educational sector for students in more than 130 countries to be out of school or university at the same time [ 3 , 12 ], creating mixed feelings of perhaps sadness, confusion, worry, or fear about their future but also positively in times of uncertainty [ 13 , 14 ].

Cao et al. [ 15 ] conducted a study to measure anxiety among students from Changzhi medical college during the period of the COVID-19 outbreak in China. This study showed that living in urban areas, family income stability, and living with parents were protective factors against anxiety. In addition, the results displayed that economic effects, delays in academic activities, and effects on daily life were positively associated with anxiety symptoms for students [ 15 ].

Sahu [ 16 ] highlighted the possible impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the education of university students. Shifting from face-to-face classes to online classes is not an easy step for students, especially those who do not have access to laptops and internet facilities at home or those who take courses that cannot be taught online. In addition, students may be uncertain about assessment procedures for online assignments and projects, and will suffer when they do not have an internet facility to participate in the evaluation process, and this could adversely affect their grade averages. Such impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak on students’ education and mental health could also affect Saudi university students, especially given the many precautionary and preventive measures taken to contain the COVID-19 outbreak and prevent infection among students.

2.2 Research questions

In light of the identified impacts in the literature and the significance of an investigation into how students in Saudi Arabia were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the following research question was devised:

In what ways did the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak in Saudi Arabia impact the lives of university students?

In order to answer this question, the following sub-question was developed to direct the scope of the study: How do Saudi men and women university students perceive the positive and negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak on their lives in relation to a) social and emotional aspects ? ; b) spiritual and physical aspects ? ; c) societal and environmental aspects ? ; d) online study aspect ? ; and e) online education aspect ? Gender was an important consideration in the study for further research in this context.

3 Methodology

3.1 procedure.

Self-reported data were collected from random samples of university students in different colleges at UQU in Makkah. Ethics approval was obtained from UQU, via the Vice Presidency for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research (Ethics Approval Number: 4101130096). 5000 emails were sent by the information technology (IT) department of UQU to the accounts of university students (men and women) from April 5- to July 9, 2020. Each email included an invitation letter to take part in the anonymous online survey. In addition, an information sheet was included with each email and online consent was sought; the online survey could only be accessed after consent was submitted by participants through clicking on a ’button’ that indicated participants had read the consent information in the sheet attached to the email and agreed to participate. Some 1382 responses were received, with a response rate of 27.6%, of which 1,360 responses were complete and valid.

3.2 Measures

Measurement items were adapted from available literature. To ensure translation quality of measurements and their meaning equivalence, the original English version underwent two-way translation. The survey comprised three sections to obtain information related to demographic details and participants’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their lives. The socio-demographic questions covered age, gender, academic degree, and field of study. The second and third sections included the COVID-19 pandemic positive and negative impact scales. Although COVID-19 represented a novel virus and as such, had not been previously experienced, there had been similar pandemics in recent times that provided some historical literature to guide the current study. As such, the positive and negative impacts associated with the COVID-19 pandemic were elicited from available literature in relation to the impact of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Corona Virus (MERS-CoV), with some recent studies on the COVID-19 pandemic also providing guidance [ 16 – 20 ]. The scales gauge university students’ perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak’s positive and negative impacts in relation to social and emotional aspects, spiritual and physical aspects, societal and environmental aspects, online study aspect, and online education aspect. These scales utilized a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The positive impact scale in the second section gauges the extent to which students perceived the positive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on their social and educational lives throughout the curfew period via 19 items: 1. Getting spiritual reflections, peace of mind; 2. Affirmation of the value of tolerance and forgiveness; 3. Solving family problems collectively; 4. Reorganization of priorities in life; 5. Cohesion among family members; 6. Feeling of societal destiny unity; 7. Awareness of importance of personal and public; 8. Attention to friends’ wellbeing; 9. Learning to take care of the body; 10. Appreciation of life and death; 11. Investment in environmental hygiene; 12. Passion for the sick and poor; 13. Enhanced sense of community contact; 14. New popular culture and humor; 15. Simulating online study to the reality; 16. Enhancing social interaction in online education; 17. Equality with all infected society members; 18. Financial and technical support in online education; 19. No effect of online study on family income.

The negative impact scale in the third section gauges the extent to which students perceived the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their social and educational lives throughout the curfew period via 11 items: 1. Low online education infrastructure; 2. Missing of classroom social environment; 3. Blurring of study plan options; 4. Inadequacy of online education for practical learning; 5. Unfair assessment in online study; 6. Discomfort and inactive physically; 7. Lack of physical movement space; 8. Burden of learning time on parents; 9. Unnecessary purchasing of material things; 10. Social alienation and distancing; 11. Fear of burden on others when infected.

3.3 Data analysis

Quantitative data from surveys were analyzed using the software package SPSS. Factor analysis (Principal Components analysis) was conducted on the scales to ensure items of each scale measured one representative factor using Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (BTS). Descriptive analysis was applied to gauge the categorical variables’ frequencies and to determine the means and standard deviations of each scale. Independent-samples t-tests were used to determine differences between the scores of the social and educational aspects of students’ lives for men and women students, while Pearson correlation coefficients were used to explore the relationships among the aspects of social and educational lives of students. Parametric tests were considered appropriate as the sample was large, and the data met the requirements for parametric testing.

To ensure the validity of the survey, Saudi experts on the research subject reviewed and ensured the validity of the scales’ content and structure in the Arabic version. After obtaining consensus on the survey’s validity, a pilot study was conducted with a group of 25 university students to gain feedback. In addition, factor analysis (principal components analysis) was conducted on the survey scales to ensure that the items of each scale measured one representative factor using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (BTS).

3.4 The research framework–Social Impact Theory (SIT)

This study relies on the presumption of the existence of social and educational impacts from launching a package of precautionary and preventive measures to contain the COVID-19 outbreak in the Saudi community and protect university students from infection. From a SIT perspective, there is the potential for changes in the social and educational aspects of students’ lives due to the impact of approved measures throughout the COVID-19 outbreak in Saudi Arabia.

Social impact can be defined as any influence on feelings, motives, behavior, or thoughts of individuals from receiving real, implied, or imagined presence or actions of others [ 21 ]. Taking this definition into account, SIT aims to explain the way in which impact is reciprocal by either a majority or a minority. Latané supports SIT as an avenue for analyzing social impact as a result of forces working in a social force field, suggesting that impact “by either a majority or a minority will be as a multiplicative function of the strength, immediacy, and number of its sources” [ 22 ]. Strength indicates the pervasive power from the social presence of impact sources, which differs according to authorities and positions of one impact source. The greater the strength of the source, the greater the social impact. Immediacy refers to closeness between the source sending information or taking action and the recipients of that information or action. More immediate sources deliver a larger social impact. Finally, the number of sources includes the number of sources that influence individually. The higher the number of sources, the greater the social impact consequently [ 21 , 22 ].

The appeal of SIT arises from the generalizability of its framework, which can be applied in various contexts and be further tested with a particular case. Therefore, SIT has been applied in a wide variety of research areas within different contexts; for example, it was used to study: the impact of two social forces–social size and proximity–on the emotions of consumers and their self-presentation behaviors [ 23 ]; the impact of users’ number on the perceived credibility of user-generated content on social media [ 24 ]; the impact of social influence on individuals’ vaccination decision-making [ 25 ]; and the impact of relationship closeness or persuader immediacy, message persuasiveness, and perceived supportiveness on political attitude change [ 26 ].

In terms of communication and social event studies, the SIT framework provides a useful understanding for how individuals are influenced by their social environment [ 26 ]. At the same time, SIT can indicate how forces that operate in a social field are involved in events and how others are influenced by these forces over time [ 27 ]. In the current study, SIT was applied to understand how university students’ lives were influenced by the COVID-19 outbreak in Saudi Arabia in light of the precautionary and preventive measures taken in regard to the pandemic. According to the framework of SIT by Latané [ 21 ], the magnitude of social impact in this study is determined by the aforementioned factors (strength, immediacy, the number of sources), as follows.

Strength: The strength is derived from the increasing number of COVID-19 cases being identified in the Saudi Arabia. On May 1, 2020, there were 24,097 COVID-19 cases confirmed and 169 deaths from the virus in Saudi Arabia; by January 10,2021, the number of confirmed cases had increased to 363,692 with 6,286 deaths–the highest reported number among Arabian Gulf States [ 28 ].

Immediacy: With the first case of COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia reported on March 2, 2020, many precautionary and preventive measures were taken, including imposing a curfew and closing universities on March 8, 2020 [ 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 ]. The immediacy is apparent from the closeness and connection of these measures to the aspects of community life, including university students’ lives to protect them and prevent the outbreak of the pandemic.

The number of sources: The COVID-19 outbreak in Saudi Arabia was contained through various sources (precautionary and preventive measures) surrounding the lives of university students. In terms of transport restrictions, a 24-hour curfew was imposed immediately in the holy cities of Makkah (where this study conducted) and Medina with movement restricted to only essential travel between 6 a.m. and 3 p.m. [ 4 ]. All universities and educational institutions, including public and private schools and technical and vocational training institutions, were closed [ 3 , 6 , 7 ]. In terms of daily social activities, all sports centers and gyms, as well as all amusement parks and entertainment zones in malls, were closed. In addition, social events, including funerals and weddings, were banned. Shopping malls, coffee shops, and public parks were closed with the exception of pharmacies and supermarkets [ 4 ].

Based on the SIT framework of Latané [ 21 ], Williams and Williams [ 29 ] postulated that social impact varies depending on whether the underlying motive for compliance is due to an external impression or an internal motive, such as self-perception. Therefore, in the current study, the framework of SIT is used as the lens to describe how all these precautionary and preventive measures affecting different aspects of students’ social and educational lives.

4.1 Participant characteristics

Table 1 displays the demographic information of the sample. A total of 1,360 university students, both men and women, from UQU were involved in this study; these students were pursuing various academic degrees in various disciplines throughout the curfew period in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. A slightly higher number of women (52.8%) than men (47.25%) participated in the survey, with most participants aged between 19 and 23. Most of the participants were preparing for a bachelor’s degree (90.9%). The three most common fields of study among participants are social sciences (19.8%), medical sciences (17.8%), and Islamic studies (16.8%).

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t001

4.2 Perceptions of positive and negative impacts of COVID-19

In this study, students’ perceptions were measured through 30 statements represents the scale of the positive and negative impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational aspects of students’ lives. These statements were subjected to principal components analysis (PCA) to ensure the validity of scale. The suitability of data for factor analysis was assessed prior to performing PCA. Many coefficients of .3 and above were revealed by inspection of the correlation matrix. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was 0.85, exceeding the recommended value of 0.6, and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (BTS) reached statistical significance ( p = .000), supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. PCA detected the presence of many components with eigenvalues exceeding 1. An inspection of the scree plot displayed a clear break after the second component. By using Catell’s (1966) scree test, it was decided to retain two components for further investigation. Parallel analysis supported the results of these two components with eigenvalues exceeding the corresponding criterion values for a randomly generated data matrix of the same size (30 items x 1,360). Reliability was assessed with Cronbach’s alpha, which showed an acceptable level of reliability for the items of the first component (Positive Impact) with 0.82 and the second component (Negative Impact) with 0.72. This information is presented in Tables 2 and 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t003

To determine whether the mean score of scales for each item could be described as low, medium, or high in the descriptive statistics for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational aspects of students’ lives, the following descriptors were applied to the survey results: A mean below 2.5 represents a low level of agreement; a mean between 2.6 and 3.9 represents a moderate level of agreement; a mean above 4 represents a high level of agreement. The results of each scale are described in the following sections:

4.2.1 Social and emotional aspects of students’ lives scale.

The results from students’ perceptions in relation to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic throughout the curfew period on the social and emotional aspects of their lives, as measured through the eight statements displayed in Table 4 , showed a high level of agreement for the positive and negative impacts with an overall mean of 4.05 and a standard deviation of 0.50. This confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic affected the social and emotional aspects of students’ lives, and both positive and negative impacts were felt at the same time. In terms of gender differences, t -test revealed that variances for the two groups (men/women) were the same, but there was a statistically significant difference in the mean scores of men’s and women’s perceptions for the social and emotional aspects of students’ lives. However, the effect size was very small (Eta Squared = .04). Findings are presented in Table 4 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t004

4.2.2 Spiritual and physical aspects of students’ lives scale.

Findings displayed that students perceived a high impact ( M = 3.97, SD = ±0.50) of the COVID-19 pandemic throughout the curfew period on the spiritual and physical aspects of their lives, as measured through the seven statements presented in Table 5 . More specifically, the level of the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic was moderate ( M = 2.93, SD = ±1.14), while the level of positive impact was high ( M = 4.39, SD = ±0.59). In terms of the gender differences, the result of t -test showed that variances for the two groups (men/women) were not the same. However, there was not a statistically significant difference in the mean scores for men’s and women’s perceptions of the impact on the spiritual and physical aspects of their lives.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t005

4.2.3 Societal and environmental aspects of students’ lives scale.

The students’ responses indicated a high level of agreement ( M = 3.98, SD = ±0.56) regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic throughout the curfew period on the societal and environmental aspects of their lives, as measured through five statements presented in Table 6 . However, the level of agreement for the negative impact ( M = 3.29, SD = ±1.29) was not high as much as the level of agreement for the positive impact ( M = 4.16, SD = ±0.63). For both genders, as shown by a t -test, the variances in students’ (men/women) perceptions were the same, with statistically significant difference in the mean scores of their perceptions of impact on the societal and environmental aspects of their lives. However, the effect size was very small (Eta Squared = .002).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t006

4.2.4 Online study aspect of students’ lives scale.

Findings displayed that students’ perceptions confirmed a moderate level of agreement ( M = 3.42, SD = ±0.78) for the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic throughout the curfew period on their online study, as measured through the six statements presented in Table 7 . In terms of gender differences, t -test results showed that the variances of both genders’ perceptions were the same with no statistically significant difference in the mean scores of men and women students regarding the impact of COVID-19 on their online study.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t007

4.2.5 Online education aspect of students’ lives scale.

Findings showed a moderate level of students’ perceptions agreement (M = 3.59, SD = ±0.61) regarding the impact of COVID-19 pandemic throughout the curfew period on the online education aspect of their lives, as measured through four statements presented in Table 8 . For the gender differences, t -test findings showed that the variances for the two groups (men/women) were not the same. However, there was not a statistically significant difference in the mean scores for men’s and women’s perceptions of students regarding online education.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t008

4.3 Correlations among aspects of students’ lives

Findings of students’ perceptions showed that the social, emotional, spiritual, physical, societal, and environmental aspects of students’ lives were highly impacted, while the online study and online education aspects of students’ lives were moderately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, as presented in Table 9 . Taking into consideration these results, a Person Correlation Coefficient (PCC) was conducted to find out the nature of the relationships among these aspects. The strength of correlation was interpreted according to the guidelines of Cohen [ 30 ], who suggests that a PCC value ( r) from .10 to .29 indicates a weak correlation, an ( r ) from .30 to .49 indicates a medium correlation, and an ( r ) from .50 to 1.0 indicates a strong correlation. The results indicated that all relationships among all aspects of students’ lives were associated positively. The results showed that a medium to strong positive correlation existed among all social aspects (social, emotional, spiritual, physical, societal, and environmental) and between educational aspects (online study and education) of students’ lives. However, the correlation between the social and educational aspects was weak as presented in Table 9 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.t009

5 Discussion

This study explores university students’ experiences regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on different aspects of their social and educational lives. These students were pursuing various academic degrees in various disciplines throughout the curfew period in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. This study setting is unique in that Makkah is the city with the third highest number of COVID-19 cases in Saudi Arabia (31,542 cases by September 8, 2020) [ 2 ]; it is also considered as the holiest city in Islam and is visited by Muslims from around the world at all times of the year; especially during Ramadan, the month of social celebration, communal worship, and performing umrah by pilgrims from around the world. This sense of togetherness, that is at the core of this city was missing in 2020 due to the pandemic [ 4 , 31 ].

In terms of the period of curfew associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, Makkah has had the longest period of curfew within Saudi Arabia [ 5 , 32 ]. Taking into consideration this context in the current study, the results showed a high to moderate level of agreement for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on different social and educational aspects of students’ lives. These results are presented and discussed in the next section.

5.1 Perceptions of positive and negative impacts of COVID-19

5.1.1 social and emotional aspects of students’ lives..

Regarding the positive impacts, the findings in relation to the social and emotional aspects of students’ lives demonstrated that students perceived the COVID-19 pandemic helped them to be connected strongly with their family members. This result indicates that students enjoyed time with their families and that their family relationships were strong throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, which occurred during the holy month of Ramadan (April 23- to May 23, 2020), the month of social celebration and communal worship. Indeed, this finding does not support claims that in 2020, Muslims would be strongly discouraged from observing the rites of Ramadan under the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic with mosques shuttered, collective prayers banned, and family reunions impossible [ 31 ].

On the other hand, the results related to the negative impacts indicate that students were more concerned about being a burden on others because of infection by COVID-19 than of being alone or disconnected from everyone due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This result corresponds to the nature of Saudi students’ families whereby elderly people are taken care of by their children and relatives as part of religious duty [ 33 , 34 ]. While the elderly population in Saudi Arabia was most prone to complications from infection by COVID-19 [ 35 ], students experienced the burden of being a potential cause of infection of elderly people in their homes.

5.1.2 Spiritual and physical aspects of students’ lives.

Findings relating to spiritual and physical aspects of students’ lives confirmed that students perceived the high positive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their appreciation of life and death. This result reasonably coincides with the history of the coronavirus’s spread in the Arabian Peninsula [ 9 , 36 ], and the increasing number of total deaths in Saudi Arabia, which ranked 30 globally with 3,956 deaths by September 2, 2020 [ 37 ]. Students also perceived the reorganization of priorities in life as a high positive impact of COVID-19, while lack of physical movement space was perceived as the least negative impact throughout the curfew period.

This result may highlight the role of information and communications technology (ICT) in reducing the need for physical movement as a result of ‘staying at home’ practices implemented by many governments to contain the COVID-19 pandemic spread and impact. In fact, ICT played an important role throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in reorganizing people’s priorities [ 38 ] and in allowing large groups of people to perform their work and study from home, enhancing their social connectedness and offering necessary entertainment [ 39 , 40 ].

5.1.3 Societal and environmental aspects of students’ lives.

Students responded with a high level of agreement in relation to societal and environmental aspects of their lives, that keeping the investment in environmental hygiene was a positive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic for their environment. This result reflects steps taken by the Saudi government to increase the environmental sanitation campaign and sterilization of streets, public sites, and markets to curb the spread of COVID-19 [ 41 ]. For society, students’ perceptions indicated a high level of agreement for the feeling of societal destiny unity as a positive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. This confirms that the pandemic acted as a catalyst for feelings of social unity and strengthening the connectedness of communities, despite the adversity this pandemic has also bought societies [ 42 ].

5.1.4 Online study aspect of students’ lives.

Findings demonstrated that online study was perceived as being more positively than negatively impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic although the level of these impacts was at a moderate level of agreement. Students found that online study was close to the reality of their learning environment throughout the curfew period. This can be attributed to the design of learning activities being suitable for the capabilities and expectations of students, related to level of increasing students’ engagement, and accessible to everyone [ 43 ]. On the other hand, missing the classroom social environment was one of the highest negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on students’ online study throughout the curfew period.

This may highlight that addressing the missing social presence in online study for students through the available communication channels must be attended to by teachers to maintain and enhance the lost spontaneous student-to-student and student-to-teacher interactions. In addition, cognitive presence, which focuses on the ability of teachers to consider the preparedness of students to participate in the online study experience, and facilitatory presence through embodying direct instruction for the tools, resources and mentoring activities, are important for compensating for the missing social presence in online study [ 43 ].

5.1.5 Online education aspect of students’ lives.

Findings related to the online education showed that COVID-19, to a moderate level impacted positively and negatively on the online education aspect of students’ lives. Enhancing social interaction among students in online education was the main advantage of online education throughout the curfew period. The online education environment consists of two sets of interacting styles: the first one consists of students, instructor, and content, while the second consists of technologies, and methods of communication [ 44 ]. As social distancing is necessary due to COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, e-applications (such as Zoom) or Discussion Board (For Blackboard) become important primary or supportive tools for online education to help keep students connected and cope with being away from the classroom [ 45 ]. The findings of the current study confirm the positive role of online education in enhancing students’ social interactions.

However, a study conducted by Barnes and Noble College Insights with 432 college students across the U.S.A, showed that over half of the students were concerned regarding the lack of social interactions in the online learning environment, although only 12% were concerned about their speed of internet access [ 46 ]. This contradicts the findings of the current study, which showed a moderate level of negative impact reported by students in relation to the poor infrastructure of online education, with a positive impact for online education in enhancing their social interaction. Nevertheless, students’ perceptions in the current study revealed a high negative impact in terms of finding online education inadequate for practical learning throughout the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. This highlights the necessity of shedding light on the role of technologies’ capabilities in terms of their methods of communication in supporting interaction among students and delivering a quality educational experience [ 44 , 45 , 47 , 48 ].

5.2 Theoretical contribution

The findings of this study contribute to the extant literature for SIT’s framework about the impact of events in the social environment with the forces, that are involved in these events, and their influences on individuals engaged over the time of the event [ 26 , 27 ]. Although this study did not target participants who were infected by COVID-19, the perceptions of current study participants showed a high to moderate level of agreement with the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the aspects of their social and educational lives. The COVID-19 pandemic in the framework of SIT in this study is the event that impacts on students’ lives. This impact was not immediate, but was mediated by other forces, namely the precautionary and preventive measures immediately put in place to contain the COVID-19 outbreak in Saudi Arabia.

As mentioned in the framework of SIT for this study, the precautionary and preventive measures included: imposing a curfew; closing all universities, educational institutions, and schools; closing all places of daily social activities, such as sport centers, amusement parks, and entertainment zones; banning all social gatherings, including funerals and weddings; and closing shopping malls and shops with the exception of pharmacies and supermarkets. All these precautionary and preventive measures affected different aspects of students’ lives as outlined in the next section.

5.2.1 Impact of COVID-19 precautionary and preventive measures.

Imposing a 24-hour curfew shifted the lives of students to a new experience, especially at home where they spent their whole day. The findings of this study indicate that staying at home helped students positively reorganize their priorities and that the period proved a positive time for spiritual reflections and achieving peace of mind, as well as providing the opportunity to be close to their family members. However, feelings of isolation and being away from their community members were confirmed as negative impacts, reflecting that an emotional part of students’ lives was absent during their experience of curfew. Closing all places of daily social activities as a precautionary and preventive measure for containing COVID-19 had an impact on students’ lives in relation to their being inactive physically and creating the feeling of a lack of space for movement, but not as much as getting an opportunity to learn how to take care of the body as a positive impact.

The banning of all social gatherings, including funerals and weddings, as a measure to contain COVID-19 coincided with the high level of agreement that a positive impact was investment in environmental hygiene. In addition, closing shopping malls and most shops received a high to moderate level of agreement by students in relation to unnecessary purchasing of material things, highlighting the impact of this precautionary and preventive measure on the style of students’ lives societally throughout the period of curfew.

Finally, university’s closure and the shift to online education for all students had a moderate impact on online study and education in their lives. In relation to the online study, students’ perceptions confirmed that experiences of online study simulated their learning environment at the university. However, online study was not able to replace the social environment of the classroom. Moreover, students found that while online education was adequate for supporting their social interaction, they missed the practical side of learning together.

5.2.2 SIT’s framework and COVID-19 pandemic impacts.

Taking into consideration students’ perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their lives, the SIT framework illustrates how students’ lives were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic through its three factors (strength, immediacy, and number of sources). The precautionary and preventive measures drew their strength as protocols that were applied to contain the COVID-19 pandemic in students’ lives but also acted as the number of sources impacting on the lives of the students. Furthermore, the immediacy of these measures related to the social roles and psychological distance of these precautionary and preventive measures in the life of Saudi students. This SIT framework for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students’ lives is depicted in Fig 1 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250026.g001

6 Conclusion

Saudi students’ perceptions in this study revealed a high to moderate level of agreement with regard to the positive and negative impacts on their social and educational lives associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on social aspects was higher than on the educational aspects of students’ lives. Staying connected with family members, appreciating life and death, reorganizing priorities in life, practicing environmental hygiene, and feeling societal destiny unity were the prominent positive impacts that emerged. In contrast, concern over becoming a burden on others because of infection by COVID-19 was a perceived negative impact. On the other hand, aspects of online study and enhancing social interaction among students in online education were notable positive impacts on the educational lives of students throughout the period of curfew. However, missing the classroom social environment, and finding online education inadequate for practical learning were the highest reported negative impacts. The SIT framework was used to help demonstrate how the COVID-19 pandemic affected students’ lives throughout the curfew period.

7 Implications of this study

Although this study was conducted in Makkah, which had the third highest number of COVID-19 cases in Saudi Arabia and the longest period of curfew through the COVID-19 pandemic, the results may be similar to other international studies that suggest some positive impacts associated with the pandemic. It highlights the need for ongoing research to determine how different societies can build on the positive aspects for students that have emerged from responding to this novel virus. These positive impacts highlighted the role of information and communications technologies in reducing the negative impacts throughout the period of this pandemic. Nevertheless, these results revealed an urgent need for technologies to be developed to ensure they are in line with what users anticipate and need in their social and educational lives through crises. For example, increasing the capabilities of communications technologies to support the missing social environment in the online classroom. While it is important that the negative aspects that were highlighted are addressed, it is equally important the positive impacts that were identified are also built upon so that the benefits are not lost once society returns to pre-COVID-19 ‘normality’.

8 Limitations and future research

This study has a number of limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. To begin with, the response to COVID-19 differed extensively around the world depending on location, so the results reflect the approach taken in Makkah which was even different to other cities within Saudi Arabia. Hence, similar research with different influences in relation to the place or sample could show different results. Furthermore, the results of this study were limited to differences by gender. Other factors such as year level in degrees may be worth exploring as there may have been differences between students in their preparatory year because of the need to decide on academic plans and specialties compared to those close to graduation and facing employment prospects. In addition, this study was limited to exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the social and educational aspects of students’ lives, while further research on economic aspects could reveal different insights. Finally, interpreting how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted students’ lives within the framework of SIT was based on precautionary and preventive measures taken to contain this pandemic. However, future research could include other measures, such as following social norms and using communication technologies, which could extend the explanation of SIT’s framework for the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students’ lives.

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Essays explore altered social experiences from the COVID-19 pandemic

School of Social Transformation faculty members (from left): Mako Fitts Ward, assistant professor, African and African American studies; Michelle McGibbney Vlahoulis, senior lecturer, women and gender studies; Jennifer A. Sandlin, professor, justice and social inquiry; Christine L. Holman, senior lecturer, justice and social inquiry.

“ The Pandemic Reader ” is a new collection of essays edited by faculty in Arizona State University's School of Social Transformation, in The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences.

The collection explores the multitude of ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic has changed life in every aspect. As people around the world try to navigate challenges and revelations that have unfolded in light of the coronavirus pandemic, the faculty involved in the project say it is still crucial to consider the societal impact at large, and what it will mean down the line. 

“Our collection of essays, articles and activities are designed to assist in both understanding and deconstructing the ways in which the pandemic has impacted our lives — as individuals, families and communities," said editor  Christine L. Holman , senior lecturer, justice and social inquiry.

“The Pandemic Reader”   draws from research, writings and discussions by journalists, students, community activists and academics who have formed teachable viewpoints on the world’s current state of affairs. The contributors come from a wide range of specialties from economics to pediatrics to epidemiology and investigative reporting. 

The editors of this collection are  Mako Fitts Ward ,  Jennifer A. Sandlin ,  Michelle McGibbney Vlahoulis  and  Holman . They helped bolster the sociohistorical framework and evidence-based responses used to address issues such as: pandemic racism, coronavirus capitalism, communications surrounding exposure and protection, pandemic leadership, and social messaging.

In addition to offering thought-provoking narratives, “The Pandemic Reader”   strives to serve as a blueprint for new teaching strategies as communities relearn how to connect and move forward.

Sandlin says the book is “an attempt to expose the cracks in systems that have become too wide to ignore."

"It’s important to provide context to understand how the multiple pandemics of 2020 — including COVID-19 and dismantling structural racism — exacerbated vast disparities that have existed and been cultivated for decades and even centuries,” she said. 

This book aims to provide a resource for courses on social justice and introduce critical perspectives for enlightening classroom discussions. After engaging with this material, the intended outcome is that COVID-era inequities are magnified, to inspire new perspectives and necessary change.

The book is available in e-book and paperback at  diopress.com/the-pandemic-reader .

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Impact of covid-19 on children’s social skills.

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School child wearing face mask during corona virus and flu outbreak.

When news of Covid-19 first started circulating, no one believed it would still be impacting our lives today. But as we draw nearer to the 2-year mark of when schools were first officially shut down and terms like “masking” and “social distancing” first entered our lexicon, it’s clear our new reality has been anything but fleeting.

With Covid-19 claiming over 750,000 lives in the United States thus far, there is no denying the public health impact this disease has had. But the loss of that many lives, combined with the economic stressors of Covid-19 and the isolation remaining safe has required, means a mental health epidemic has also quickly spread throughout the country.

And then there are the kids, many of whom have been deprived of regular social interactions and the opportunity to grow the skills typically acquired in the younger years.

Fears vs. Reality

When schools first began closing, many experts agreed doing so was necessary for public health and safety. But concerns about the impact on children’s social skills were still raised.

Now, enough time has passed that we’ve been able to see whether or not those concerns were warranted.

“I am seeing the impacts of the past 18 months of challenging schooling situations,” Kelly Smith, RN, an integrative behavioral health nurse and founder of Movement Matters said recently. “Many of the educators and parents I work with are looking for support with social skills for children.”

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Still, she said it’s hard to know whether that is because of school closures, disruptions to schedules, or just the collective trauma we’ve all been experiencing.

“The routines of families were disrupted, there was added stress in many homes, teachers and students were impacted by limited resources and long days in front of screens, not to mention the abundance of fear,” she explained. “All these things can and have likely contributed to the regulation and communication challenges that many children appear to be struggling with at this time.”

One way that has played out is in how children have adjusted to being back in the classroom now that schools have opened again. Child and adolescent psychologist Sophie Pierce said that while some kids have been eager to return, others have struggled with a significant amount of anxiety when it comes to going back to regular school settings.

“Some kids experienced increased separation anxiety as they had grown accustomed to being around their family more frequently,” she explained. “Other children felt overstimulated and socially anxious upon re-entering their school setting.”

It’s primarily the teachers who are having to help kids work through those anxieties and find their footing again. Thankfully, K-5 music specialist Zach VanderGraaff, owner of Dynamic Music Room , said the impacts haven’t been as severe as initially feared. At least, not for the majority of students.

“We see the most impact in the skills of students who experience trauma at home and the kindergarten/first grade students,” he explained.

For kids with trauma experiences, he said the biggest problem is that they’ve been cut off from resources they previously relied on for helping to cope and seeking protection over the last year and a half.

“Trauma rewires their brains and constantly puts them in fight-or-flight modes,” he said. “While these students are thrilled to be back and talking with friends, it takes very little to send them spiraling and displaying disruptive behaviors.”

With younger students, those primarily in kindergarten and first grade, he said, “The amount of formative social experiences that normally occur in pre-school or Kindergarten weren't there, so we're seeing a lot of the same unaware and self-centered behaviors we see with brand-new students.”

While this is always present to some degree, especially in kindergarten, he said it is apparent on a much larger scale now, with teachers seeing a lot more of:

• Students wanting all of the teacher’s attention
• Students picking on their peers to get adult attention
• Tantrums when students don't get what they want
• Students taking toys or other objects from other students

In other words: many of these younger kids have missed out on the social experiences that previously might have better prepared them for the school setting.

Kids Are Resilient

One of the other concerns some parents have had is how things like masking and social distancing, even in school settings, might be impacting kids. But the experts say the kids are doing just fine when it comes to masking, at least.

“For the most part, children are resilient and have adapted to their ‘new normal’ of wearing masks daily,” Pierce said.

VanderGraaff agreed, even explaining how masks may be helping kids improve their social skills, rather than being a detriment to them.

“With masks, I don't see students treating each other any differently, and I'm even seeing students get more expressive with their eyes and body language to show how they feel through non-verbal communication,” he said. “One thing students are doing is talking out more because the non-verbal expressions aren't as effective as before.”

Unfortunately, he said he’s noticed the opposite when it comes to social distancing and cohorting (separating kids into groups and keeping them with those groups at all times).

“When you have the same kids in the same small group all the time, students don't see the different personalities they would normally experience when they get to circulate and work with many different types of people in their classroom,” he explained. “I notice the students feel more at a loss of how to handle a wider variety of personalities and are forming stronger cliques with the others in their group.”

For a lot of kids, he said the lack of practice they’ve had in interacting with these different personalities and problem solving together means that minor disagreements tend to escalate a lot quicker now. Most kids, he explained, know the right responses for any given situation, but haven’t had the opportunity to practice those responses in a while.

How Parents Can Help

If you’re a parent, it’s possible you’ve noticed some of these impacts yourself. And you may be worried about how you can help your child(ren) practice or develop the skills they haven’t had as much opportunity to use over the last year and a half.

Pierce said the best thing you can do is continue to help your kids foster and grow those skills at home.

“[Parents] can model social skills in their daily interactions with their child, perhaps by engaging in regular quality time with their child and discussing their days,” she suggested. “Parents can also encourage the development of social skills by praising their children when they exhibit positive social skills, such as initiating conversations or showing interest in others.”

Smith agreed, saying that she encourages parents to engage in a lot of interaction and play with their kids to help them develop their social skills.

“When you read together, ask questions about what characters might be thinking or feeling,” she suggested. “Discuss your predictions about what may happen, or what your child might do in a similar situation. Play games together that encourage critical thinking, planning, or cooperation. Put a new spin on old favorites such as playing Connect 4, but in order to ‘win’ you must win two games and lose two games. This can help children develop some adaptive capacity skills and learn that failure isn’t always a bad thing.”

She further suggested finding ways to engage in mindfulness and relaxation together as a family. This can be especially important, she said, because a lot of kids are probably dealing with anxiety right now and could use some help processing that.

“Being aware that anxiety can often show up as anger, avoidance, or even physical symptoms (such as a stomachache or need to use the bathroom) is the first step to supporting your child,” Smith explained. “Identifying the emotions they feel, then relating that emotion to a physical sensation can help your child be more comfortable with emotions and improve regulation.”

It’s important to remember we have all been through a lot over the last year. But children really are resilient, and Pierce said that with patience, modeling, and support, most will get back to where they would have been just fine.

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Student Opinion

How Did the Covid-19 Pandemic Affect You, Your Family and Your Community?

This week is the fourth anniversary of the pandemic. What are your most lasting memories? How did it reshape your life — and the world?

By Jeremy Engle

It has been four years since the World Health Organization declared Covid-19 a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. The New York Times writes of the anniversary:

Four years ago today, society began to shut down. Shortly after noon Eastern on March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared Covid — or “the coronavirus,” then the more popular term — to be a global pandemic. Stocks plummeted in the afternoon. In the span of a single hour that night, President Donald Trump delivered an Oval Office address about Covid, Tom Hanks posted on Instagram that he had the virus and the N.B.A. announced it had canceled the rest of its season. It was a Wednesday, and thousands of schools would shut by the end of the week. Workplaces closed, too. People washed their hands frequently and touched elbows instead of shaking hands (although the C.D.C. continued to discourage widespread mask wearing for several more weeks). The worst pandemic in a century had begun.

For some people, the earliest days of the pandemic may feel like a lifetime ago; for others, it may feel like just yesterday. But for all of us Covid has indelibly changed our lives and the world. What do you remember about the earliest days of the pandemic? When did it first hit home for you? How did it affect you, your family and your community? What lessons did you learn about yourself and the world?

In “ Four Years On, Covid Has Reshaped Life for Many Americans ,” Julie Bosman writes that while the threat of severe illness and death has faded for many people, the pandemic’s effects still linger:

Jessie Thompson, a 36-year-old mother of two in Chicago, is reminded of the Covid-19 pandemic every day. Sometimes it happens when she picks up her children from day care and then lets them romp around at a neighborhood park on the way home. Other times, it’s when she gets out the shower at 7 a.m. after a weekday workout. “I always think: In my past life, I’d have to be on the train in 15 minutes,” said Ms. Thompson, a manager at United Airlines. A hybrid work schedule has replaced her daily commute to the company headquarters in downtown Chicago, giving Ms. Thompson more time with her children and a deeper connection to her neighbors. “The pandemic is such a negative memory,” she said. “But I have this bright spot of goodness from it.” For much of the United States, the pandemic is now firmly in the past, four years to the day that the Trump administration declared a national emergency as the virus spread uncontrollably. But for many Americans, the pandemic’s effects are still a prominent part of their daily lives. In interviews, some people said that the changes are subtle but unmistakable: Their world feels a little smaller, with less socializing and fewer crowds. Parents who began to home-school their children never stopped. Many people are continuing to mourn relatives and spouses who died of Covid or of complications from the coronavirus. The World Health Organization dropped its global health emergency designation in May 2023, but millions of people who survived the virus are suffering from long Covid, a mysterious and frequently debilitating condition that causes fatigue, muscle pain and cognitive decline . One common sentiment has emerged. The changes brought on by the pandemic now feel lasting, a shift that may have permanently reshaped American life.

As part of our coverage of the pandemic’s anniversary, The Times asked readers how Covid has changed their attitudes toward life. Here is what they said:

“I’m a much more grateful person. Life is precious, and I see the beauty in all the little miracles that happen all around me. I’m a humbled human being now. I have more empathy and compassion towards everyone.” — Gil Gallegos, 59, Las Vegas, N.M. “The pandemic has completely changed my approach to educating my child. My spouse and I had never seriously considered home-schooling until March 2020. Now, we wouldn’t have it any other way.” — Kim Harper, 47, Clinton, Md. “I had contamination O.C.D. before the pandemic began. The last four years have been a steady string of my worst fears coming true. I never feel safe anymore. I know very well now that my body can betray me at any time.” — Adelia Brown, 23, Madison, Wis. “I don’t take for granted the pleasure of being around people. Going to a show, a road trip, a restaurant, people watching at the opera. I love it.” — Philip Gunnels, 66, Sugar Land, Texas “My remaining years are limited. On the one hand, I feel cheated out of many experiences I was looking forward to; on the other hand, I do not want to live my remaining years with long Covid. It’s hard.” — Sandra Wulach, 77, Edison, N.J.

Students, read one or both of the articles and then tell us:

How did the Covid-19 pandemic affect you, your family and your community? How did it reshape your life and the world? What are your most lasting memories of this difficult period? What do you want to remember most? What do you want to forget?

How did you change during this time? What did you learn about yourself and about life? What do you wish you knew then that you know now?

Ms. Bosman writes that some of the people she interviewed revealed that four years after the global pandemic began, “Their world feels a little smaller, with less socializing and fewer crowds.” However, Gil Gallegos told The Times: “I’m a much more grateful person. Life is precious, and I see the beauty in all the little miracles that happen all around me. I’m a humbled human being now. I have more empathy and compassion towards everyone.” Which of the experiences shared in the two articles reminded you the most of your own during and after the pandemic and why? How did Covid change your overall outlook on life?

“The last normal day of school.” “The nursing home shut its doors.” “The bride wore Lululemon.” These are just a few quotes from “ When the Pandemic Hit Home ,” an article in which The Times asked readers to share their memories of the world shutting down. Read the article and then tell us about a time when the pandemic hit home for you.

In the last four years, scientists have unraveled some of the biggest mysteries about Covid. In another article , The Times explores many remaining questions about the coronavirus: Are superdodgers real? Is Covid seasonal? And what’s behind its strangest symptoms? Read the article and then tell us what questions you still have about the virus and its effects.

How do you think history books will tell the story of the pandemic? If you were to put together a time capsule of artifacts from this era to show people 100 years from now, what would you include and why? What will you tell your grandchildren about what it was like to live during this time?

Students 13 and older in the United States and Britain, and 16 and older elsewhere, are invited to comment. All comments are moderated by the Learning Network staff, but please keep in mind that once your comment is accepted, it will be made public and may appear in print.

Find more Student Opinion questions here. Teachers, check out this guide to learn how you can incorporate these prompts into your classroom.

Jeremy Engle joined The Learning Network as a staff editor in 2018 after spending more than 20 years as a classroom humanities and documentary-making teacher, professional developer and curriculum designer working with students and teachers across the country. More about Jeremy Engle

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Impact of COVID-19 on the social, economic, environmental and energy domains: Lessons learnt from a global pandemic

a School of Information Systems and Modelling, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia

I.M. Rizwanul Fattah

Md asraful alam.

b School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China

A.B.M. Saiful Islam

c Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, College of Engineering, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31451, Saudi Arabia

Hwai Chyuan Ong

S.m. ashrafur rahman.

d Biofuel Engine Research Facility, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia

e Tarbiat Modares University, P.O.Box: 14115-111, Tehran, Iran

f Science and Math Program, Asian University for Women, Chattogram 4000, Bangladesh

Md. Alhaz Uddin

g Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia

T.M.I. Mahlia

COVID-19 has heightened human suffering, undermined the economy, turned the lives of billions of people around the globe upside down, and significantly affected the health, economic, environmental and social domains. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the ecological domain, the energy sector, society and the economy and investigate the global preventive measures taken to reduce the transmission of COVID-19. This analysis unpacks the key responses to COVID-19, the efficacy of current initiatives, and summarises the lessons learnt as an update on the information available to authorities, business and industry. This review found that a 72-hour delay in the collection and disposal of waste from infected households and quarantine facilities is crucial to controlling the spread of the virus. Broad sector by sector plans for socio-economic growth as well as a robust entrepreneurship-friendly economy is needed for the business to be sustainable at the peak of the pandemic. The socio-economic crisis has reshaped investment in energy and affected the energy sector significantly with most investment activity facing disruption due to mobility restrictions. Delays in energy projects are expected to create uncertainty in the years ahead. This report will benefit governments, leaders, energy firms and customers in addressing a pandemic-like situation in the future.

1. Introduction

The newly identified infectious coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was discovered in Wuhan and has spread rapidly since December 2019 within China and to other countries around the globe ( Zhou et al., 2020 ; Kabir et al., 2020 ). The source of SARS-CoV-2 is still unclear ( Gorbalenya et al., 2020 ). Fig. 1 demonstrates the initial timeline of the development of SARS-CoV-2 ( Yan et al., 2020 ). The COVID-19 pandemic has posed significant challenges to global safety in public health ( Wang et al., 2020 ). On 31 st January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO), due to growing fears about the rapid spread of coronavirus, announced a global epidemic and on 11 th March, the disease was recognised as a pandemic ( Chowdhury et al., 2021 ). COVID-19 clinical trials indicate that almost all patients admitted to hospital have trouble breathing and pneumonia-like symptoms ( Holshue et al., 2020 ). Clinical diagnosis has identified that COVID-19 (disease caused by SARS-CoV-2) patients have similar indications to other coronavirus affected patients, e.g. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) ( Wang and Su, 2020 ). The initial indication of a COVID-19 infection is coughing, fever, and short breath, and in the later stages, it can damage the kidney, cause pneumonia, and unexpected death ( Mofijur et al., 2020 ). The vulnerability of the elderly (>80 years of age) is high, with a fatality rate of ~22% of cases infected by COVID-19 ( Abdullah et al., 2020 ). The total number of confirmed COVID-19 cases has reached over 33 million as of 29 th September 2020, with more than 213 countries and regions affected by the pandemic ( Worldometer, 2020 ). Over 1,003,569 people have already passed away ( Worldometer, 2020 ) due to COVID-19. Most countries are currently trying to combat the virus spread by screening for COVID-19 in large numbers and maintaining social distancing policies with an emphasis on the health of human beings.

The initial stage development timeline for COVID-19 ( Yan et al., 2020 ).

Fig. 2 shows infections and replication cycle of the coronavirus. In extreme cases, the lungs are the most severely damaged organ of a SARS-CoV-2 infected person (host). The alveoli are porous cup-formed small cavities located in the structure of the lungs where the gas exchange of the breathing process take place. The most common cells on the alveoli are the type II cells.

Infections and replication cycle of the coronavirus ( Acter et al., 2020 ).

It has been reported that travel restrictions play a significant role in controlling the initial spread of COVID-19 ( Chinazzi et al., 2020 ; Aldila et al., 2020 ; Beck and Hensher, 2020 ; Bruinen de Bruin et al., 2020 ; de Haas et al., 2020 ). It has been reported that staying at home is most useful in controlling both the initial and last phase of infectious diseases ( de Haas et al., 2020 ; Cohen, 2020 , Pirouz et al., 2020 ). However, since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantines, entry bans, as well as other limitations have been implemented for citizens in or recent travellers to several countries in the most affected areas ( Sohrabi et al., 2020 ). Also, most of the industries were shutdown to lower mobility. A potential benefit of these measures is the reduction of pollution by the industrial and transportation sector, improving urban sustainability ( Jiang et al., 2021 ). Fig. 3 shows the global responses to lower the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak. There have been negative economic and social implications due to restrictions and decreased travel readiness worldwide ( Leal Filho et al., 2020 ). A fall in the volume of business activity and international events and an increase in online measures could have a long-term impact. The status of global transport and air activity as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic is shown in Fig. 4 ( International Energy Agency (IEA), 2020 ). By March 2020, the average global road haulage activity in regions with lockdowns had declined to almost 50% of the 2019 standard. Air travel has almost completely stopped in certain regions with aviation activity decreasing by over 90% in some European countries. Air activity in China recovered slightly from a low in late February, with lockdown measures somewhat eased. Nevertheless, as lockdowns spread, by the end of Q1 2020, global aviation activity decreased by a staggering 60%.

Initial preventive measures to lower the COVID-19 outbreak ( Bruinen de Bruin et al., 2020 ).

Global transport and aviation activity in the first quarter of the year 2020 ( International Energy Agency (IEA), 2020 ).

The spread of COVID-19 continues to threaten the public health situation severely ( Chinazzi et al., 2020 ) and greatly affect the global economy. Labour displacement, business closures and stock crashes are just some of the impacts of this global lockdown during the pandemic. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the effect of COVID-19 will result in a worldwide economic decline in 2020 and a decline in the economic growth to 3% ( International Monetary Fund (IMF) ). COVID-19 has a detrimental impact on economic growth due to two primary factors. In the beginning, the exponential growth of the global epidemic directly contributed to considerable confusion about instability in the financial and capital markets. Secondly, countries have strictly regulated human movement and transport to monitor the growth of the epidemic and significantly reduced economic activity, putting pressure on both consumer and productive economic activity.

Since the 1970s, the link between economic growth and pollution has been an important global concern. The assessment of energy and financial efficiency is usually connected to environmental pollution research. Green practices at a national level, the inclusion of renewable energy, regulatory pressure and the sustainable use of natural resources are associated with environmental sustainability ( Khan et al., 2020 ). One study has shown that environmental pollution increases with economic growth and vice versa ( Cai et al., 2020 ). The strict control over movement and business activity due to COVID-19 has led to an economic downturn, which is in turn, expected to reduce environmental pollution. This paper systematically assesses how the novel coronavirus has had a global effect on society, the energy sector and the environment. This study presents data compiled from the literature, news sources and reports (from February 2020 to July 2020) on the management steps implemented across the globe to control and reduce the impact of COVID-19. The study will offer guidelines for nations to assess the overall impact of COVID-19 in their countries.

2. Impact of COVID-19 on the environmental domain

2.1. waste generation.

The generation of different types of waste indirectly creates a number of environmental concerns ( Schanes et al., 2018 ). The home isolation and pop-up confinement services in countries that have experienced major impacts of COVID-19 are standard practise, as hospitals are given priority to the most serious cases. In some countries, hotels are being used to isolate travellers for at least two weeks on entry. In several countries, such quarantine measures have resulted in consumers increasing their domestic online shopping activity that has increased domestic waste. In addition, food bought online is packaged, so inorganic waste has also increased. Medical waste has also increased. For instance, Wuhan hospitals produced an average of 240 metric tonnes of medical waste during the outbreak compared to their previous average of fewer than 50 tonnes ( Zambrano-Monserrate et al., 2020 ). This unusual situation poses new and major obstacles in the implementation of waste collection services, thus creating a new challenge for waste collection and recycling groups. With the global adaptation to exponential behavioural and social shifts in the face of COVID-19 challenges, municipal services such as waste collection and management need to alter their operations to play an important role in reducing the spread of infectious diseases.

2.1.1. Lifespan of COVID-19 on different waste media

SARS-CoV-2′s transmission activity has major repercussions for waste services. SARS-CoV-2 attacks host cells with ACE2 proteins directly. ACE2 is a cell membrane-associated enzyme in the lungs, heart and kidneys. When all the resources in the host cell are infected and depleted, the viruses leave the cell in the so-called shedding cycle ( Nghiem et al., 2020 ). Clinical and virological evidence suggests that the elimination of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is most relevant early on, right before and within a couple of days of the onset of the illness ( AEMO, 2020 ). Fomites are known as major vectors for the replication of other infectious viruses during the outbreak ( Park et al., 2015 ). Evidence from SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses show that they remain effective for up to a few days in the atmosphere and on a variety of surfaces ( Fig. 5 ). The survival time of SARS-CoV-2 on hard and plastic surfaces is up to three days indicating that waste materials from COVID-19 patients may contain coronavirus and be a source of infection spread ( Chin et al., 2020 ). During the early stages of this epidemic, updated waste disposal methods to tackle COVID-19 were not implemented on the broader community. The concept of clinical waste essentially also applies to waste from contaminated homes and quarantine facilities. Throughout this pandemic, huge volumes of domestic and hospital waste, particularly plastic waste, has been generated. This has already impeded current efforts to reduce plastic waste and decrease its disposal in the environment. More effort should be made to find alternatives to heavily used plastics.

The lifespan of SARS-CoV-2 on different media ( Chin et al., 2020 ; van Doremalen et al.; 2020 ; Ye et al., 2016 )

2.1.2. Waste recycling service

COVID-19 has already had significant effects on waste recycling. Initially, as the outbreak spread and lockdowns were implemented in several countries, both public authorities and municipal waste management officials had to adjust to the situation quickly. Waste disposal has also been a major environmental problem for all technologically advanced nations, as no clear information was available about the retention time of SARS-CoV-2 ( Liu et al., 2020 ). Recycling is a growing and efficient means of pollution control, saving energy and conserving natural resources ( Ma et al., 2019 ). Recycling projects in various cities have been put on hold due to the pandemic, with officials worried about the possibility of COVID-19 spreading to recycling centres. Waste management has been limited in affected European countries. For example, Italy prohibited the sorting of waste by infected citizens. Extensive waste management during the pandemic is incredibly difficult because of the scattered nature of the cases and the individuals affected. The value of implementing best management practises for waste handling and hygiene to minimise employee exposure to potentially hazardous waste, should be highlighted at this time. Considering the possible role of the environment in the spread of SARS-CoV-2 ( Qu et al., 2020 ), the processing of both household and quarantine facility waste is a crucial point of control. Association of Cities and Regions for sustainable Resource management (ACR+) has reported on the provision of separate collection services to COVID-19 contaminated households and quarantine facilities to protect frontline waste workers in Europe, as shown in Fig. 6 . ACR+ also suggests a 72-hour delay in waste disposal (the possible lifespan of COVID-19 in the environment) ( Nghiem et al., 2020 ). Moreover, the collected waste should be immediately transported to waste incinerators or sites without segregation.

Recommended waste management during COVID-19 ( ACR+ 2020 ).

2.2. NO 2 emissions

Without the global pandemic, we had naively anticipated that in 2020 global emissions would rise by around 1% on a five-year basis. Instead, the sharp decline in economic activity in response to the current crisis will most probably lead to a modest drop in global greenhouse emissions. The European Space Agency (ESA), with its head office in Paris, France, is an intergovernmental body made up of 22 European countries committed to exploring the international space. To monitor air pollution in the atmosphere, the ESA uses the Copernicus Sentinel-5P Satellite. In addition to the compound contents measurement, the Copernicus Sentinel-5P troposphere monitor (TROPOMI) and other specified precision equipment measure ozone content, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and methane. Table 1 shows NO 2 emissions data acquisition by ESA using Sentinel-5P across different regions of Europe ( Financial Times, 2020 ).

NO 2 emissions data acquisition by ESA using Sentinel-5P across different regions of Europe ( Financial Times, 2020 ).

Burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, gas and other fuels, is the source of atmospheric nitrogen dioxide ( Munawer, 2018 ). The bulk of the NO 2 in cities, however, comes from emissions from motor vehicles (approximately 80%). Other NO 2 sources include petroleum and metal refining, coal-fired electricity, other manufacturing and food processing industries. Some NO 2 is naturally produced by lightning in the atmosphere and from the soil, water, and plants, which, taken together, constitutes not even 1% of the total NO 2 found in the air of our localities. Due to pollution variations as well as changes in weather conditions, the levels of the NO 2 in our atmosphere differ widely every day. Anthropogenic pollution is estimated to contain around 53 million tonnes of NO 2 annually. Nitrogen dioxide, together with nitrogen oxide (NO), are considered the major components of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) ( M Palash et al., 2013 ; Fattah et al., 2013 ). NO, and NO 2 are susceptible to other chemicals and form acid rain that is toxic to the environment ( Mofijur et al., 2013 ; Ashraful et al., 2014 ), WHO lists NO 2 as one of the six typical air contaminants in the atmosphere. For this reason, the amount of NO 2 in the atmosphere is used as a precise measure for determining whether the COVID-19 outbreak affects environmental pollution.

NO 2 is an irritating reddish-brown gas with an unpleasant smell, and when cooled or compressed, it becomes a yellowish-brown liquid ( Wang and Su, 2020 ). NO 2 inflames the lung linings and can decrease lung infection immunity. High levels of NO 2 in the air we breathe can corrode our body's lung tissues . Nitrogen dioxide is a problematic air pollutant because it leads to brown photochemical smog formation, which can have significant impacts on human health ( Huang et al., 2020 ). Brief exposure to high concentrations of NO 2 can lead to respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, bronchitis, flu, etc., and aggravate respiratory illnesses such as asthma. Increased NO 2 levels can have major effects on individuals with asthma, sometimes leading to frequent and intense attacks ( Munawer, 2018 ). Asthmatic children and older individuals with cardiac illness are most vulnerable in this regard. However, its main drawback is that it produces two of the most harmful air pollutants, ozone and airborne particles. Ozone gas affects our lungs and the crops we eat.

2.2.1. NO₂ emissions across different countries

According to the ESA ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ), average levels of NO 2 declined by 40% between 13 th March 2020 to 13 th April 2020. The reduction was 55% compared to the same period in 2019. Fig. 7 compares the 2019-2020 NO 2 concentration ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ). The displayed satellite image was captured with the TROPOMI by ESA satellite Sentinel-5P. The percentage reductions in average NO 2 emissions in European countries during the COVID-19 outbreak from 1 st April to 30 th April 2020 can be seen in Fig. 8 ( Myllyvirta, 2020 ). Portugal, Spain, Norway, Croatia, France, Italy, and Finland are the countries that experienced the largest decrease in NO 2 levels, with 58%, 48%, 47%, 43% and 41%, respectively.

Comparison of the NO 2 concentration between 2019 and 2020 in Europe ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ).

Changes in average NO 2 emission in different countries ( Myllyvirta, 2020 ).

The average 10-day animation of NO 2 emissions throughout Europe (from 1 st January to 11 th March 2020), demonstrated the environmental impact of Italy's economic downturn, see Fig. 9 ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ). In the recent four weeks (Last week of February 2020 to the third week of March 2020) the average concentration of NO 2 in Milan, Italy, has been at least 24% less than the previous four weeks. In the week of 16 – 22 March, the average concentration was 21% lower than in 2019 for the same week. Over the last four weeks of January 2020, NO 2 emissions in Bergamo city has been gradually declining. During the week of 16–22 March, the average concentration was 47% less than in 2019. In Rome, NO 2 rates were 26–35% lower than average in the last four weeks (third week of January 2020 to the third week of February 2020) than they were during the same week of 2019 ( Atmosphere Monitoring Service, 2020 ).

Changes of NO 2 emission (a) over entire Italy (b) capital city (c) other cities ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ; Atmosphere Monitoring Service, 2020 ).

Fig. 10 shows a comparison of NO 2 volumes in Spain in March 2019 and 2020. As per ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ), Spain's NO 2 pollutants decreased by up to 20–30% due to lockdown, particularly across big cities like Madrid, Barcelona, and Seville. ESA Sentinel-5P captured the satellite image using TROPOMI. Satellite images of the 10 days between 14 th and 25 th March 2020 show that NO 2 tropospheric concentration in the areas of Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, and Murcia ranges from 0–90 mg/m 3 . The NO 2 tropospheric concentration for Seville is almost 0 mg/m 3 for the same time. For March 2019, the average NO 2 tropospheric concentration for the Madrid area was between 90 and 160 mg/m 3 . At the same time, the range of NO 2 tropospheric concentration for Barcelona, Valencia, and Seville area was between 90–140 mg/m 3 , 90-130 mg/m 3 , and 30–50 mg/m 3 , respectively.

Comparison between before and after lockdown NO 2 emissions in Spain ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ).

Fig. 11 shows the reduction in the amount of NO 2 emissions in France in March 2019 and 2020 ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ). In France, levels of NO 2 have been reduced by 20% to 30%. The ESA Sentinel-5P satellite image was captured with the TROPOMI. In Paris and other major cities, the emission levels of NO 2 considerably lowered due to lockdown. The three major areas of France where NO 2 tropospheric concentration was significant are Paris, Lyon, Marseille and their surroundings. Satellite images of the ten days between 14 th and 25 th March 2020 show that NO 2 tropospheric concentration of the Paris, Lyon, Marseille areas ranges 30–90 mg/m 3 , 20–40 mg/m 3 and 40–80 mg/m 3 , respectively. For March 2019, the average NO 2 tropospheric concentration for the same areas was reported as 100–160 mg/m 3 , 30–60 mg/m 3, and 90–140 mg/m 3 , respectively.

Comparison of NO 2 emissions in France before and after lockdown ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ).

Various industries across the UK have been affected by COVID-19, which has influenced air contamination. As shown in Fig. 12 , there were notable drops in the country's NO 2 emissions on the first day of quarantine ( Khoo, 2020 ). Edinburgh showed the most significant reduction. The average NO 2 emissions on 26 th March 2020, were 28 μg/m 3 while on the same day of 2019, this was 74 μg/m 3 ( Khoo, 2020 ). The second biggest reduction was observed in London Westminster where emissions reduced from 58 µg/m 3 to 30 µg/m 3 . Not all cities have seen such a significant decrease, with daily air pollution reducing by 7 μg/m 3 compared to the previous year in Manchester Piccadilly, for example ( Statista, 2020 ).

(a) Changes in NO 2 emissions in the UK during lockdown ( European Space Agency (ESA), 2020 ); (b) comparison of NO 2 emissions in 2019 and 2020 ( Khoo, 2020 ).

2.3. PM emission

The term particulate matter, referred to as PM, is used to identify tiny airborne particles. PM forms in the atmosphere when pollutants chemically react with each other. Particles include pollution, dirt, soot, smoke, and droplets. Pollutants emitted from vehicles, factories, building sites, tilled areas, unpaved roads and the burning of fossil fuels also contribute to PM in the air ( Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020 ). Grilling food (by burning leaves or gas grills), smoking cigarettes, and burning wood on a fireplace or stove also contribute to PM. The aerodynamic diameter is considered a simple way to describe PM's particle size as these particles occur in various shapes and densities. Particulates are usually divided into two categories, namely, PM 10 that are inhalable particles with a diameter of 10 μm or less and PM 2.5 which are fine inhalable particle with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less. PM 2.5 exposure causes relatively severe health problems such as non-fatal heart attacks, heartbeat irregularity, increased asthma, reduced lung function, heightened respiratory symptoms, and premature death ( Weitekamp et al., 2020 ).

PM 2.5 also poses a threat to the environment, including lower visibility (haze) in many parts of the globe. Particulates can be transported long distances then settle on the ground or in water sources. In these contexts and as a function of the chemical composition, PM 2.5 may cause acidity in lakes and stream water, alter the nutrient balance in coastal waters and basins, deplete soil nutrients and damage crops on farms, affect the biodiversity in the ecosystem, and contribute to acid rain. This settling of PM, together with acid rain, can also stain and destroy stones and other materials such as statues and monuments, which include valuable cultural artefacts ( Awad et al., 2020 ).

2.3.1. PM emission in different countries

Due to the COVID-19 outbreak, PM emission in most countries has been reduced ( Chatterjee et al., 2020 ; Ghahremanloo et al., 2021 ; Gualtieri et al., 2020 ; Sharifi and Khavarian-Garmsir, 2020 ; Srivastava, 2020 ). Fig. 13 shows the impact of COVID19 on PM emission in a number of some countries around the world ( Myllyvirta, 2020 ). The largest reductions in PM pollution took place in Portugal, with 55%, followed by Norway, Sweden, and Poland with reductions of 32%, 30%, and 28%, respectively. Spain, Poland, and Finland recorded PM emission reductions of 19%, 17% and 16%, respectively. Both Romania and Croatia recorded no changes in PM level, with Switzerland and Hungary recording about a 3% increase in PM emission.

Reduction of PM emission in different countries ( Myllyvirta, 2020 ).

PM emissions have been significantly reduced during the epidemic in most regions of Italy. Fig. 14 illustrates the changes in COVID-19 containment emissions before and after a lockdown in major cities in Italy. According to a recent study by Sicard et al. ( Sicard et al., 2020 ), lockdown interventions have had a greater effect on PM emission. They found that confinement measures reduce PM 10 emissions in all major cities by “around 30% to 53%” and “around 35% to 56%”.

Comparison of PM emission in Italy (a) PM 2.5 emission (b) Changes of PM 2.5 emission (c) PM 10 emission (d) Changes of PM 10 emission ( Sicard et al., 2020 ).

2.4. Noise emission

Noise is characterised as an undesirable sound that may be produced from different activities, e.g. transit by engine vehicles and high volume music. Noise can cause health problems and alter the natural condition of ecosystems. It is among the most significant sources of disruption in people and the environment ( Zambrano-Monserrate and Ruano, 2019 ). The European Environment Agency (EEA) states that traffic noise is a serious environmental problem that negatively affects the health and security of millions of citizens in Europe. The consequences of long-term exposure to noise include sleep disorders, adverse effects on the heart and metabolic systems, and cognitive impairment in children. The EEA estimates that noise pollution contributes to 48,000 new cases of heart disease and 12,000 early deaths per year. They also reported chronic high irritation for 22 million people and a chronic high level of sleep disorder for 6.5 million people ( Lillywhite, 2020 ).

Most governments have imposed quarantine measures that require people to spend much more time at home. This has considerably reduced the use of private and public transport. Commercial activities have almost completely stopped. In most cities in the world, these changes have caused a significant decline in noise levels. This was followed by a significant decline in pollution from contaminants and greenhouse gas emissions. Noise pollution from sources like road, rail or air transport has been linked to economic activity. Consequently, we anticipate that the levels of transport noise will decrease significantly due to the decreased demand for mobility in the short term ( Ro, 2020 ).

For example, it was obvious that environmental noise in Italy was reduced after 8 th March 2020 (the lockdown start date) due to a halt in commercial and recreational activities. A seismograph facility in Lombardy city in Italy that was severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic indicated how the quarantine measures reduce both traffic and noise emissions. The comparison of the 24-hour seismic noise data before and after the lockdown period indicates a considerable drop in environmental noise in Italy ( Bressan, 2020 ).

3. Impact of COVID-19 on the socio-economic domain

COVID-19 has created a global health crisis where countless people are dying, human suffering is spreading, and people's lives are being upended ( Nicola et al., 2020 ). It is not only just a health crisis but also a social and economic crisis, both of which are fundamental to sustainable development ( Pirouz et al., 2020 ). On 11 th March 2020, when WHO declared a global pandemic, 118,000 reported cases spanning 114 countries with over 4,000 fatalities had been reported. It took 67 days from the first reported case to reach 100,000 cases, 11 days for the second 100,000, and just four days for the third ( United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2020 ). This has overwhelmed the health systems of even the richest countries with doctors being forced to make the painful decision of who lives and who dies. The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed the world into uncertainty and countries do not have a clear exit strategy in the absence of a vaccine. This pandemic has affected all segments of society. However, it is particularly damaging to vulnerable social groups, including people living in poverty, older persons, persons with disabilities, youths, indigenous people and ethnic minorities. People with no home or shelter such as refugees, migrants, or displaced persons will suffer disproportionately, both during the pandemic and in its aftermath. This might occur in multiple ways, such as experiencing limited movement, fewer employment opportunities, increased xenophobia, etc. The social crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic may also increase inequality, discrimination and medium and long-term unemployment if not properly addressed by appropriate policies.

The protection measures taken to save lives are severely affecting economies all over the world. As discussed previously, the key protection measure adopted universally is the lockdown, which has forced people to work from home wherever possible. Workplace closures have disrupted supply chains and lowered productivity. In many instances, governments have closed borders to contain the spread. Other measures such as travel bans and the prohibition of sporting events and other mass gatherings are also in place. In addition, measures such as discouraging the use of public transport and public spaces, for example, restaurants, shopping centres and public attractions are also in place in many parts of the world. The situation is particularly dire in hospitality-related sectors and the global travel industry, including airlines, cruise companies, casinos and hotels which are facing a reduction in business activity of more than 90% ( Fernandes, 2020 ). The businesses that rely on social interactions like entertainment and tourism are suffering severely, and millions of people have lost their jobs. Layoffs, declines in personal income, and heightened uncertainty have made people spend less, triggering further business closures and job losses ( Ghosh, 2020 ).

A key performance indicator of economic health is Gross Domestic Product (GDP), typically calculated on a quarterly or annual basis. IMF provides a GDP growth estimate per quarter based on global economic developments during the near and medium-term. According to its estimate, the global economy is projected to contract sharply by 3% in 2020, which is much worse than the 2008 global financial crisis ( International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2020 ). The growth forecast was marked down by 6% in the April 2020 World Economic Outlook (WEO) compared to that of the October 2019 WEO and January 2020 WEO. Most economies in the advanced economy group are expected to contract in 2020, including the US, Japan, the UK, Germany, France, Italy and Spain by 5.9%, 5.4%, 6.5%, 7.0%, 7.2%, 9.1%, and 8.0% respectively. Fig. 15 a shows the effect of COVID-19 on the GDP of different countries around the globe. On the other hand, economies of emerging market and developing economies, excluding China, are projected to contract by only 1.0% in 2020. The economic recovery in 2021 will depend on the gradual rolling back of containment efforts in the latter part of 2020 that will restore consumer and investor confidence. According to the April 2020 WEO, the level of GDP at the end of 2021 in both advanced and emerging market and developing economies is expected to remain below the pre-virus baseline (January 2020 WEO Update), as shown in Fig. 15 b.

(a) Quarterly World GDP. 2019:Q1 =100, dashed line indicates estimates from January 2020 WEO; (b) GDP fall due to lockdown in selected countries.

A particular example of a country hardest hit by COVID-19 is Italy. During the early days of March, the Italian government imposed quarantine orders in major cities that locked down more than seventeen million people ( Andrews, 2020 ). The mobility index data by Google for Italy shows there has been a significant reduction in mobility (and therefore economic activity) across various facets of life. The reported decline of mobility in retail and recreation, grocery and pharmacy, transit stations and workplaces were 35%, 11%, 45% and 34% respectively ( Rubino, 2020 ). The Italian economy suffered great financial damage from the pandemic. The tourism, and hospitality sectors were among those most severely affected by foreign countries prohibiting travel to and from Italy, and by the government's national lockdowns in early March ( Brunton, 2020 ). A March 2020 study in Italy showed that about 99% of the companies in the housing and utility sector said the epidemic had affected their industry. In addition, transport and storage was the second most affected sector. Around 83% of companies operating in this sector said that their activities had been affected by the coronavirus ( Statista, 2020 ) pandemic. In April 2020, Italian Minister Roberto Gualtieri estimated a 6% reduction in the GDP for the year 2020 ( Bertacche et al., 2020 ). The government of Italy stopped all unnecessary companies, industries and economic activities on 21 st March 2020. Therefore The Economist estimates a 7% fall in GDP in 2020 ( Horowitz, 2020 ). The Economist predicted that the Italian debt-to-GDP ratio would grow from 130% to 180% by the end of 2020 ( Brunton, 2020 ) and it is also assumed that Italy will have difficulty repaying its debt ( Bertacche et al., 2020 ).

4. Impact of COVID-19 on the energy domain

COVID-19 has not only impacted health, society and the economy but it has also had a strong impact on the energy sector ( Chakraborty and Maity, 2020 ; Abu-Rayash and Dincer, 2020 ). World energy demand fell by 3.8% in the first quarter (Q1) of 2020 compared with Q1 2019. In Q1 of 2020, the global coal market was heavily impacted by both weather conditions and the downturn in economic activity resulting in an almost 8% fall compared to Q1 2019. The fall was primarily in the electricity sector as a result of substantial declines in demand (-2.5%) and competitive advantages from predominantly low-cost natural gas. The market for global oil has plummeted by almost 5%. Travel bans, border closures, and changes in work routines significantly decreased the demand for the use of personal vehicles and air transport. Thus rising global economic activity slowed down the use of fuel for transportation ( Madurai Elavarasan et al., 2020 ). In Q1 2020, the output from nuclear energy plants decreased worldwide, especially in Europe and the US, as they adjusted for lower levels of demand. Demand for natural gas dropped significantly, by approximately 2% in Q1 2020, with the biggest declines in China, Europe, and the United States. In the Q1 2020, the need for renewable energy grew by around 1.5%, driven in recent years by the increasing output of new wind and solar plants. Renewable energy sources substantially increased in the electricity generation mix, with record hourly renewable energy shares in Belgium, Italy, Germany, Hungary, and East America. The share of renewable energy sources in the electricity generation mix has increased. Table 2 shows the effect of COVID-19 outbreak on the energy demand around the world.

Impact of COVID-19 on global energy sector ( AEMO, 2020 ; CIS Editorial, 2020 ; Eurelectric, 2020 ; Livemint, 2020 ; Renewable Energy World, 2020 ; S&P Global, 2020 ; Madurai Elavarasan et al., 2020 ).

Different areas have implemented lockdown of various duration. Therefore, regional energy demand depends on when lockdowns were introduced and how lockdowns influence demand in each country. In Korea and Japan, the average impact on demand is reduced to less than 10%, with lower restrictions. In China, where the first COVID-19 confinement measures were introduced, not all regions faced equally stringent constraints. Nevertheless, virus control initiatives have resulted in a decline of up to 15% in weekly energy demand across China. In Europe, moderate to complete lockdowns were more radical. On average, a 17% reduction in weekly demand was experienced during temporary confinement periods. India's complete lockdown has cut energy requirements by approximately 30%, which indicates yearly energy needs are lowered by 0.6% for each incremental lockdown week ( International Energy Agency (IEA) 2020 ).

The International Energy Agency (IEA) has predicted an annual average decline in oil production of 9% in 2020, reflecting a return to 2012 levels. Broadly, as electricity demand has decreased by about 5% throughout the year, coal production may fall by 8%, and the output of coal-fired electricity generation could fall by more than 10%. During the entire year, gas demand may fall far beyond Q1 2020 due to a downward trend in power and industrial applications. Nuclear energy demand will also decrease in response to reduced electricity demand. The demand for renewable energies should grow due to low production costs and the choice of access to many power systems. Khan et al. (2020) reported that international trade is significantly and positively dependent on renewable energy. In addition, sustainable growth can be facilitated through the consumption of renewable energy which improves the environment, enhances national image globally and opens up international trade opportunities with environmentally friendly countries ( Khan et al., 2021 ). As such, policies that promote renewables can result in economic prosperity, create a better environment as well as meet critical goals for sustainable development ( Khan et al., 2020 ).

5. Preventive measures to control COVID-19 outbreak

COVID-19 is a major crisis needing an international response. Governments will ensure reliable information is provided to assist the public in combating this pandemic. Community health and infection control measures are urgently needed to reduce the damage done by COVID-19 and minimise the overall spread of the virus. Self-defence techniques include robust overall personal hygiene, face washing, refraining from touching the eyes, nose or mouth, maintaining physical distance and avoiding travel. In addition, different countries have already taken preventive measures, including the implementation of social distancing, medicine, forestation and a worldwide ban on wildlife trade. A significant aim of the community health system is to avoid SARS-CoV-2 transmission by limiting large gatherings. COVID-19 is transmitted by direct communication from individual to individual. Therefore, the key preventive technique is to limit mass gatherings. Table 3 shows the impact of lockdown measures on the recovery rate of COVID-19 infections. The baseline data for this table is the median value, for the corresponding day of the week, during the 5-week period 3 rd January to 6 th February 2020.

Mobility index report of different countries ( Ghosh, 2020 ; Johns Hopkins University (JHU), 2020 ; Worldometer, 2020 ).

As of today, no COVID-19 vaccine is available. Worldwide scientists are racing against time to develop the COVID-19 vaccine, and WHO is now monitoring more than 140 vaccine candidates. As of 29 th September 2020, about 122 candidates have been pre-clinically checked, i.e. determining whether an immune response is caused when administering the vaccine to animals ( Biorender, 2020 ). About 45 candidates are in stage I where tests on a small number of people are conducted to decide whether it is effective ( Biorender, 2020 ). About 29 candidates are in Phase II where hundreds of people are tested to assess additional health issues and doses ( Biorender, 2020 ). Only 14 candidates are currently in Phase III, where thousands of participants are taking a vaccine to assess any final safety concerns, especially with regard to side effects ( Biorender, 2020 ). 3 candidates are in Phase IV, where long-term effects of the vaccines on a larger population is observed ( Biorender, 2020 ). The first generation of COVID-19 vaccines is expected to gain approval by the end of 2020 or in early 2021 ( Peiris and Leung, 2020 ). It is anticipated that these vaccines will provide immunity to the population. These vaccines can also reduce the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and lead to a resumption of a pre-COVID-19 normal. Table 4 shows the list of vaccines that have been passed in the pre-clinical stage. In addition, according to the COVID-19 vaccine and therapeutics tracker, there are 398 therapeutic drugs in development. Of these, 83 are in the pre-clinical phase, 100 in Phase I, 224 in Phase II, 119 in Phase III and 46 in Phase IV ( Biorender, 2020 ).

List of vaccines that have passed the pre-clinical stage ( Biorender, 2020 ).

In addition to the above, forestation and a worldwide ban on wildlife trade can also play a significant role in reducing the spread of different viruses. More than 30% of the ground area is covered with forests. The imminent increase in population contributes to deforestation in agriculture or grazing for food, industries and property. The rise in ambient temperature, sea levels and extreme weather events affects not only the land and environment but also public health ( Ruscio et al., 2015 ; Arora and Mishra, 2020 ). Huge investment has been made into treatments, rehabilitation and medications to avoid the impact of this epidemic. However, it is important to focus on basic measures, e.g. forestation and wildlife protection. The COVID-19 infection was initially spread from the Seafood Market, Wuhan, China. Therefore, China temporarily banned wildlife markets in which animals are kept alive in small cages. It has been reported that 60% of transmittable diseases are animal-borne, 70% of which are estimated to have been borne by wild animals ( Chakraborty and Maity, 2020 ). Deforestation is also related to various kinds of diseases caused by birds, bats, etc. ( Afelt et al., 2018 ). For example, COVID-19 is a bat-borne disease that is transmitted to humans. Therefore, several scientists have advised various countries to ban wildlife trade indefinitely so that humans can be protected from new viruses and global pandemics like COVID-19.

6. Conclusion

In this article, comprehensive analyses of energy, environmental pollution, and socio-economic impacts in the context of health emergency events and the global responses to mitigate the effects of these events have been provided. COVID-19 is a worldwide pandemic that puts a stop to economic activity and poses a severe risk to overall wellbeing. The global socio-economic impact of COVID-19 includes higher unemployment and poverty rates, lower oil prices, altered education sectors, changes in the nature of work, lower GDPs and heightened risks to health care workers. Thus, social preparedness, as a collaboration between leaders, health care workers and researchers to foster meaningful partnerships and devise strategies to achieve socio-economic prosperity, is required to tackle future pandemic-like situations. The impact on the energy sector includes increased residential energy demand due to a reduction in mobility and a change in the nature of work. Lockdowns across the globe have restricted movement and have placed people primarily at home, which has, in turn, decreased industrial and commercial energy demand as well as waste generation. This reduction in demand has resulted in substantial decreases in NO 2, PM, and environmental noise emissions and as a consequence, a significant reduction in environmental pollution. Sustainable urban management that takes into account the positive benefits of ecological balance is vital to the decrease of viral infections and other diseases. Policies that promote sustainable development, ensuring cities can enforce recommended measures like social distancing and self-isolation will bring an overall benefit very quickly. The first generation of COVID-19 vaccines is expected to gain approval by the end of 2020 or in early 2021, which will provide immunity to the population. It is necessary to establish preventive epidemiological models to detect the occurrence of viruses like COVID-19 in advance. In addition, governments, policymakers, and stakeholders around the world need to take necessary steps, such as ensuring healthcare services for all citizens, supporting those who are working in frontline services and suffering significant financial impacts, ensuring social distancing, and focussing on building a sustainable future. It is also recommended that more investment is required in research and development to overcome this pandemic and prevent any similar crisis in the future.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Editor: Dr. Syed Abdul Rehman Khan

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Second round of seed grants awarded to MIT scholars studying the impact and applications of generative AI

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Last summer, MIT President Sally Kornbluth and Provost Cynthia Barnhart issued a call for papers to “articulate effective roadmaps, policy recommendations, and calls for action across the broad domain of generative AI.” The response to the call far exceeded expectations with 75 proposals submitted. Of those, 27 proposals were selected for seed funding .

In light of this enthusiastic response, Kornbluth and Barnhart announced a second call for proposals this fall.

“The groundswell of interest and the caliber of the ideas overall made clear that a second round was in order,” they said in their email to MIT’s research community this fall. This second call for proposals resulted in 53 submissions.

Following the second call, the faculty committee from the first round considered the proposals and selected 16 proposals to receive exploratory funding. Co-authored by interdisciplinary teams of faculty and researchers affiliated with all five of the Institute’s schools and the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing, the proposals offer insights and perspectives on the potential impact and applications of generative AI across a broad range of topics and disciplines.

Each selected research group will receive between $50,000 and $70,000 to create 10-page impact papers. Those papers will be shared widely via a publication venue managed and hosted by the MIT Press under the auspices of the MIT Open Publishing Services program.

As with the first round of papers, Thomas Tull, a member of the MIT School of Engineering Dean’s Advisory Council and a former innovation scholar at the School of Engineering, contributed funding to support the effort.

The selected papers are:

• “A Road-map for End-to-end Privacy and Verifiability in Generative AI,” led by Alex Pentland, Srini Devadas, Lalana Kagal, and Vinod Vaikuntanathan;
• “A Virtuous Cycle: Generative AI and Discovery in the Physical Sciences,” led by Philip Harris and Phiala Shanahan;
• “Artificial Cambrian Intelligence: Generating New Forms of Visual Intelligence,” led by Ramesh Raskar and Tomaso A. Poggio;
• “Artificial Fictions and the Value of AI-Generated Art,” led by Justin Khoo;
• “GenAI for Improving Human-to-human Interactions with a Focus on Negotiations,” led by Lawrence Susskind and Samuel Dinnar;
• “Generative AI as a New Applications Platform and Ecosystem,” led by Michael Cusumano;
• “Generative AI for Cities: A Civic Engagement Playbook,” led by Sarah Williams, Sara Beery, and Eden Medina;
• “Generative AI for Textile Engineering: Advanced Materials from Heritage Lace Craft,” led by Svetlana V. Boriskina;
• “Generative AI Impact for Biomedical Innovation and Drug Discovery,” led by Manolis Kellis, Brad Pentelute, and Marinka Zitnik;
• “Impact of Generative AI on the Creative Economy,” led by Ashia Wilson and Dylan Hadfield-Menell;
• “Redefining Virtuosity: The Role of Generative AI in Live Music Performances,” led by Joseph A. Paradiso and Eran Egozy;
• “Reflection-based Learning with Generative AI,” led by Stefanie Mueller;
• “Robust and Reliable Systems for Generative AI,” led by Shafi Goldwasser, Yael Kalai, and Vinod Vaikuntanathan;
• “Supporting the Aging Population with Generative AI,” led by Pattie Maes;
• “The Science of Language in the Era of Generative AI,” led by Danny Fox, Yoon Kim, and Roger Levy; and
• “Visual Artists, Technological Shock, and Generative AI,” led by Caroline Jones and Huma Gupta.

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