domestic violence in united states essay

Effects of COVID-19 Shutdowns on Domestic Violence in the U.S.

This chapter examines the impact of COVID-19 shutdowns on domestic violence (DV) in the United States. Despite widespread concerns that pandemic shutdowns could increase DV, initial studies found mixed evidence that varied across data sources and locations. We review the evolving literature on the effects of the pandemic and highlight results from studies that examine multiple measures of DV across a common set of large cities. These studies show that the conflicting early results are due to opposite effects of pandemic shutdowns on two measures of DV in police data: an increase in domestic violence 911 calls and a decrease in DV crime reports. In theory, this divergence can come from either higher DV reporting rates, possibly because of additional media attention to DV and greater third-party calling, or from lower policing intensity for DV crimes. Prior evidence from police data and other sources supports the conclusion that the increase in calls came from greater reporting, while the incidence of criminal DV decreased. Finally, we present new evidence drawing on police and hospitals records from across the state of California to show that DV crimes and hospital emergency department (ED) visits were both lower during pandemic shutdowns.

We acknowledge financial support from the IZA COVID-19 Research Thrust and from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, through the NBER Gender in the Economy Study Group Research Grants on Women, Victimization, and COVID-19. We have no competing interests to disclose. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Domestic Violence Awareness

• Anna Chapman , M.D. ,
• Catherine Monk , Ph.D.

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Domestic or intimate partner violence is alarmingly prevalent, and, for victims, a major contributor to depression, anxiety, and other forms of mental illness. Psychological problems and psychiatric syndromes often are the antecedents of domestic violence for the perpetrator and also can be risk factors for becoming a victim. Remarkably, the two dominant mental health fields, psychiatry and clinical psychology—the ones charged with investigating and attending to the mind, brain, and behavior—are largely absent from domestic violence research and intervention.

More than one in three women and at least one in four men have been the victim of rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner ( 1 ). However, women are far more likely than men to experience severe sexual and physical violence from a partner or to be killed by one ( 1 , 2 ). In the United States, intimate partner homicides make up between 40% and 50% of all murders of women ( 3 ). Domestic violence crosses geographic and socioeconomic stratification, although studies indicate that lower-income women in rural communities experience higher rates of violence and, specifically, sexual abuse ( 4 , 5 ). Victims suffer from dramatic rates of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, as well as substance abuse and suicidality ( 6 – 8 ). A recent study based on a representative U.S. sample of more than 25,000 adults indicated that new onsets of major mental health problems were more than twice as common among those exposed to domestic violence in the past year than among nonvictims ( 9 ). Millions of children—as many as 15 million, according to some estimates—witness domestic violence each year ( 10 ). For male children there is a 1,000% greater risk of reproducing this violence in their own spousal relationships ( 11 ). A recent epidemiologic study found prior domestic violence victimization to be more strongly associated with domestic violence perpetration than any other factor ( 12 ).

Despite its prevalence in the general population, domestic violence is underrepresented in our consulting rooms in part because victims, and especially perpetrators, rarely voluntarily self-identify or seek treatment ( 8 , 13 , 14 ). Shame, guilt, and denial are obvious deterrents. These factors are often compounded by a sense of futility resulting from learned helplessness, and a profound unraveling of self-esteem ( 15 ). More practical considerations include fears for personal security, economic codependence, and the concerns that disclosure will trigger social services engagement, particularly child protection ( 8 ). Finally, disclosure represents a potential threat to the continuance of a romantic relationship, which, though abusive, involves emotional investment. Without experience handling domestic violence situations, clinicians can feel ill-prepared and deskilled, lacking knowledge about referral sources, emergent threats of bodily harm, and the accompanying legal and ethical obligations. This lack of presentation in clinical settings contributes to a “don’t ask” scenario ( 8 ). Since 1986, numerous medical institutions have advocated for domestic violence screening in routine medical care ( 16 , 17 ); in 2001, the American Psychiatric Association followed suit. That same year, the American Psychological Association’s Intimate Partner Abuse and Relationship Violence Working Group launched a curriculum on domestic violence but appears to have done little to foster relevant training in clinical interventions.

Domestic violence is an exceptionally challenging clinical situation. Those in domestic violence relationships are at risk for repeating this experience, and likely have abuse or exposure to it in their backgrounds ( 11 , 18 ), adding immense complexity to treatment. The work presents unique challenges, including safety planning and patients’ minimization of abuse, which may induce feelings of helplessness in the context of significant urgency and danger ( 19 – 21 ). There now are targeted treatments for domestic violence intervention, such as Seeking Safety ( 22 ) and Child-Parent Psychotherapy ( 23 ), though few psychologists and psychiatrists are trained in them. Of course the question of how clinically to respond to perpetrators is a complicated one, independent of the necessary legal consequences. However, treatment and prevention programs are emerging, such as the Melissa Institute for Violence Prevention and Treatment.

Beyond the “professional counter-transference” is possibly a more personal one. Aggression is a fundamental human impulse, and violence a socially unacceptable manifestation of it. Underlying any violent interaction is the universal human struggle with aggression and its myriad complex antecedents: family and developmental history; self-esteem; power dynamics; fear of abandonment and humiliation; emotional regulation; impulse control; and the capacity for empathy, guilt, and remorse. The possibility that domestic violence exists at the far end of a continuum of aggression that includes our own moments of intense anger is difficult to accept. That we all may have something in common with perpetrators encourages our disengagement.

Our counter-transference to victimization is similar; it is threatening to empathize with the shattering paradox of domestic violence victims, experiencing violence at the hands of someone they love and whom they are unable to leave. And yet this paradox—experiencing a depth of attachment that supersedes most basic self-preservative drives—is consistent with what John Bowlby theorized, what recent child development research has demonstrated ( 24 ), and what data from rodent models have characterized on a neurobiological level ( 25 ).

Evoking deep, psychological concerns, we retreat from domestic violence, drawing a line in the sand between “our” behaviors and “theirs.” With this dichotomizing orientation, moral judgment replaces a psychological perspective. We tend to pity and disdain the victim, and vilify the abuser, abdicating our roles as clinicians and researchers. It is the mandate of the criminal justice system to punish people for violent actions, and of social services to support victims. As the leading fields in mind, brain, and behavior, it is our mandate to understand and rehabilitate all human behavior, without prejudice.

The authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

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• Intimate partner violence and children's health outcomes SSM - Population Health, Vol. 25
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• Creating a Safety Plan for Victims of Domestic Violence in the Caribbean 16 April 2024
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• Rurality as Concordance: Mental Health Service Delivery for Rural Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence 2 June 2021 | Sociological Perspectives, Vol. 65, No. 3
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• Domestic Violence and Men’s Mental Health
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The Impact of COVID-19 on Domestic Violence in the US Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
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Anurudran, A., Yared, L., Comrie, C., Harrison, K., & Burke, T. (2020). Domestic violence amid COVID‐19. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 150(2), 255-256. Web.

Anurudran et al. (2020) argue that the new measures taken to fight COVID-19 infections heightened the risk of domestic abuse. The authors state that ‘stay-at-home” restrictions not only increased the risk of multiple victimization but also limit their access to relevant social support and networks. Unemployment, financial insecurity, and mental health problems such as substance abuse and depression elevate the risk of domestic violence.

Boserup, B., McKenney, M., & Elkbuli, A. (2020). Alarming trends in US domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(12), 2753-2755. Web.

This journal article presents the severe social, psychological, and financial consequences of COVID-19 containment policies on society. Boserup et al. (2020) assert that although these sweeping measures have helped in reducing the spread of the novel disease, they have made people more vulnerable because of limited access to established social support systems. Particularly, mobility restrictions have led to a spike in cases of shooting and domestic abuse.

Bradbury‐Jones, C., & Isham, L. (2020). The pandemic paradox: The consequences of COVID‐19 on domestic violence. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 28(13-14), 2047-2049. Web.

This article reports on the unintended, negative consequences of coronavirus containment measures in the UK. Bradbury‐Jones and Isham (2020) point that COVID-19 related outcomes such as job losses, closure of social institutions including businesses and school, and isolation have made children and women more vulnerable to abuse. The authors suggest that governments should take urgent steps to protect and support domestic violence victims and survivors, and individuals who are vulnerable in society.

Kofman, Y. B., & Garfin, D. R. (2020). Home is not always a haven: The domestic violence crisis amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(1), 199-201. Web.

Kofman and Garfin (2020) present a comprehensive literature review on recent epidemics that have spiked abuse in the home in the US and internationally. The authors outline several unique difficulties, conundrums, and dangers that people who have been victimized and survived domestic violence face during such epidemics. They argue that containment measures increased the risk of abuse call for more resources to fight abuse during this crisis and use existing domestic violence guidelines to prepare, respond, and recover from the pandemic.

Leslie, E., & Wilson, R. (2020). Sheltering in place and domestic violence: Evidence from calls for service during COVID-19. Journal of Public Economics, 189, 104241. Web.

This article presents trends in domestic violence-related police calls between March and May 2020. Results of the analysis revealed that the COVID-19 crisis escalated violence cases home, rising by 7.5% during the study period. Leslie and Wilson (2020) attribute this trend to intended consequences of the pandemic such as unemployment, financial strain, and family isolation.

López-Calva, L., F. (2020). No safer place than home? The increase in domestic and gender-based violence during COVID-19 lockdowns in LAC. United Nations Development Program. Web.

According to this post, Latin America and Caribbean countries implemented several stay-at-home measures to deter the spread of the deadly virus. However, instead of keeping people safe from the disease, restrictions such as quarantine and lockdown inadvertently enhanced exposure to already widespread domestic and gender-based violence. Increased social and economic strain attributable to the COVID-19 containment policies such as restricted movement heightened the risk of experiencing abuse in the home.

Mazza, M., Marano, G., Lai, C., Janiri, L., & Sani, G. (2020). Danger in danger: Interpersonal violence during COVID-19 quarantine. Psychiatry Research, 289, 113046. Web.

This journal article presents results of a review of literature on intimate partner violence during COVID-19 pandemic. Findings of their synthesis reveal that the social and economic stress attributed to this crisis make people feel frustrated and agitated, thus, leaving them more vulnerable to perpetrate violence to family members. Considering the increased aggression during the COVID-19 crisis, Mazza et al. (2020) conclude that effective programs should be developed to prevent potential abuse in the home and assess multiple dimensions of domestic violence accurately.

Taub, A. (2020). A new Covid-19 crisis: Domestic abuse rises worldwide. The New York Times. Web.

According to this news article, restricted mobility and other policies implemented to contain the spread of the COVID-19 crisis have played a significant role in increasing the frequency, severity, and risk of domestic violence. Based on an analysis of increasing reports of abuse in the home, Taub (2020) note that “domestic abuse is acting like an opportunistic infection, flourishing in the conditions created by the pandemic” (para. 1). This website illuminates root-causes for growth of domestic violence incidents during the COVID-19 crisis such as failure by governments to recognize how the coronavirus interventions could become opportunistic for perpetration of abuse.

World Health Organization. (2021). Violence, injuries and disability. Web.

According to this website, violence against women tends to surge during emergencies such as the health pandemics. The most notable observation in this source is that the escalation of the coronavirus pandemic has coincided with a rapid increase in the rate of domestic violence in the Eastern Mediterranean region and across the world during. Measures put in place to combat the spread of COVID-19, such as isolation and the restriction of movement increased household stress and contact among family members, consequently exposing women and children to violence.

Anurudran, A., Yared, L., Comrie, C., Harrison, K., & Burke, T. (2020). Domestic violence amid COVID‐19. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics , 150 (2), 255-256. Web.

Boserup, B., McKenney, M., & Elkbuli, A. (2020). Alarming trends in US domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 38 (12), 2753-2755. Web.

Bradbury‐Jones, C., & Isham, L. (2020). The pandemic paradox: The consequences of COVID‐19 on domestic violence. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 28 (13-14), 2047-2049. Web.

Kofman, Y. B., & Garfin, D. R. (2020). Home is not always a haven: The domestic violence crisis amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12 (1), 199-201. Web.

Leslie, E., & Wilson, R. (2020). Sheltering in place and domestic violence: Evidence from calls for service during COVID-19. Journal of Public Economics , 189 , 104241. Web.

López-Calva, L., F. (2020). No safer place than home? The increase in domestic and gender-based violence during COVID-19 lockdowns in LAC. United Nations Development Program . Web.

Mazza, M., Marano, G., Lai, C., Janiri, L., & Sani, G. (2020). Danger in danger: Interpersonal violence during COVID-19 quarantine. Psychiatry Research , 289 , 113046. Web.

• Merck & Company’s Acquisition of Medco Containment Services
• Hazardous Chemical Containment Case Study
• Truman's Policy of Containment
• Rachel Louise Snyder’s Research on Domestic Violence
• “Bullying in Schools”: The Aspects of Bullying
• Reducing Gun Violence in Atlanta, Georgia
• Sociology: Impact of Violence
• Youth Violence in Schools
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Domestic Violence - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Domestic violence refers to abusive behaviors in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. Essays on domestic violence could discuss its prevalence, the psychological and societal factors contributing to it, the impact on victims and communities, and the legal and social services aimed at preventing and addressing domestic violence. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Domestic Violence you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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Domestic Violence and the Physicological Affects

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Family Violence and Child Abuse Seldomly do people realize how often child are abused by parents, not always through violence, but in other various factors that can traumatize a child. The textbook Heavy Hands written by Denise Kindschi Gosselin has an entire chapter on child abuse and the different types of abuse that are involved against these children. Historical accounts tell us that children have always been abused and neglected by one or both parents; it is not uncommon or […]

The Effects of Domestic Violence: Family & Society

Unspoken, destructive, and hidden from the outside world. Domestic violence. In grade school it is rarely talked about. October is Domestic Violence awareness month, yet no one said a word. In order to prevent this, we must first understand it. What is domestic violence? It is a pattern of controlling and manipulating behavior that is meant to subdue and take all the power in a relationship. Intimate partner violence is a more specific type of domestic violence, it is any […]

How does Domestic Violence Affect Children’s Development in School

Introduction My fieldwork was done at Bolton Refuge House where women can go to seek refuge from an abuser and escape a situation of domestic violence. The mission of Bolton Refuge House is to offer tools that will empower victims and create a safe environment for survivors of domestic violence and sexual assault. Bolton Refuge House has an emergency shelter that is available for victims of domestic violence or sexual assault who do not feel safe in their own homes. […]

Types of Domestic Violence

Why Research Domestic Violence? To raise awareness about this silent killer To gather statistics that show that this can happen to anyone To Put a story and name to the numbers What is Domestic violence? Domestic violence (also called intimate partner violence (IPV), domestic abuse or relationship abuse) is a pattern of behaviors used by one partner to maintain power and control over another partner in an intimate relationship. Forms of Domestic violence: Physical abuse Sexual Abuse Emotional Abuse Financial […]

Spousal Abuse and Domestic Violence

Domestic violence or violence between intimate partners, results in the deaths of approximately four women every day and accounts for thirty-one percent of female homicides in the United States. (Mills). For a long time, domestic violence was looked at as a private and personal matter that didn't necessarily call for police and prosecution concern. In some cases, the victim would have to pay the prosecutors a fee in order to have their abuser prosecuted (Mills). Now, when it comes to […]

Exploitation and Spiteful Crimes against Women in the United States

For many years the exploitation and spiteful crimes against women in the United States was not seen as a major concern in the nation. Women were and are still being abused by their intimate partner, sexually assaulted, and stalked. Generally, domestic violence is just seen as physical abuse. However, domestic violence is a legal concept that refers to physical, sexual, emotional, or financial abuse. It is rare but domestic violence is not just men being abusive to women but women […]

Witness to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is commonly known as an unspoken situation among individuals around the world. The behaviors are physically, emotionally, and mentally unstable for many individuals. It can sometimes be linked to many theories; one theory being "The Social Learning Theory. If done coercively, the behavior can be viewed as one partner dominant of the other. This Literature Review is a reflection on views around the world as they pertain domestic violence related to women. Trends From 1993-2000 The article by […]

Mass Shootings and Domestic Violence

I. INTRODUCTION For my research paper, I decided to study the link between domestic violence and the five deadliest mass shootings that have occurred in the United States. Mass shootings seem to be at an all-time high over the past few years, and people are starting to see a pattern develop among the perpetrators: most have a history of domestic violence or violence toward women in general. The cases I studied, in descending order are: the Texas Church shooting on […]

Domestic Violence and Traditional Feminist Philosophy and Beliefs

Throughout the country a majority of domestic violence programs are based off the traditional feminist philosophy and beliefs. The feminist approach is defined as an approach that aims to understand gender inequality(source). The approach examines women’s and men’s social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and politics with a goal to empower the oppressed (source). Although this belief is meant to be a positive movement for all women and fight against domestic violence it is not completely ethical to just use that […]

Relationship between Police and Involvement and Domestic Violence

Literature Review Literature has suggested that domestic violence reporting and victims of domestic violence, are issues that have very little research. On top of this, the research that has been conducted is not as accurate because the definition of domestic violence has been generalized. This means that research of domestic violence could include anything from fighting with friends, to abuse within intimate partner relationships, abuse against women, and family violence. Within the relationships alone, definitions can also differ. For example, […]

The Tough Guy Image in Black Families

Poverty can lead to the black male adherence to the tough guy image in black families. The tough guy image is the leading cause of death amongst black families. The fear of black on blacks is another cause by the tough guy image. According to the book the overwhelming number of offenses committed by African American are directed towards other African Americans. Interpersonal amongst blacks is the leading cause of death for blacks. Black males are known to make up […]

A Proposal for Companion Animal Supports in a Domestic Violence Shelter in Massachusetts

Veterinary social work is an emerging field which incorporates social work practices, values, and ideals into animal care settings. Currently, most veterinary social work is concerned with animal bereavement services, including end of life counseling, pet loss support groups, and one-on-one counseling after the death of a pet. There are, however, more uses of social work in animal care settings, as well as animal care in social work settings. One such example of animal care in a social work setting […]

Faith Harper Domestic Violence Case Study

Violence Question 3~The Return/Supervised Visits1. Investigate the child protection process in your local state and county. The Texas county law demands that anyone who believes that a child is neglected or abused should report to the law enforcement organization, Child Protective Services organization of the Texas Section of Family and Protecting Services. The law gives mandate and power to CPS to investigate any report given to protect all children (Puplampu & Codjoe 2001). According to the Texas law, it defines […]

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In Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, Janie faces obstacles throughout her life and ultimately learns to grow from them. Hurston portrays love, dominance, independence, discrimination, and abuse in her novel. Hurston uses domestic abuse story. During the 20’s women were not treated fairly nor with respect. Janie’s first marriage to Logan Killicks was arranged by Janie’s grandmother who valued financial security and respectability. In Janies marriage, Logan treated her with love and respect for about a year […]

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How To Write an Essay About Domestic Violence

Understanding domestic violence.

Before starting an essay about domestic violence, it's important to understand what constitutes domestic violence and its impact on individuals and society. Domestic violence refers to a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. It can include physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. Begin your essay by defining domestic violence, discussing its various forms, and addressing common misconceptions. It's also crucial to explore the psychological and social factors that contribute to domestic violence, as well as its short and long-term effects on victims, families, and communities.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on domestic violence should be anchored by a clear, focused thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about domestic violence. For example, you might discuss the societal factors that contribute to domestic violence, the challenges in seeking justice for victims, or the effectiveness of intervention and support programs. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured approach to your analysis.

Gathering Supporting Evidence

Support your thesis with relevant data, research, and examples. This might include statistics on the prevalence of domestic violence, case studies, or research findings on the effects of domestic violence on individuals and society. Use this evidence to support your thesis and build a persuasive argument. Remember to consider different perspectives and include voices of survivors in your discussion.

Analyzing the Impact of Domestic Violence

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the impact of domestic violence. Discuss various aspects, such as the physical and mental health consequences for victims, the social and economic costs, and the effect on children and families. Explore both the immediate and long-term effects, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence provided. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of addressing domestic violence in society. You might also want to highlight areas where further research or policy development is needed, or suggest ways individuals and communities can help combat domestic violence.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and edit it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers or experts in the field to refine your essay further. A well-written essay on domestic violence will not only demonstrate your understanding of the topic but also your ability to engage with complex social issues.

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Home > Journals > BALLARDBRIEF > Vol. 2020 (2020) > Iss. 3

Article Title

Domestic Violence Against Women in the United States

Kaitlyn Short

Publication Date

gender inequality, sexual violence, domestic abuse, human trafficking

Domestic violence is a form of abuse by one individual against another in an intimate relationship. Historically, women have suffered the greatest effects of domestic violence with almost a quarter of US women experiencing domestic violence in their lifetime. Domestic violence is a social issue fueled by generational learning, isolated victims, unorganized healthcare aid, and family stresses. Women found in domestic violence situations experience moderate to severe mental and physical health concerns. Bystander children also face negative consequences such as internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Society at large suffers increased economic burden as it strives to provide aid and support for victims. Current top practices for ending domestic violence include temporary hosting of families during family conflict escalation, teen and youth educational programs to end violence against women, domestic violence awareness campaigns, and hotlines for direct domestic violence aid.

Recommended Citation

Short, Kaitlyn (2020) "Domestic Violence Against Women in the United States," Ballard Brief : Vol. 2020: Iss. 3, Article 5. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ballardbrief/vol2020/iss3/5

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: new perspectives on domestic violence: from research to intervention.

• 1 Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
• 2 School of Health and Social Work, University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom

Editorial on the Research Topic New Perspectives on Domestic Violence: from Research to Intervention

In a document dated June 16th 2017, the United States Department of Justice stated that Domestic Violence (DV) has a significant impact not only on those abused, but also on family members, friends, and on the people within the social networks of both the abuser and the victim. In this sense, children who witness DV while growing up can be severely emotionally damaged. The European Commission (DG Justice) remarked in the Daphne III Program that 1 in 4 women in EU member states have been impacted by DV, and that the impact of DV on victims includes many critical consequences: lack of self-esteem, feeling shame and guilt, difficulties in expressing negative feelings, hopelessness and helplessness, which, in turn, lead to difficulties in using good coping strategies, self-management, and mutual support networks. In 2015 the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights affirmed that violence against women can be considered as a violation of human rights and dignity. Violence against women exists in each society and it can be related to any social, economic and cultural status and impact at the economic level. It includes physical, sexual, economic, religious, and psychological abuse.

Although men experience domestic violence by women, the rate of DV among women is much higher than that of men, especially in the category of being killed due to DV.

Recent studies have shown that between 13 and 61% of women (15–49 years old) report to have been physically abused at least once by an intimate partner. Domestic Violence takes place across different age groups, genders, sexual orientations, economic, or cultural statuses. However, DV remains largely under-reported due to fear of reprisal by the perpetrator, hope that DV will stop, shame, loss of social prestige due to negative media coverage, and the sense of being trapped with nowhere to go:

Hence, it is estimated that 90% of cases of DV continue to be identified as a non-denounced violence.

The aim of this Special Issue of Frontiers of Psychology is to gather updated scientific and multidisciplinary contributions about issues linked to domestic violence, including intimate partner violence (IPV). We encouraged contributions from a variety of areas including original qualitative and quantitative articles, reviews, meta-analyses, theories, and clinical case studies on biological, psycho-social and cultural correlates, risk and protective factors, and the associated factors related to the etiology, assessment, and treatment of both victims and perpetrators of DV.

We hope that this Special Issue will stimulate a better informed debate on Domestic Violence, in relation to its psychosocial impact (in and outside home, in school, and workplace), to DV prevention and intervention strategies (within the family and in society at large), in addition to specific types of DV, and to controversial issues in this field as well.

The Special Issue comprises both theoretical reviews and original research papers. 7 research papers, 6 reviews (policy and practice review, systematic review, review and mini-review) and 1 methodological paper are included.

The first section comprises 2 systematic review and 3 original research papers focused on factors associated with Domestic Violence/Intimate Partner Violence/feminicide. Velotti et al. conducted a systematic review focused on the role of the attachment style on IPV victimization and perpetration. Several studies included failed to identify significant associations. The authors suggest to consider other variables (e.g., socioeconomic condition) that in interaction with attachment styles could explain the differences found between the studies. Considering the clinical contribution that these findings can provide to the treatment of IPV victims and perpetrators, future studies are needed. From a systematic review conducted by Gerino et al. focused on IPV in the “golden age” (old age), economic and educational conditions, younger age (55–69), membership in ethnic minorities, cognitive and physical impairment, substance abuse, cultural and social values, sexism and racism, were found as risk factors; depression emerged as risk factor and consequence of IPV. However, social support was identified as main protective factor. Also help-seeking behaviors and local/national services had a positively impact the phenomenon. Furthermore, the role of the parental communication was highlighted ( Rios-González et al. ) In that mothers encourage daughters to engage in relationship with ethical men, while removing from their representation attractive features and enhancing the double standard of viewing ethical man as unattractive vs. violent and attractive man. Fathers' communication directed toward young boys supports the dominant traditional masculinity, objectifying girls and emphasizing chauvinist values. These communicative dynamics impact males' behavior and females' choice of the partner while increasing the attraction toward violent men, and thus influencing the risk to be involved in IPV episodes.

Furthermore, factors associated with multiple IPV victimization by different partners were identified. From the study of Herrero et al. , experiencing child abuse emerged as a main predictor (“conditional partner selection process”). Similarly, adult victimization perpetrated by other than the intimate partner influences multiple IPV episodes. Moreover, this phenomenon is more frequent among younger women and those with lower income satisfaction. Length of relationship and greater psychological consequences to previous IPV are positively associated with multiple IPV episodes, while previous physical abuse is negatively related with subsequent victimization. The risk of multiple IPV episodes is reduced in countries with greater human development, suggesting the role of structural factors.

Regarding reasons of feminicide, passion motives assume the main role, followed by family problems, antisocial reasons, predatory crimes that comprise sexual component, impulsivity and mental disorders. The risk of overkilling episodes is higher when the perpetrator is known by the victim and when the murder is committed for passion reasons ( Zara and Gino ).

The second section includes papers focused on IPV/DV in particular contexts (one research paper, two reviews). Within separated couples, where conflicts are common, both men and women experience psychological aggression. However, some particularities emerged: women started to suffer of several kinds of psychological violence that was aimed to control (complicating the separation process), dehumanize and criticize them. Men report only few forms of violence experienced (likely due to the men's social position that narrows their disclosure opportunity), which mainly concern the limitation of the possibility to meet children ( Cardinali et al. ). Regarding same-sex couples ( Rollè et al. ), both similarities and differences in comparison with heterosexual couples emerged. IPV among LGB people is comparable or even higher than heterosexual episodes. Unique features present in same-sex IPV concern identification and treatment aspects, mainly due to the absence of solutions useful in addressing obstacles to help-seeking behaviors (related to fear of discrimination within LGB community), and the limitation of treatment programs tailored to the particularities of the LGB experience. Similarly, within First Nation's communities in Canada, IPV is a widespread phenomenon. However, the lack of preventing programs and the presence of intervention solutions that fail to address its cultural origins, limit the reduction of the problem and the recovery of victims. Klingspohn suggests the development of interventions capable to guarantee cultural safety and consequently to reduce discrimination and marginalization that Aboriginal people experience with mainstream health care system and which limit help-seeking behaviors.

The third section comprises two reviews and one research paper concerned with the impact of Intimate Partner and Domestic Violence. The systematic review conducted by Onwumere et al. highlighted the financial and emotional burden that violence perpetrated by psychotic patients entails for their informal carers (mainly close family relatives). Moreover, the authors identified within the studies included positive association between victimization and trauma symptoms, fear, and feeling of powerless and frustration.

Among people who suffered of Domestic Violence with a romantic or non-romantic partner who became their stalker, stalking victimization entails physical and emotive consequences for both male and female victims. Females suffered more than males of depressive and anxiety symptoms (although for both genders symptoms were minimal), while males experienced more anger. Furthermore, both genders adopted at least one “moving away” strategy in coping with stalking episodes, and the increasing of stalking behaviors determined a reduction in coping strategies use. This latter finding is likely to be due to the distress experienced ( Acquadro Maran and Varetto ).

Children abuse—which occurs often in Domestic Violence—results in emotional trauma as well as physical and psychological consequences that can negatively impact the learning opportunities. The school staff's ability to identify abuse signals and to refer to professionals constitute their main role. However, lack of skills and confidence among teachers regarding this function emerged, and further training for the school staff to increase support provided to abused children is needed ( Lloyd ).

Lastly, the fourth section includes two papers (one review and one methodological paper) that provide information on intervention and prevention programs and one research paper which contributes to the development and validation of the Willingness to Intervene in Cases of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women (WI-IPVAW) Scale. Gracia et al. The instrument demonstrated—both in the long and in its short form—high reliability and construct validity. The development of WI-IPVAW can contribute to the evaluation of the t role that can be played by people who are aware of the violence and understand attitudes toward IPV that can influence perpetrator's behavior and victim disclosure. The origin of violence within intimate relationship during adolescence calls for the development of preventive programs able to limit the phenomenon. The mini-review conducted by Santoro et al. highlighted the necessity to consider the relational structure where women are involved (history of poly-victimization re-victimization), and the domination suffered according to the gender model structured by the patriarchal context. Moreover, considering that violence can occur after separation or divorce, requires in child custody cases the evaluation of parenting and co-parenting relationship. This process can provide an opportunity to assess and treat some kind of violent behavior (Conflict-Instigated Violence, Violent Resistance, Separation-Instigated Violence). According to these consideration, Gennari et al. elaborated a model for clinical intervention (relational-intergenerational model) useful to address these issues during child custody evaluation. The model is composed of three levels aimed at understanding intergenerational exchange and identify factors that contribute to safeguard family relationship. This assessment process allows parents to reflect on information emerged during the evaluation process and activate resources useful to promote a constructive change of conflict dynamics and violent behaviors.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thanks all the authors and the reviewers who contributed to the present article collection, for their dedication to our topics and to their readiness to share their knowledge, and thus to increase the research in this field; KathWoodward, Specialty Chief Editor of Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Studies that believed in our project, and to Dr. Tommaso Trombetta for his collaboration during last year.

Keywords: domestic violence, intimate partner abuse, intimate partner violence (IPV), gender violence against women, same sex intimate partner violence, systematic review, perpetrator and victim of violence, perpetrator

Citation: Rollè L, Ramon S and Brustia P (2019) Editorial: New Perspectives on Domestic Violence: From Research to Intervention. Front. Psychol. 10:641. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00641

Received: 25 February 2019; Accepted: 07 March 2019; Published: 28 March 2019.

Edited and reviewed by: Kath Woodward , The Open University, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2019 Rollè, Ramon and Brustia. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Luca Rollè, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Domestic violence against women: Recognize patterns, seek help

Domestic violence is a serious threat for many women. Know the signs of an abusive relationship and how to leave a dangerous situation.

Your partner apologizes and says the hurtful behavior won't happen again — but you fear it will. At times you wonder whether you're imagining the abuse, yet the emotional or physical pain you feel is real. If this sounds familiar, you might be experiencing domestic violence.

Recognize domestic violence

Domestic violence — also called intimate partner violence — occurs between people in an intimate relationship. Domestic violence can take many forms, including emotional, sexual and physical abuse and threats of abuse. Abuse by a partner can happen to anyone, but domestic violence is most often directed toward women. Domestic violence can happen in heterosexual and same-sex relationships.

Abusive relationships always involve an imbalance of power and control. An abuser uses intimidating, hurtful words and behaviors to control a partner.

It might not be easy to identify domestic violence at first. While some relationships are clearly abusive from the outset, abuse often starts subtly and gets worse over time. You might be experiencing domestic violence if you're in a relationship with someone who:

• Calls you names, insults you or puts you down
• Prevents or discourages you from going to work or school or seeing family members or friends
• Tries to control how you spend money, where you go, what medicines you take or what you wear
• Acts jealous or possessive or constantly accuses you of being unfaithful
• Gets angry when drinking alcohol or using drugs
• Threatens you with violence or a weapon
• Hits, kicks, shoves, slaps, chokes or otherwise hurts you, your children or your pets
• Forces you to have sex or engage in sexual acts against your will
• Blames you for his or her violent behavior or tells you that you deserve it

If you're in a same-sex relationship or if you're bisexual or transgender, you might also be experiencing abuse if you're in a relationship with someone who:

• Threatens to tell friends, family, colleagues or community members your sexual orientation or gender identity
• Tells you that authorities won't help you because of your sexuality or gender identity
• Justifies abuse by questioning your sexuality or gender identity

Pregnancy, children, family members and domestic violence

Sometimes domestic violence begins — or increases — during pregnancy. Domestic violence puts your health and the baby's health at risk. The danger continues after the baby is born.

Even if your child isn't abused, simply witnessing domestic violence can be harmful. Children who grow up in abusive homes are more likely to be abused and have behavioral problems than are other children. As adults, they're more likely to become abusers or think abuse is a normal part of relationships.

You might worry that telling the truth will further endanger you, your child or other family members — and that it might break up your family. But seeking help is the best way to protect yourself and your loved ones.

Break the cycle

If you're in an abusive situation, you might recognize this pattern:

• Your abuser threatens violence.
• Your abuser strikes.
• Your abuser apologizes, promises to change and offers gifts.
• The cycle repeats itself.

The longer you stay in an abusive relationship, the greater the physical and emotional toll. You might become depressed and anxious, or you might begin to doubt your ability to take care of yourself. You might feel helpless or paralyzed.

You may also wonder if the abuse is your fault — a common point of confusion among survivors of domestic abuse that may make it more difficult to seek help.

Don't take the blame

You may not be ready to seek help because you believe you're at least partially to blame for the abuse in the relationship. Reasons may include:

• Your partner blames you for the violence in your relationship. Abusive partners rarely take responsibility for their actions.
• Your partner only exhibits abusive behavior with you. Abusers are often concerned with outward appearances and may appear charming and stable to those outside of your relationship. This may cause you to believe that his or her actions can only be explained by something you've done.
• Therapists and health care providers who see you alone or with your partner haven't detected a problem. If you haven't told your health care provider about the abuse, they may only take note of unhealthy patterns in your thinking or behavior. This can lead to a misdiagnosis. For example, survivors of intimate partner violence may develop symptoms that resemble chronic disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome or fibromyalgia. Exposure to intimate partner violence also increases your risk of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• You have acted out verbally or physically against your abuser, yelling, pushing or hitting your partner during conflicts. You may worry that you are abusive, but it's much more likely that you acted in self-defense or intense emotional distress. Your abuser may use such incidents to manipulate you, describing them as proof that you are the abusive partner.

If you're having trouble identifying what's happening, take a step back and look at larger patterns in your relationship. Then review the signs of domestic violence. In an abusive relationship, the person who routinely uses these behaviors is the abuser. The person on the receiving end is being abused.

Unique challenges

If you're an immigrant , you may be hesitant to seek help out of fear that you will be deported. Language barriers, lack of economic independence and limited social support can increase your isolation and your ability to access resources.

Laws in the United States guarantee protection from domestic abuse, regardless of your immigrant status. Free or low-cost resources are available, including lawyers, shelter and medical care for you and your children. You may also be eligible for legal protections that allow immigrants who experience domestic violence to stay in the United States.

Call a national domestic violence hotline for guidance. These services are free and protect your privacy.

• If you're an older woman , you may face challenges related to your age and the length of your relationship. You may have grown up in a time when domestic violence was simply not discussed. You or your partner may have health problems that increase your dependency or sense of responsibility.
• If you're in a same-sex relationship , you might be less likely to seek help after an assault if you don't want to disclose your sexual orientation. If you've been sexually assaulted by another woman, you might also fear that you won't be believed.

Still, the only way to break the cycle of domestic violence is to take action. Start by telling someone about the abuse, whether it's a friend, a loved one, a health care provider or another close contact. You can also call a national domestic violence hotline.

At first, you might find it hard to talk about the abuse. But understand that you are not alone and there are experts who can help you. You'll also likely feel relief and receive much-needed support.

Create a safety plan

Leaving an abuser can be dangerous. Consider taking these precautions:

• Call a women's shelter or domestic violence hotline for advice. Make the call at a safe time — when the abuser isn't around — or from a friend's house or other safe location.
• Pack an emergency bag that includes items you'll need when you leave, such as extra clothes and keys. Leave the bag in a safe place. Keep important personal papers, money and prescription medications handy so that you can take them with you on short notice.
• Know exactly where you'll go and how you'll get there.

Protect your communication and location

An abuser can use technology to monitor your telephone and online communication and to track your location. If you're concerned for your safety, seek help. To maintain your privacy:

• Use phones cautiously. Your abuser might intercept calls and listen to your conversations. An abusive partner might use caller ID, check your cellphone or search your phone billing records to see your call and texting history.
• Use your home computer cautiously. Your abuser might use spyware to monitor your emails and the websites you visit. Consider using a computer at work, at the library or at a friend's house to seek help.
• Turn off GPS devices. Your abuser might use a GPS device on your vehicle or your phone to pinpoint your location.
• Frequently change your email password. Choose passwords that would be difficult for your abuser to guess.
• Clear your viewing history. Follow your browser's instructions to clear any record of websites or graphics you've viewed.

Where to find help

In an emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number or law enforcement agency. The following resources also can help:

• Someone you trust. Turn to a friend, loved one, neighbor, co-worker, or religious or spiritual adviser for support.
• National Domestic Violence Hotline: 800-799-SAFE (800-799-7233; toll-free). Call the hotline for crisis intervention and referrals to resources, such as women's shelters.
• Your health care provider. A health care provider typically will treat injuries and can refer you to safe housing and other local resources.
• A local women's shelter or crisis center. Shelters and crisis centers typically provide 24-hour emergency shelter as well as advice on legal matters and advocacy and support services.
• A counseling or mental health center. Counseling and support groups for women in abusive relationships are available in most communities.
• A local court. A court can help you obtain a restraining order that legally mandates the abuser to stay away from you or face arrest. Local advocates might be available to help guide you through the process.

It can be hard to recognize or admit that you're in an abusive relationship — but help is available. Remember, no one deserves to be abused.

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• Ferri FF. Intimate partner violence. In: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Internet & computer safety. National Network to End Domestic Violence. https://nnedv.org/content/internet-computer-safety/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Technology safety & privacy: A toolkit for survivors. Technology Safety. https://www.techsafety.org/resources-survivors. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Intimate partner violence: A guide for psychiatrists treating IPV survivors. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/cultural-competency/education/intimate-partner-violence/women. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Domestic violence and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender relationships. National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. http://www.mmgconnect.com/projects/userfiles/File/DCE-STOP_NOW/NCADV_LGBT_Fact_Sheet.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Bakes K, et al. Intimate partner violence. In: Emergency Medicine Secrets. Elsevier: 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• What is domestic violence? National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. https://ncadv.org/learn-more. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Intimate partner abuse and relationship violence. American Psychological Association: Working Group on Intimate Partner Abuse and Relationship Violence. https://www.apa.org/about/division/activities/partner-abuse.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• The myth of mutual abuse. National Domestic Violence Hotline. https://www.thehotline.org/resources/the-myth-of-mutual-abuse/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Final recommendation statement: Intimate partner violence, elder abuse, and abuse of vulnerable adults. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/intimate-partner-violence-and-abuse-of-elderly-and-vulnerable-adults-screening. Accessed March 5, 2022.
• Information on the legal rights available to immigrant victims of domestic violence in the United States and facts about immigrating on a marriage-based visa fact sheet. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. https://www.uscis.gov/archive/information-on-the-legal-rights-available-to-immigrant-victims-of-domestic-violence-in-the-united. Accessed March 5, 2022.
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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Domestic Violence — The Issues of Domestic Violence and Stalking in the United States

The Issues of Domestic Violence and Stalking in The United States

• Categories: Domestic Violence Stalking

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Domestic Violence

Income influences level of protection from domestic violence, addressing the inequalities in a system that benefits those with financial power..

Posted June 18, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• What Is Domestic Violence?
• Find counselling to heal from domestic violence
• Escaping domestic violence often entails navigating administrative burdens that limit access to support.
• Without support, survivors can be trapped without financial means to escape in a cycle of coercive control.
• To break this cycle, we must challenge the systems that perpetuate the marginalization of low-income victims.

The World Health Organization considers domestic violence to be a pervasive social problem in the United States (WHO, 2021). However, the impact of domestic violence is not evenly distributed, with marginalized communities, particularly those with a lower socioeconomic status, bearing a disproportionate burden of its consequences (Broussard & Joseph, 2009; Nevada Network Against Domestic Violence, 2013). “There is a distinct correlation between domestic violence and level of income” with researchers finding that “the lower the income, the higher the prevalence of domestic violence.” (Poverty, Domestic Violence, and the Covid19 Pandemic, 2020).

Family Resilience and Family Stress Theory offers a framework to understand how poverty can both exacerbate domestic violence and entrench victims in a cycle of abuse. While domestic violence happens across all income levels, the chronic stress and resource scarcity associated with poverty can heighten tensions within families, leading to an increased likelihood of violence (Patterson, 2002). However, while poverty is a risk factor for things such as domestic violence, having access to supports helps to fuel resilience and decrease the stress associated with this environment, making a better outcome for victims. Access to social, emotional, and financial supports can bolster family resilience, helping families manage and recover from the stressors associated with poverty (Patterson, 2002). The issue comes when those without the financial means are unable to access these essential supports. Not only are these victims more likely to be exposed to domestic violence, but they are also less likely to receive support in the aftermath of their experiences (Nevada Network Against Domestic Violence, 2013).

Intersection of Poverty and Domestic Violence

At its core, the cycle of domestic violence is upheld by systemic inequalities and power imbalances that benefit those in positions of privilege and authority. As poverty is a major contributor to systemic inequalities, and money can exacerbate any power and control already present, this creates a system that benefits those with financial means (SafeHouse Center, 2019). Thus, for those trapped in cycles of abuse and poverty, the decision to leave an abusive partner is not simply a matter of willpower but is fraught with economic obstacles.

Beyond the immediate physical and emotional hurdles, escaping domestic violence often entails navigating administrative burdens that disproportionately burden those already marginalized by socioeconomic factors (Herd et al., 2023). Financial constraints often mean that families cannot afford essential services such as health care, mental health counseling, or legal assistance, which are critical for addressing issues related to domestic violence (SPSP, 2023). The bureaucratic processes involved in accessing social services and financial assistance further compound these challenges, requiring extensive documentation and often lengthy wait times for approval. For individuals with limited literacy or English proficiency, navigating complex forms and procedures becomes even more daunting.

Additionally, those living in poverty may lack awareness of available resources or face barriers in navigating complex social service systems, they may lack essential needs such as transportation and financial support, and limited education and lower literacy levels can further impede their ability to seek help and understand the processes involved in accessing support (Herd et al., 2023). Even for those who can find the financial means for these services, accessing them might mean having to take time off from work, causing victims to lose income—or even lose their jobs (Herd et al., 2023; World Economic Forum, 2022).

The systemic nature of poverty means that individuals often have to prioritize immediate survival needs—such as food, shelter, and income—over long-term support solutions. This constant struggle for basic necessities leaves little time, energy, or resources to seek out and engage with supportive services. Consequently, this traps families in a vicious cycle of poverty and violence, making it exceedingly difficult for them to find pathways to stability and safety.

Lack of Access to Support

Legal obstacles are another major barrier for survivors seeking to break free from abusive relationships. Obtaining a restraining order or filing for divorce necessitates engaging with the legal system, which can be intimidating and confusing, particularly for those without legal representation. Often, victims simply can’t afford the legal support required to allow them to escape from, or protect themselves from, an abusive relationship. “From seeking counsel to relocating to a shelter away from their partner, these measures often require both a significant amount of time and also financial means” (World Economic Forum, 2022).

Moreover, the fear of retaliation from an abuser with money and power can deter survivors from pursuing legal recourse, further perpetuating their vulnerability and isolation. This creates a legal system that is much harder to navigate without higher financial means (Poverty, Domestic Violence, and the Covid19 Pandemic, 2020). This economic dependence can leave survivors feeling trapped in abusive relationships, unable to leave for fear of losing financial support or facing homelessness (World Economic Forum, 2022).

Research shows that victims who are able to access supportive services, including housing and access to legal support, following their abuse are more likely to escape from their abusive situation safely (SafeHouse Center, 2019). Yet, for the most vulnerable, often those in poverty, these supportive services are unattainable. Without this adequate support, the ability to cope with and navigate the traumas of domestic violence is significantly diminished. This is often why victims of domestic violence may find themselves trapped in abusive situations with few viable options for escape or recovery.

This lack of support not only perpetuates the cycle of violence but also compounds the stress and trauma experienced by these families, making it even more challenging to break free from the grip of poverty and abuse. For many survivors, it can become easier to stay, which can trap survivors in a cycle of dependence and powerlessness.

Breaking the Cycle Involves Addressing Root Causes

Breaking this cycle involves recognizing that poverty and systemic oppression are major contributing factors to domestic and intimate partner violence (World Economic Forum, 2022). Communities of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and people with disabilities are disproportionately affected by both poverty and domestic violence, facing systemic barriers that limit their access to resources and support services.

To break this cycle, we must challenge the systems and institutions that prioritize profit over people's well-being and perpetuate the marginalization of survivors. This requires dismantling systems of power and privilege that perpetuate structural violence and creating pathways to economic justice and social equity for all individuals and families.

Broussard, C. A. & Joseph, A. L. (2009). Family Poverty in Diverse Contexts. New York: Routledge

Herd, P., Hoynes, H., Jamila Michener, J., & Moynihan, D. (2023). Introduction: Administrative Burden as a Mechanism of Inequality in Policy Implementation. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences , 9 (5) 1–30;

Kennedy, A. C., Prock, K. A., Adams, A. E., Littwin, A., Meier, E., Saba, J., & Vollinger, L. (2024). Can This Provider Be Trusted? A Review of the Role of Trustworthiness in the Provision of Community-Based Services for Intimate Partner Violence Survivors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(2), 982–999. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231168641

Nevada Network Against Domestic Violence. (2013). Domestic violence and poverty .

Patterson, Joan M. "Integrating Family Resilience and Family Stress Theory." Journal of Marriage and the Family , vol. 64, no. 2, 2002/05//, pp. 349–360 .

SPSP. (2023). Cheek, Bandt, Law, & Sinclair: Less Support for Poor Female Abuse Victims . Character and Context Blog.

Poverty, Domestic Violence, and the Covid19 Pandemic . (2020). Golden Gate University Law Review.

WHO. (2021, November). Violence against women .

World Economic Forum. (2022, November 15). To take on violence against women, alleviate poverty .

SafeHouse Center. (2019). The intersection of domestic violence and poverty .

Slabbert, Ilze. (2016). Domestic Violence and Poverty: Some Women's Experiences. Research on Social Work Practice . 27. 10.1177/1049731516662321

Kaytee Gillis, LCSW-BACS, is a psychotherapist and the author of three books, including Breaking the Cycle and It's Not High Conflict, It's Post-Separation Abuse.

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Domestic violence.

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• Continuing Education Activity

Family and domestic violence is a common problem in the United States, affecting an estimated 10 million people every year; as many as one in four women and one in nine men are victims of domestic violence. Virtually all healthcare professionals will at some point evaluate or treat a patient who is a victim of domestic or family violence. Domestic and family violence includes economic, physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological abuse of children, adults, or elders. Domestic violence causes worsened psychological and physical health, decreased quality of life, decreased productivity, and in some cases, mortality. Domestic and family violence can be difficult to identify. Many cases are not reported to health professionals or legal authorities. This activity describes the evaluation, reporting, and management strategies for victims of domestic abuse and stresses the role of team-based interprofessional care for these victims.

• Identify the epidemiology of domestic violence.
• Describe the types of domestic violence.
• Explain challenges associated with reporting domestic violence.
• Review some interprofessional team strategies for improving care coordination and communication to identify domestic violence and improve outcomes for its victims.
• Introduction

Family and domestic violence including child abuse, intimate partner abuse, and elder abuse is a common problem in the United States. Family and domestic health violence are estimated to affect 10 million people in the United States every year. It is a national public health problem, and virtually all healthcare professionals will at some point evaluate or treat a patient who is a victim of some form of domestic or family violence. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Unfortunately, each form of family violence begets interrelated forms of violence. The "cycle of abuse" is often continued from exposed children into their adult relationships and finally to the care of the elderly.

Domestic and family violence includes a range of abuse, including economic, physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological, toward children, adults, and elders.

Intimate partner violence includes stalking, sexual and physical violence, and psychological aggression by a current or former partner. In the United States, as many as one in four women and one in nine men are victims of domestic violence. Domestic violence is thought to be underreported. Domestic violence affects the victim, families, co-workers, and community. It causes diminished psychological and physical health, decreases the quality of life, and results in decreased productivity.

The national economic cost of domestic and family violence is estimated to be over 12 billion dollars per year. The number of individuals affected is expected to rise over the next 20 years, increasing the elderly population.

Domestic and family violence is difficult to identify, and many cases go unreported to health professionals or legal authorities. Due to the prevalence in our society, all healthcare professionals, including psychologists, nurses, pharmacists, dentists, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and physicians, will evaluate and possibly treat a victim or perpetrator of domestic or family violence. [6] [7]

Definitions

Family and domestic violence are abusive behaviors in which one individual gains power over another individual.

• Intimate partner violence typically includes sexual or physical violence, psychological aggression, and stalking. This may include former or current intimate partners.
• Child abuse involves the emotional, sexual, physical, or neglect of a child under 18 by a parent, custodian, or caregiver that results in potential harm, harm, or a threat of harm.
• Elder abuse is a failure to act or an intentional act by a caregiver that causes or creates a risk of harm to an elder.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Domestic violence, spousal abuse, battering, or intimate partner violence, is typically the victimization of an individual with whom the abuser has an intimate or romantic relationship. The CDC defines domestic violence as "physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression (including coercive acts) by a current or former intimate partner."

Domestic and family violence has no boundaries. This violence occurs in intimate relationships regardless of culture, race, religion, or socioeconomic status. All healthcare professionals must understand that domestic violence, whether in the form of emotional, psychological, sexual, or physical violence, is common in our society and should develop the ability to recognize it and make the appropriate referral.

Violence Abuse Types

The types of violence include stalking, economic, emotional or psychological, sexual, neglect, Munchausen by proxy, and physical. Domestic and family violence occurs in all races, ages, and sexes. It knows no cultural, socioeconomic, education, religious, or geographic limitation. It may occur in individuals with different sexual orientations.

Reason Abusers Need to Control [8] [9] [10]

• Anger management issues
• Low self-esteem
• Feeling inferior 
• Cultural beliefs they have the right to control their partner
• Personality disorder or psychological disorder
• Learned behavior from growing up in a family where domestic violence was accepted
• Alcohol and drugs, as an impaired individual may be less likely to control violent impulses

Risk Factors

Risk factors for domestic and family violence include individual, relationship, community, and societal issues. There is an inverse relationship between education and domestic violence. Lower education levels correlate with more likely domestic violence. Childhood abuse is commonly associated with becoming a perpetrator of domestic violence as an adult. Perpetrators of domestic violence commonly repeat acts of violence with new partners. Drug and alcohol abuse greatly increases the incidence of domestic violence.

Children who are victims or witness domestic and family violence may believe that violence is a reasonable way to resolve a conflict. Males who learn that females are not equally respected are more likely to abuse females in adulthood. Females who witness domestic violence as children are more likely to be victimized by their spouses. While females are often the victim of domestic violence, gender roles can be reversed.

Domination may include emotional, physical, or sexual abuse that may be caused by an interaction of situational and individual factors. This means the abuser learns violent behavior from their family, community, or culture. They see violence and are victims of violence.

• Epidemiology

Domestic violence is a serious and challenging public health problem. Approximately 1 in 3 women and 1 in 10 men 18 years of age or older experience domestic violence. Annually, domestic violence is responsible for over 1500 deaths in the United States. [11] [12] [13]

Domestic violence victims typically experience severe physical injuries requiring care at a hospital or clinic. The cost to individuals and society is significant. The national annual cost of medical and mental health care services related to acute domestic violence is estimated at over $8 billion. If the injury results in a long-term or chronic condition, the cost is considerably higher.

Financial hardship and unemployment are contributors to domestic violence. An economic downturn is associated with increased calls to the National Domestic Violence Hotline.

Fortunately, the national rate of nonfatal domestic violence is declining. This is thought to be due to a decline in the marriage rate, decreased domesticity, better access to domestic violence shelters, improvements in female economic status, and an increase in the average age of the population.

• Most perpetrators and victims do not seek help.
• Healthcare professionals are usually the first individuals with an opportunity to identify domestic violence.
• Nurses are usually the first healthcare providers victims encounter.
• Domestic violence may be perpetrated on women, men, parents, and children.
• Fifty percent of women seen in emergency departments report a history of abuse, and approximately 40% of those killed by their abuser sought help in the 2 years before death.
• Only one-third of police-identified victims of domestic violence are identified in the emergency department.
• Healthcare professionals who work in acute care need to maintain a high index of suspicion for domestic violence as supportive family members may, in fact, be abusers.

Child Abuse

Age, family income, and ethnicity are all risk factors for both sexual abuse and physical abuse. Gender is a risk factor for sexual abuse but not for physical abuse.

Each year there are over 3 million referrals to child protective authorities. Despite often being the first to examine the victims, only about 10% of the referrals were from medical personnel. The fatality rate is approximately two deaths per 100,000 children. Women account for a little over half of the perpetrators.

Intimate Partner Violence

According to the CDC, 1 in 4 women and 1 in 7 men will experience physical violence by their intimate partner at some point during their lifetimes. About 1 in 3 women and nearly 1 in 6 men experience some form of sexual violence during their lifetimes. Intimate partner violence, sexual violence, and stalking are high, with intimate partner violence occurring in over 10 million people each year.

One in 6 women and 1 in 19 men have experienced stalking during their lifetimes. The majority are stalked by someone they know. An intimate partner stalks about 6 in 10 female victims and 4 in 10 male victims.

At least 5 million acts of domestic violence occur annually to women aged 18 years and older, with over 3 million involving men. While most events are minor, for example grabbing, shoving, pushing, slapping, and hitting, serious and sometimes fatal injuries do occur. Approximately 1.5 million intimate partner female rapes and physical assaults are perpetrated annually, and approximately 800,000 male assaults occur. About 1 in 5 women have experienced completed or attempted rape at some point in their lives. About 1% to 2% of men have experienced completed or attempted rape.

The incidence of intimate partner violence has declined by over 60%, from about ten victimizations per 1000 persons age 12 or older to approximately 4 per 1000.

Due to underreporting and difficulty sampling, obtaining accurate incidence information on elder abuse and neglect is difficult. Elderly abuse is thought to occur in 3% to 10% of the population of elders.

Elderly patients may not report due to fear, guilt, ignorance, or shame. Clinicians underreport elder abuse due to poor recognition of the problem, lack of understanding of reporting methods and requirements, and concerns about physician-patient confidentiality.

• Pathophysiology

There may be some pathologic findings in both the victims and perpetrators of domestic violence. Certain medical conditions and lifestyles make family and domestic violence more likely. [13] [14] [15]

Perpetrators

While the research is not definitive, a number of characteristics are thought to be present in perpetrators of domestic violence. Abusers tend to:

• Have a higher consumption of alcohol and illicit drugs and assessment should include questions that explore drinking habits and violence
• Be possessive, jealous, suspicious, and paranoid.
• Be controlling of everyday family activity, including control of finances and social activities.
• Suffer low self-esteem
• Have emotional dependence, which tends to occur in both partners, but more so in the abuser

Domestic violence at home results in emotional damage, which exerts continued effects as the victim matures.

• Approximately 45 million children will be exposed to violence during childhood.
• Approximately 10% of children are exposed to domestic violence annually, and 25% are exposed to at least 1 event during their childhood.
• Ninety percent are direct eyewitnesses of violence.
• Males who batter their wives batter the children 30% to 60% of the time.
• Children who witness domestic violence are at increased risk of dating violence and have a more difficult time with partnerships and parenting.
• Children who witness domestic violence are at an increased risk for post-traumatic stress disorder, aggressive behavior, anxiety, impaired development, difficulty interacting with peers, academic problems, and they have a higher incidence of substance abuse.
• Children exposed to domestic violence often become victims of violence.
• Children who witness and experience domestic violence are at a greater risk for adverse psychosocial outcomes.
• Eighty to 90% of domestic violence victims abuse or neglect their children.
• Abused teens may not report abuse. Individuals 12 to 19 years of age report only about one-third of crimes against them, compared with one-half in older age groups

Pregnant and Females

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends all women be assessed for signs and symptoms of domestic violence during regular and prenatal visits. Providers should offer support and referral information.

• Domestic violence affects approximately 325,000 pregnant women each year.
• The average reported prevalence during pregnancy is approximately 30% emotional abuse, 15% physical abuse, and 8% sexual abuse.
• Domestic violence is more common among pregnant women than preeclampsia and gestational diabetes.
• Reproductive abuse may occur and includes impregnating against a partner's wishes by stopping a partner from using birth control.
• Since most pregnant women receive prenatal care, this is an excellent time to assess for domestic violence.

The danger of domestic violence is particularly acute as both mother and fetus are at risk. Healthcare professionals should be aware of the psychological consequences of domestic abuse during pregnancy. There is more stress, depression, and addiction to alcohol in abused pregnant women. These conditions may harm the fetus.

Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender

Domestic violence occurs in gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender couples, and the rates are thought to be similar to a heterosexual woman, approximately 25%.

• There are more cases of domestic violence among males living with male partners than among males who live with female partners.
• Females living with female partners experience less domestic violence than females living with males.
• Transgender individuals have a higher risk of domestic violence. Transgender victims are approximately two times more likely to experience physical violence.

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender victims may be reticent to report domestic violence. Part of the challenge may be that support services such as shelters, support groups, and hotlines are not regularly available. This results in isolated and unsupported victims. Healthcare professionals should strive to be helpful when working with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender patients.

Usually, domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women; however, females may exhibit violent behavior against their male partners.

• Approximately 5% of males are killed by their intimate partners.
• Each year, approximately 500,000 women are physically assaulted or raped by an intimate partner compared to 100,000 men.
• Three out of 10 women at some point are stalked, physically assaulted, or raped by an intimate partner, compared to 1 out of every 10 men.
• Rape is primarily perpetrated by other men, while women engage in other forms of violence against men.

Although women are the most common victims of domestic violence, healthcare professionals should remember that men may also be victims and should be evaluated if there are indications present.

The elderly are often mistreated by their spouses, children, or relatives.

• Annually, approximately 2% of the elderly experience physical abuse, 1% sexual abuse, 5% neglect, 5% financial abuse, and 5% suffer emotional abuse.
• The annual incidence of elder abuse is estimated to be 2% to 10%, with only about 1 in 15 cases reported to the authorities.
• Approximately one-third of nursing homes disclosed at least 1 incident of physical abuse per year.
• Ten percent of nursing home staff self-report physical abuse against an elderly resident.

Elder domestic violence may be financial or physical. The elderly may be controlled financially. Elders are often hesitant to report this abuse if it is their only available caregiver. Victims are often dependent, infirm, isolated, or mentally impaired. Healthcare professionals should be aware of the high incidence of abuse in this population.

• History and Physical

The history and physical exam should be tailored to the age of the victim.

The most common injuries are fractures, contusions, bruises, and internal bleeding. Unexpected injuries to pre-walking infants should be investigated. The caregiver should explain unusual injuries to the ears, neck, or torso; otherwise, these injuries should be investigated.

Children who are abused may be unkempt and/or malnourished. They may display inappropriate behavior such as aggression, or maybe shy, withdrawn, and have poor communication skills. Others may be disruptive or hyperactive. School attendance is usually poor.

Intimate Partner Abuse

Approximately one-third of women and one-fifth of men will be victims of abuse. The most common sites of injuries are the head, neck, and face. Clothes may cover injuries to the body, breasts, genitals, rectum, and buttocks. One should be suspicious if the history is not consistent with the injury. Defensive injuries may be present on the forearms and hands. The patient may have psychological signs and symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and fatigue.

Medical complaints may be specific or vague such as headaches, palpitations, chest pain, painful intercourse, or chronic pain.

Intimate Partner Abuse: Pregnancy and Female

Abuse during pregnancy may cause as much as 10% of pregnant hospital admissions. There are a number of historical and physical findings that may help the provider identify individuals at risk.

If the examiner encounters signs or symptoms, she should make every effort to examine the patient in private, explaining confidentiality to the patient. Be sure to ask caring, empathetic questions and listen politely without interruption to answers.

Intimate Partner Abuse: Same-Sex

Same-sex partner abuse is common and may be difficult to identify. Over 35% of heterosexual women, 40% of lesbians, 60% of bisexual women experience domestic violence. For men, the incidence is slightly lower. In addition to common findings of abuse, perpetrators may try to control their partners by threatening to make their sexual preferences public.

The provider should be aware there are fewer resources available to help victims; further, the perpetrator and victim may have the same friends or support groups.

Intimate Partner Abuse: Men

Men represent as much as 15% of all cases of domestic partner violence. Male victims are also less likely to seek medical care, so that the incidence may be underreported. These victims may have a history of child abuse.

Elderly Abuse

Health professionals should ask geriatric patients about abuse, even if signs are absent.

• Pathologic characteristics of perpetrators including dementia, mental illness, and drug and alcohol abuse
• A shared living situation with the abuser
• Social isolation

Establishing that injuries are related to domestic abuse is a challenging task. Life and limb-threatening injuries are the priority. After stabilization and physical evaluation, laboratory tests, x-rays, CT, or MRI may be indicated. It is important that healthcare professionals first attend to the underlying issue that brought the victim to the emergency department. [1] [16] [17] [18]

• The evaluation should start with a detailed history and physical examination. Clinicians should screen all females for domestic violence and refer females who screen positive. This includes females who do not have signs or symptoms of abuse. All healthcare facilities should have a plan in place that provides for assessing, screening, and referring patients for intimate partner violence. Protocols should include referral, documentation, and follow-up.
• Health professionals and administrators should be aware of challenges such as barriers to screening for domestic violence: lack of training, time constraints, the sensitive nature of issues, and a lack of privacy to address the issues.
• Although professional and public awareness has increased, many patients and providers are still hesitant to discuss abuse.
• Patients with signs and symptoms of domestic violence should be evaluated. The obvious cues are physical: bruises, bites, cuts, broken bones, concussions, burns, knife or gunshot wounds.
• Typical domestic injury patterns include contusions to the head, face, neck, breast, chest, abdomen, and musculoskeletal injuries. Accidental injuries more commonly involve the extremities of the body. Abuse victims tend to have multiple injuries in various stages of healing, from acute to chronic.
• Domestic violence victims may have emotional and psychological issues such as anxiety and depression. Complaints may include backaches, stomachaches, headaches, fatigue, restlessness, decreased appetite, and insomnia. Women are more likely to experience asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and diabetes.

Assuming the patient is stable and not in pain, a detailed assessment of victims should occur after disclosure of abuse. Assessing safety is the priority. A list of standard prepared questions can help alleviate the uncertainty in the patient's evaluation. If there are signs of immediate danger, refer to advocate support, shelter, a hotline for victims, or legal authorities.

• If there is no immediate danger, the assessment should focus on mental and physical health and establish the history of current or past abuse. These responses determine the appropriate intervention.
• During the initial assessment, a practitioner must be sensitive to the patient’s cultural beliefs. Incorporating a cultural sensitivity assessment with a history of being victims of domestic violence may allow more effective treatment.
• Patients that have suffered domestic violence may or may not want a referral. Many are fearful of their lives and financial well-being. They hence may be weighing the tradeoff in leaving the abuser leading to loss of support and perhaps the responsibility of caring for children alone. The healthcare provider needs to assure the patient that the decision is voluntary and that the provider will help regardless of the decision. The goal is to make resources accessible, safe, and enhance support.
• If the patient elects to leave their current situation, information for referral to a local domestic violence shelter to assist the victim should be given.
• If there is a risk to life or limb, or evidence of injury, the patient should be referred to local law enforcement officials.
• Counselors often include social workers, psychiatrists, and psychologists that specialize in the care of battered partners and children.

A detailed history and careful physical exam should be performed. If head trauma is suspected, consider an ophthalmology consultation to obtain indirect ophthalmoscopy.

Laboratory studies are often important for forensic evaluation and criminal prosecution. On occasion, certain diseases may mimic findings similar to child abuse. As a consequence, they must be ruled out.

• A urine test may be used as a screen for sexually transmitted disease, bladder or kidney trauma, and toxicology screening. 

If bruises or contusions are present, there is no need to evaluate for a bleeding disorder if the injuries are consistent with an abuse history. Some tests can be falsely elevated, so a child abuse-specialist pediatrician or hematologist should review or follow-up these tests.

Gastrointestinal and Chest Trauma

• Consider liver and pancreas screening tests such as AST, ALT, and lipase. If the AST or ALT is greater than 80 IU/L, or lipase greater than 100 IU/L, consider an abdomen and pelvis CT with intravenous contrast.
• The highest-risk are those with abusive head trauma, fractures, nausea, vomiting, or an abnormal Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 15.

The evaluation of the pediatric skeleton can prove challenging for a non-specialist as there are subtle differences from adults, such as cranial sutures and incomplete bone growth. A fracture can be misinterpreted. If there is a concern for abuse, consider consulting a radiologist.

Imaging: Skeletal Survey

A skeletal survey is indicated in children younger than 2 years with suspected physical abuse. The incidence of occult fractures is as high as 1 in 4 in physically abused children younger than 2 years. The clinician should consider screening all siblings younger than 2 years.

The skeletal survey should include 2 views of each extremity; anteroposterior and lateral skull; and lateral chest, spine, abdomen, pelvis, hands, and feet. A radiologist should review the films for classic metaphyseal lesions and healing fractures, most often involving the posterior ribs. A “babygram” that includes only 1 film of the entire body is not an adequate skeletal survey.

Skeletal fractures will remodel at different rates, which are dependent on the age, location, and nutritional status of the patient.

Imaging: CT

If abuse or head trauma is suspected, a CT scan of the head should be performed on all children aged six months or younger or children younger than 24 months if intracranial trauma is suspected. Clinicians should have a low threshold to obtain a CT scan of the head when abuse is suspected, especially in an infant younger than 12 months.

CT of the abdomen and pelvis with intravenous contrast is indicated in unconscious children, have traumatic abdominal findings such as abrasions, bruises, tenderness, absent or decreased bowel sounds, abdominal pain, nausea, or vomiting, or have elevation of the AST, an ALT greater than 80 IU/L, or lipase greater than 100 IU/L.

Special Documentation

Photographs should be taken before treatment of injuries.

Intimate Partner and Elder

Evaluate for evidence of dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, infection, substance abuse, improper medication administration, and malnutrition. 

• X-rays of bruised of tender body parts to detect fractures
• Head CT scan to evaluate for intracranial bleeding as a result of abuse or the causes of altered mental status
• Pelvic examination with evidence collection if sexual assault

Evidence Collection

Domestic and family violence commonly results in the legal prosecution of the perpetrator. Preferably, a team specializing in domestic violence is called in to assist with evidence collection.

Each health facility should have a written procedure for how to package and label specimens and maintain a chain of custody. Law enforcement personnel will often assist with evidence collection and provide specific kits.

It is important to avoid destroying evidence. Evidence includes tissue specimens, blood, urine, saliva, and vaginal and rectal specimens. Saliva from bites can be collected; the bite mark is swabbed with a water-moistened cotton-tipped swab.

Clothing stained with blood, saliva, semen, and vomit should be retained for forensic analysis.

• Treatment / Management

The priority is the ABCs and appropriate treatment of the presenting complaints. However, once the patient is stabilized, emergency medical services personnel may identify problems associated with violence. [19] [20] [21]

Emergency Department and Office Care

Interventions to consider include:

• Make sure a safe environment is provided.
• Diagnose physical injuries and other medical or surgical problems.
• Treat acute physical or life-threatening injuries.
• Identify possible sources of domestic violence.
• Establish domestic violence as a diagnosis.
• Reassure the patient that he is not at fault.
• Evaluate the emotional status and treat.
• Document the history, physical, and interventions.
• Determine the risks to the victim and assess safety options.
• Counsel the patient that violence may escalate.
• Determine if legal intervention is needed and report abuse when appropriate or mandated.
• Develop a follow-up plan.
• Offer shelter options, legal services, counseling, and facilitate such referral.

Medical Record

The medical record is often evidence used to convict an abuser. A poorly document chart may result in an abuser going free and assaulting again.

Charting should include detailed documentation of evaluation, treatment, and referrals.

• Describe the abusive event and current complaints using the patient's own words.
• Include the behavior of the patient in the record.
• Include health problems related to the abuse.
• Include the alleged perpetrator's name, relationship, and address.
• The physical exam should include a description of the patient's injuries including location, color, size, amount, and degree of age bruises and contusions.
• Document injuries with anatomical diagrams and photographs.
• Include the name of the patient, medical record number, date, and time of the photograph, and witnesses on the back of each photograph.
• Torn and damaged clothing should also be photographed.
• Document injuries not shown clearly by photographs with line drawings.
• With sexual assault, follow protocols for physical examination and evidence collection.

Disposition

If the patient does not want to go to a shelter, provide telephone numbers for domestic violence or crisis hotlines and support services for potential later use. Provide the patient with instructions but be mindful that written materials may pose a danger once the patient returns home.

• A referral should be made to primary care or another appropriate resource.
• Advise the patient to have a safety plan and provide examples.
• Forty percent of domestic violence victims never contact the police.
• Of female victims of domestic homicide, 44% had visited a hospital emergency department within 2 years of their murder.
• Health professionals provide an opportunity for victims of domestic violence to obtain help.
• Differential Diagnosis

The differential diagnosis varies with the injury type of injury and age.

Head Traum a

• Accidental injury
• Arteriovenous malformations
• Bacterial meningitis
• Birth trauma
• Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis
• Solid brain tumors

Bruises and Contusions

• Accidental bruises
• Bleeding disorder
• Congenital dermal melanocytosis (Mongolian spots)
• Erythema multiforme
• Accidental burns
• Atopic dermatitis
• Contact dermatitis
• Inflammatory skin conditions
• Congenital syphilis
• Osteogenesis imperfecta
• Osteomyelitis
• Toddler’s fracture

Without proper social service and mental health intervention, all forms of abuse can be recurrent and escalating problems, and the prognosis for recovery is poor. Without treatment, domestic and family violence usually recurs and escalates in both frequency and severity. [3] [22] [23]

• Of those injured by domestic violence, over 75% continue to experience abuse.
• Over half of battered women who attempt suicide will try again; often they are successful with the second attempt.

In children, the potential for poor outcomes is particularly high as abuse inflicts lifelong effects. In addition to dealing with the sequelae of physical injury, the mental consequences may be catastrophic. Studies indicate a significant association between child sexual abuse and increased risk of psychiatric disorders in later life. The potential for the cycle of violence to continued from childhood is very high.

Children raised in families of sexual abuse may develop:

• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Conduct disorder
• Bipolar disorder
• Panic disorder
• Sleep disorders
• Suicide attempts
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Health Outcomes

There are multiple known and suspected negative health outcomes of family and domestic violence. There are long-term consequences to broken bones, traumatic brain injuries, and internal injuries.

Patients may also develop multiple comorbidities such as:

• Fibromyalgia
• High blood pressure
• Chronic pain
• Gastrointestinal disorders
• Gynecologic disorders
• Panic attacks
• Pearls and Other Issues

Screening: Tools

• The American Academy of Pediatricians has free guides for the history, physical, diagnostic testing, documentation, treatment, and legal issues in cases of suspected child abuse.
• The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides several scales assessing family relationships, including child abuse risks.
• The physical examination is still the most significant diagnostic tool to detect abuse. A child or adult with suspected abuse should be undressed, and a comprehensive physical exam should be performed. The skin should be examined for bruises, bites, burns, and injuries in different stages of healing. Examine for retinal hemorrhages, subdural hemorrhages, tympanic membrane rupture, soft tissue swelling, oral bruising, fractured teeth, and organ injury.

Screening: Recommendations

• Evaluate for organic conditions and medications that mimic abuse.
• Evaluate patients and caregivers separately
• Clinicians should regularly screen for family and domestic violence and elder abuse
• The Elder Abuse Suspicion Index can be used to assess for elder abuse
• Screen for cognitive impairment before screening for abuse in the elderly
• Pattern injury is more suspicious
• Failure to report child abuse is illegal in most states.
• Failure to report intimate partner and elder abuse is illegal in many states.

It is important to be aware of federal and state statutes governing domestic and family abuse. Remember that reporting domestic and family violence to law enforcement does not obviate detailed documentation in the medical record.

• Battering is a crime, and the patient should be made aware that help is available. If the patient wants legal help, the local police should be called.
• In some jurisdictions, domestic violence reporting is mandated. The legal obligation to report abuse should be explained to the patient.
• The patient should be informed how local authorities typically respond to such reports and provide follow-up procedures. Address the risk of reprisal, need for shelter, and possibly an emergency protective order (available in every state and the District of Columbia).
• If there is a possibility the patient’s safety will be jeopardized, the clinician should work with the patient and authorities to best protect the patient while meeting legal reporting obligations.
• The clinical role in managing an abused patient goes beyond obeying the laws that mandate reporting; there is a primary obligation to protect the life of the patient.
• The clinician must help mitigate the potential harm that results from reporting, provide appropriate ongoing care, and preserve the safety of the patient.
• If the patient desires, and it is acceptable to the police, a health professional should remain during the interview.
• The medical record should reflect the incident as described by the patient and any physical exam findings. Include the date and time the report was taken and the officer's name and badge number.

National Statutes

Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA)

Each state has specific child abuse statutes. Federal legislation provides guidelines for defining acts that constitute child abuse. The guidelines suggest that child abuse includes an act or failure recent act that presents an imminent risk of serious harm. This includes any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in death, physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation.

Elder Justice Act

The Elder Justice Act provides strategies to decrease the likelihood of elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation. The Act utilizes three significant approaches:

Patient Safety and Abuse Act

The Violence Against Woman Act makes it a federal crime to cross state lines to stalk, harass, or physically injure a partner; or enter or leave the country violating a protective order. It is a violation to possess a firearm or ammunition while subject to a protective order or if convicted of a qualifying crime of domestic violence.

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Domestic violence may be difficult to uncover when the victim is frightened, especially when he or she presents to an emergency department or healthcare practitioner's office. The key is to establish an assessment protocol and maintain an awareness of the possibility that domestic and family violence may be the cause of the patient’s signs and symptoms.

Over 80% of victims of domestic and family violence seek care in a hospital; others may seek care in health professional offices, including dentists, therapists, and other medical offices. Routine screening should be conducted by all healthcare practitioners including nurses, physicians, physician assistants, dentists, nurse practitioners, and pharmacists. Interprofessional coordination of screening is a critical component of protecting victims and minimizing negative health outcomes. Health professional team interventions reduce the incidence of morbidity and mortality associated with domestic violence. Documentation is vital and a legal obligation.

• Healthcare professionals including the nurse should document all findings and recommendations in the medical record, including statements made denying abuse
• If domestic violence is admitted, documentation should include the history, physical examination findings, laboratory and radiographic finds, any interventions, and the referrals made.
• If there are significant findings that can be recorded, pictures should be included.
• The medical record may become a court document; be objective and accurate.
• Healthcare professionals should provide a follow-up appointment.
• Reassurance that additional assistance is available at any time is critical to protect the patient from harm and break the cycle of abuse.
• Involve the social worker early
• Do not discharge the patient until a safe haven has been established.

The following agencies provide national assistance for victims of domestic and family violence:

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (800-CDC-INFO (232-4636)/TTY: 888-232-6348
• Childhelp: National Child Abuse Hotline: (800-4-A-CHILD (2-24453))
• The coalition of Labor Union Women (cluw.org): 202-466-4615
• Corporate Alliance to End Partner Violence: 309-664-0667
• Employers Against Domestic Violence: 508-894-6322
• Futures without Violence: 415-678-5500/TTY 800-595-4889
• Love Is Respect: National Teen Dating Abuse Helpline: 866-331-9474 /TTY: 866-331-8453
• National Center on Domestic and Sexual Violence
• National Center on Elder Abuse
• National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (www.ncadv.org)
• National Network to End Domestic Violence: 202-543-5566
• National Organization for Victim Assistance
• National Resource Center on Domestic Violence: 800-537-2238 
• National Sexual Violence Resource Center: 717-909-0710
• Review Questions
• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
• Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Martin Huecker declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Kevin King declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Gary Jordan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: William Smock declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Huecker MR, King KC, Jordan GA, et al. Domestic Violence. [Updated 2023 Apr 9]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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• Florida Domestic Violence. [StatPearls. 2024] Florida Domestic Violence. Houseman B, Semien G. StatPearls. 2024 Jan
• Kentucky Domestic Violence. [StatPearls. 2024] Kentucky Domestic Violence. Huecker MR, Malik A, King KC, Smock W. StatPearls. 2024 Jan
• Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization--national intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States, 2011. [MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014] Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization--national intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States, 2011. Breiding MJ, Smith SG, Basile KC, Walters ML, Chen J, Merrick MT. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014 Sep 5; 63(8):1-18.
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Essay on Domestic Violence

Domestic violence, also known as intimate partner violence, entails an imbalance of power whereby an abuser uses intimidation and hurtful actions to control a victim. Anyone in a relationship, whether with a romantic partner or a sibling or a child, is at risk of domestic violence. The problem of domestic violence is rampant in diverse parts of the world, affecting both men and women. However, an overwhelming number of victims are women. In the United States, one in three women is reported to have endured some form of domestic violence from an intimate partner. Domestic violence can range from verbal abuse to serious injuries, which in some instances can turn out fatal. Whereas healthcare professionals can detect domestic violence and provide safety referrals, the problem is still a significant public health concern affecting more women than men, and most cases go unreported hence creating an opportunity for recurrence.

Domestic violence occurs within the domestic circle of the affected person. For instance, it can be orchestrated by a romantic partner, an ex-partner, or a family member. The four most common forms of domestic violence include sexual abuse, physical abuse, economic abuse and psychological abuse (John, 2022). Physical abuse is the use of force to intentionally cause physical harm to a victim, which can sometimes result in manslaughter. On the other hand, sexual abuse is the use of force while performing a sexual act without consent, which is unlawful. Economic abuse refers to behaviours such as the destruction of property or restricting access to joint finances hence restricting a victim of their economic freedom. Psychological abuse can take the form of harassment, coercion and defamation. The diverse forms of violence can occur independently or all together depending on the nature and character of the abuser. For most cultures and, in a few cases, in mainstream society, domestic violence is normalized as a societal norm, especially when the victims are women.

The act of normalizing domestic violence is so bad that even when a victim reports the matter to the authorities, little or no effort is taken to address the vice and bring the culprits to justice. Domestic violence is caused by diverse factors, including social and economic status, religion and the level of education of the parties involved. Furthermore, situations that affect emotions and individual sensitivity are also likely to impact the domestic atmosphere negatively, hence resulting in altercations between partners. For instance, the COVID-19 period heightened sensitivities in the domestic circle, which led to increased cases of domestic violence.

According to research, COVID-19 placed families, individuals and communities under immense stress in terms of the economic burden and health of individuals. Due to practices such as social distancing, some of the women experienced domestic violence in the form of neglect and exploitation (Malik & Naeem, 2020). Domestic violence can be seen as a secondary effect of the pandemic, which means that little to no attention is allocated to evaluating and addressing the problem from a community or a national standpoint. More often than not, secondary matters are not considered a priority for policy reforms. However, given the magnitude of the problem, it is essential to create awareness regarding domestic violence, its nature, implications and ways to avoid or prevent it.

The gravity of domestic violence is sometimes trivialized by outsiders who do not understand the cycle of violence and how it works. For instance, it is easy for onlookers to claim that once violence has been experienced, walking out is the best option. Leaving is difficult, primarily due to the nature of the cycle of abuse. The abuse cycle is categorized into three phases, namely, the tension-building phase, the crisis phase and the honeymoon phase. The tension phase is when the victim is afraid of a looming crisis. The crisis phase is categorized by threats, destruction, and a blowup that is accompanied by abuse of alcohol or drugs (Shelter for Help in Emergency, 2023). The honeymoon phase is when the abuser promises to change, professes love and assures the victim that the violence cannot recur. However, the reality is that victims of domestic violence leave and return to their abuses at least seven times. Furthermore, failure to act on domestic violence cases intensifies their recurrence and severity.

Domestic violence affects the victims in numerous ways, including physical and psychological. Additionally, the self-esteem and productivity of a victim are negatively affected. Apart from the individual perspective, domestic violence affects national healthcare. In the United States alone, approximately 10 million people are affected by domestic violence on an annual basis (Huecker et al., 2022). Diverse studies on domestic violence all focus on different aspects, such as the impact of domestic violence on children and factors that influence its occurrence, among other issues. The essential point of focus, however, can be seen as the creation of awareness regarding the severity of the issue and the establishment of ways through which the victims can receive support. Identifying the abusers and linking them to counselling systems can also help address the root cause of the problem.

Among the numerous indicators of domestic violence include mental disorders, witnessing abuse as a child, a mental attitude that violence is okay and being abused in early childhood. Abusers can be made aware of their actions and advised to identify and work on their triggers to commit violent acts. A team-based or community-based approach can be an effective approach to addressing the issue of domestic violence. It is essential that the stakeholders in society identify and assume their respective roles in providing a safety net to domestic violence victims. For instance, religious leaders can offer compassion and knowledge to the victims, hence helping them manage their situation through sound decisions. According to research, team-based inter-professional care helps victims to evaluate, report and manage their experiences with their abusers (Huecker et al., 2022).

Addressing domestic violence requires the public to first recognize the signs that they are indeed facing abuse. In some situations, victims of abuse are unaware that they are facing the first steps of abuse, which eventually escalate in nature and magnitude, hence the difficulty in leaving an abuser. Among the diverse signs to look out for include an increase in loss of temper, receiving threats about physical harm, hearing of plans to commit violence, increased frequency of physical fights and increase in alcohol or drug intake. Maintaining awareness of the signs of domestic violence can help potential victims distance themselves on the earliest occasion such that they avoid normalizing domestic violence experiences.

While society continues to normalize domestic violence as a lesser crime requiring little to no attention, it is evident from the statistics on domestic violence that the issue is a growing health concern. Victims and witnesses of domestic violence cases shy away from reporting such crimes, which allows the vice to spread and affect large populations. The realization of the gravity of the situation now warrants the public to maintain awareness of the types, causes, signs and impact of domestic violence experiences in society. Furthermore, research findings advocate for a team-based approach (health care professionals and religious leaders) in providing knowledge, safety and compassion to domestic violence victims.

Huecker, M. R., King, K. C., Jordan, G. A., & Smock, W. (2022).  Domestic violence – statpearls – NCBI bookshelf . Retrieved February 16, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/

John, V. (2022).  Hope When It Hurts: Recognizing the Signs of Domestic Violence  (Doctoral dissertation, Amridge University).

Malik, S., & Naeem, K. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Women: Health, livelihoods & domestic violence.

Shelter for Help in Emergency. (2023).  Cycle of Violence . Shelter for Help in Emergency. Retrieved February 17, 2023, from https://www.shelterforhelpinemergency.org/get-help/cycle-violence#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20phases%20in,tends%20to%20increase%20over%20time.

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Supreme Court's Rahimi Decision Important for Local Domestic Violence Initiative – Operation 922

OKLAHOMA CITY – Today, the Supreme Court in United States v. Rahimi upheld the constitutionality of the federal statute prohibiting individuals subject to a domestic violence restraining order from possessing a firearm or ammunition. This law is a critical tool in our ongoing violent crime initiative – Operation 922.  In 2018, the Western District of Oklahoma launched Operation 922 as the local implementation of Project Safe Neighborhoods (PSN), a Department of Justice program to reduce violent crime. The specific strategy is to reduce gun violence by targeting the subject matter of domestic violence. 

“The Supreme Court’s decision today is vital to our office’s ongoing commitment to address domestic violence through enforcement of federal firearms laws,” said U.S. Attorney Robert J. Troester. “We cannot have safe neighborhoods without first having safe homes. By bringing the power of federal prosecution to hold domestic abusers accountable, particularly when they possess a firearm, we are protecting the lives of women and children in abusive relationships, and the police officers who respond to domestic calls.”

Domestic abusers are found in all neighborhoods, regardless of race, ethnicity, socio-economic status, educational level, employment status, or geographic area. When domestic violence escalates to involving firearms, the threat to physical safety increases significantly for the intimate partner, child of a partner, and law enforcement officers responding to domestic calls.  Operation 922 prioritizes prosecutions of repeat domestic abusers and particularly violent offenders in domestic settings who violate federal law (primarily firearms offenses). It brings law enforcement, prosecutors, and non-profit entities together with common purpose and clear direction – to protect victims of domestic violence and hold abusers accountable. 

Since Operation 922 was launched in 2018, the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Western District of Oklahoma has charged 338 individuals with federal offenses stemming from domestic violence. To date, 321 have already been determined guilty through trial or plea, and 291 have already been sentenced to an average of more than 74 months in federal prison. Cases have originated in 26 different counties in the Western District of Oklahoma.

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Supreme Court upholds gun control law used to protect domestic violence victims

WASHINGTON (AP) — The Supreme Court on Friday upheld a federal gun control law that is intended t o protect victims of domestic violence .

In their first Second Amendment case since they expanded gun rights in 2022 , the justices ruled 8-1 in favor of a 1994 ban on firearms for people under restraining orders to stay away from their spouses or partners. The justices reversed a ruling from the federal appeals court in New Orleans that had struck down the law.

READ MORE: Why post-Roe abortion restrictions worry domestic violence experts

Chief Justice John Roberts, writing for the court, said the law uses “common sense” and applies only “after a judge determines that an individual poses a credible threat” of physical violence.

Justice Clarence Thomas, the author of the major 2022 Bruen ruling in a New York case, dissented.

President Joe Biden, who has been critical of previous high-court rulings on guns, abortion and other hot-button issues, praised the outcome.

“No one who has been abused should have to worry about their abuser getting a gun,” Biden said in a statement. “As a result of today’s ruling, survivors of domestic violence and their families will still be able to count on critical protections, just as they have for the past three decades.”

Last week, the court overturned a Trump-era ban on bump stocks, the rapid-fire gun accessories used in the deadliest mass shooting in modern U.S. history. The court ruled that the Justice Department exceeded its authority in imposing that ban.

Friday’s case stemmed directly from the Supreme Court’s Bruen decision in June 2022. A Texas man, Zackey Rahimi, was accused of hitting his girlfriend during an argument in a parking lot and later threatening to shoot her.

At arguments in November, some justices voiced concern that a ruling for Rahimi could also jeopardize the background check system that the Biden administration said has stopped more than 75,000 gun sales in the past 25 years based on domestic violence protective orders.

The case also had been closely watched for its potential to affect cases in which other gun ownership laws have been called into question, including in the high-profile prosecution of Hunter Biden. Biden’s son was convicted of lying on a form to buy a firearm while he was addicted to drugs. His lawyers have signaled they will appeal.

A decision to strike down the domestic violence gun law might have signaled the court’s skepticism of the other laws as well. But Friday’s decision did not suggest that the court would necessarily uphold those law either.

The justices could weigh in soon in one or more of those other cases.

Many of the gun law cases grow out of the Bruen decision. That high court ruling not only expanded Americans’ gun rights under the Constitution but also changed the way courts are supposed to evaluate restrictions on firearms.

Roberts turned to history in his opinion. “Since the founding, our nation’s firearm laws have included provisions preventing individuals who threaten physical harm to others from misusing firearms,” he wrote.

READ MORE: Federal judge blocks California law that would have banned carrying firearms in most public places

Some courts have gone too far, Roberts wrote, in applying Bruen and other gun rights cases. “These precedents were not meant to suggest a law trapped in amber,” he wrote.

In dissent, Thomas wrote, the law “strips an individual of his ability to possess firearms and ammunition without any due process.”

The government “failed to produce any evidence” that the law is consistent with the nation’s historical tradition of firearm regulation, he wrote.

“Not a single historical regulation justifies the statute at issue,” Thomas wrote.

Seven of the nine justices wrote opinions in the guns case spanning 94 pages, mainly focused on the proper use of history in evaluating gun restrictions and other limitations on constitutional rights.

Justice Sonia Sotomayor wrote that Roberts’ opinion “permits a historical inquiry calibrated to reveal something useful and transferable to the present day, while the dissent would make the historical inquiry so exacting as to be useless.” She was among the three liberal justices who dissented in the Bruen case.

Justice Brett Kavanaugh, who was part of the Bruen majority, noted that the court probably will have many more cases about the reach of gun rights because “Second Amendment jurisprudence is in its early innings.” It was only in 2008 that the court declared for the first time that the Constitution protects an individual’s right to keep and bear arms.

Rahimi’s case reached the Supreme Court after prosecutors appealed a ruling that threw out his conviction for possessing guns while subject to a restraining order.

Rahimi was involved in five shootings over two months in and around Arlington, Texas, U.S. Circuit Judge Cory Wilson noted. When police identified Rahimi as a suspect in the shootings and showed up at his home with a search warrant, he admitted having guns in the house and being subject to a domestic violence restraining order that prohibited gun possession, Wilson wrote.

But even though Rahimi was hardly “a model citizen,” Wilson wrote, the law at issue could not be justified by looking to history. That’s the test Justice Thomas laid out in his opinion for the court in Bruen.

The appeals court initially upheld the conviction under a balancing test that included whether the restriction enhances public safety. But the panel reversed course after Bruen. At least one district court has upheld the law since the Bruen decision.

After the ruling, Attorney General Merrick Garland said the Justice Department “will continue to enforce this important statute, which for nearly 30 years has helped to protect victims and survivors of domestic violence from their abusers.”

“As the Justice Department argued, and as the Court reaffirmed today, that commonsense prohibition is entirely consistent with the Court’s precedent and the text and history of the Second Amendment,” Garland said in a statement.

Advocates for domestic violence victims and gun control groups had called on the court to uphold the law.

Firearms are the most common weapon used in homicides of spouses, intimate partners, children or relatives in recent years, according to data from the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guns were used in more than half, 57%, of those killings in 2020, a year that saw an overall increase in domestic violence during the coronavirus pandemic.

Seventy women a month, on average, are shot and killed by intimate partners, according to the gun control group Everytown for Gun Safety.

Gun rights groups backed Rahimi, arguing that the appeals court got it right when it looked at American history and found no restriction close enough to justify the gun ban.

Associated Press writers Fatima Hussein, Alanna Durkin Richer and Lindsay Whitehurst contributed to this report.

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US Supreme Court upholds federal domestic-violence gun ban

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• The 8-1 decision affirms constitutionally of 1994 U.S. law
• Biden says the ruling protects domestic violence survivors

'A SIGH OF RELIEF'

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Supreme Court upholds law banning domestic abusers from owning guns

The decision showed that a conservative court which has expanded gun rights also sees areas for limitations..

WASHINGTON − The Supreme Court on Friday upheld a law banning domestic abusers from owning guns , showing that a conservative court that has expanded gun rights also sees areas for limitations.

"Since the founding, our Nation’s firearm laws have included provisions preventing individuals who threaten physical harm to others from misusing firearms," Chief Justice John Roberts wrote for the 8-1 majority in a decision that faulted some courts for misunderstanding the court's recent moves backing gun rights.

But Justice Clarence Thomas, the lone dissenter Friday and author of one of the past key gun rights decisions, said there isn't a "single historical regulation" that justifies the ban.

Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson joined the majority but quibbled with analyzing statutes based on how they would have been viewed historically. She said a historical perspective on the Second Amendment would depend on the historians who are consulted.

'I could go on...But I won't'

“Who is protected by the Second Amendment, from a historical perspective?” Jackson wrote “I could go on – as others have. But I won’t.”

The decision indicates the court is likely to be more flexible in applying the historical test it set in 2022 but doesn’t foreshadow how that test will be applied to other restrictions such as prohibiting non-violent felons from having guns or banning high-capacity magazines, according to Joseph Blocher, co-director of the Center for Firearms Law at Duke University School of Law.

A narrow win for the government

“I think the Supreme Court is probably going to have to take more cases going forward to resolve those issues,” Blocher said. “This is a win for the government, but in some respects, it's about the narrowest win that the government could have.”

In fact, Justice Neil Gorsuch wrote in a concurring opinion that the decision leaves open the question of whether the ban on guns for those subject to a domestic violence restraining order could be challenged by someone with different circumstances.

The case centered on a Texas man, Zackey Rahimi, who was involved in five shootings between 2020 and 2021. Rahimi pleaded guilty to the federal crime of possessing guns while subject to a restraining order, but an appeals court threw out his conviction.

The New Orleans-based 5 th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals relied on the court’s blockbuster 2022 decision, NYSRPA v. Bruen, striking down a New York law that required state  residents to have "proper cause" to carry a handgun .

In that 6-3 opinion, the court ruled that gun regulations must be "consistent with this nation's historical tradition of firearm regulation" to survive court challenges. 

The Supreme Court said Friday the appeals court was wrongly looking for a "historical twin" to the regulation, rather than a "historical analogue."

Some courts, Roberts wrote, "have misunderstood the methodology of our recent Second Amendment cases."

"These precedents were not meant to suggest a law trapped in amber," Roberts wrote. "Holding otherwise would be as mistaken as applying the protections of the right only to muskets and sabers."

During the court’s discussion of Rahimi’s case in November, the question arose of what to do about a situation, such as domestic violence, in which there was essentially no law on the books when the Second Amendment was enacted. Much of the discussion focused on the idea that even if the framers didn't ban domestic abusers from owning guns, there was historical precedent for banning guns from people who were considered dangerous.

Thomas, in his dissent, accused the other justices of “mixing and matching historical laws.” He called that strategy a “regulatory blank check” to allow the government to disarm its citizens.

“That means the Government need only find a historical law with a comparable justification to validate modern disarmament regimes,” Thomas wrote. “As a result, historical laws fining certain behavior could justify completely disarming a person for the same behavior.”

'Hardly a model citizen'

While the appeals court had acknowledged Rahimi was "hardly a model citizen,” it ruled the law prohibiting him from owning a gun is an "outlier that our ancestors would never have accepted."

Underscoring the significance of the case, hundreds of gun safety and domestic violence prevention advocates had rallied outside the Supreme Court ahead of the November oral arguments, holding signs that read "Moms demand action" or "students demand action" on gun control.

Ashley Lantz, executive director of Brady PAC, said two-thirds of women killed by an intimate partner are killed with a gun.

“Thousands of women and other victims of domestic violence can breathe a sigh of relief today as the Court correctly ruled that their abusers cannot own firearms,” Lantz said in a statement Friday.

President Joe Biden said no one who has been abused should have to worry about their abuser getting a gun.

Attorney General Merrick Garland said the court maintained a "commonsense prohibition" consistent with the Second Amendment to protect victims of domestic violence from their abusers.

Even Second Amendment rights groups acknowledged that Rahimi probably should not have access to guns. In 2019, Rahimi  pulled out a gun and fired at a passerby  who witnessed him dragging his girlfriend through a parking lot. Months later, after getting into an accident, he repeatedly shot at the other driver. In 2021, he fired several times after a friend's credit card was declined at a Whataburger burger joint.

But those groups, including the National Rifle Association , argued that Rahimi should have his guns confiscated only after he has been convicted of the crimes. The federal law that bars people from owning guns because of a restraining order, those groups say, is inconsistent with the way courts have historically viewed punishment.

“Zackey Rahimi is a dangerous individual already behind bars for real crimes – and that’s where he should be," said Erich Pratt, senior vice president for Gun Owners of America. "However, this ruling will disarm others who have never actually committed any domestic violence. So for those people to lose their enumerated rights, even for a temporary period of time, is a disgrace. If someone is dangerous, charge them with a real crime, convict them in a court of law, and get them out of society.”   

But the student-led group March for Our Lives called Friday's decision the “bare minimum” and said it doesn’t make up for past decisions include the court's striking down last week a Trump-era federal ban on bump stocks , a device that lets a shooter fire a semi-automatic rifle  more like a machine gun .

“Make no mistake: While the Supreme Court got it right today, it has already done far-reaching damage to settled constitutional jurisprudence via Bruen, " said Makennan McBryde, Legal Associate at March For Our Lives, "and we remain concerned with its willingness to endanger lives to pursue a partisan agenda."

The court, in recent years, has tended to side with gun rights advocates, including in major decisions in  2008 ,  2010  and the 2022 decision striking down New York’s gun licensing law.

The case is United States v. Rahimi.