slavery in the roman empire essay

Slavery in the Roman Empire Essay

The Roman Empire had mixed complexities with ruthlessness and could suddenly heave from civilization, dictatorship, and extreme greed. Besides, it had different leaders who exercised their powers in unusual ways. Consequently, the unworthy empires abused their offices by infuriating their subjects. They employed several ways of ruling over the Roman Empire (Gordon 94).

For instance, the emperors established the top most social order in Rome where the less privileged especially the poor and the slaves were discriminated. As a result, the administration interfered with the social status of many citizens negatively (Duiker and Spielvogel 83). Actually, they rarely had freedom since others who felt that they were highly placed in the society could mock some of the subjects.

Apparently, there were several conflicts and anxiousness among the citizens within the Roman community. Certainly, this was because of the social classes that were in place between different groups of people. The elite were the rich people, and majority of the population that comprised of the common farmers, artisans, and merchants known as the plebeians occupied the low status (85).

Slavery in the Ancient Roman Empire was highly abusive and degrading. Joining the likes of Ancient Greece and Egypt, Rome practiced slavery that was not based on race. The empire had captured sailors, prisoners of war, and pirates who could be mistreated, branded and whipped.

The harsh treatment is evident in the manner in which their owners possessed them as properties, and could sell or kill them at will, with no punishment for human right’s violation.

Even though the concept of slavery was wholly accepted within the empire, Seneca, a poet and philosopher, held that slaves, just like other humans, should be given fair treatment. The empire practiced manumission in which slaves could either buy their freedom or get outright release from their masters (Gordon 95). Such slaves were accorded fewer rights since the manumission was informal.

However, slaves who were freed formally had to go to the magistrate, and were given rights to become full citizens of Rome, but could not hold public offices. On the other hand, their off springs had full rights of citizenship. So orchestrated was the slavery aspect within this society that even after full freedom, former slaves could not overcome the slavery stigma.

Since the Roman population was incredibly sensitive about the social status of every individual, it was made up of various groups and domestic slaves, which were the fundamental groups in the society. In fact, the less advantaged had no right to influence the decisions made by other people considered great in the society and, subsequently, the older citizens sold most young citizens into slavery.

Worst of all, some were even killed especially those who attempted to oppose the actions by the elders and the most respected people in the society (105). On the other hand, this form of inequality resulted into a governance structure where there was a shared advantage among the citizens.

For instance, most of the rich showed a lot of respect to those whom they employed; they could go with them to the social places and business forums. The Roman Empire preferred slave labor to any other job. Consequently, most people who were arrested and detained during the war became slaves in the Empire. Most bosses exploited the slaves, as they worked in large agricultural firms and were beaten up ruthlessly.

Besides, Greek slaves were in high demand because most of them were professionals. Businesspersons also employed them as shop assistants and artisans. However, most slaves from other regions were household workers who could cook and take care of gardens (Gibbon 202). As a result of the exploitation, there was an episodic slave revolts revolutions which was founded to help them come out of the bondage .

The movement was led by Thracian Gladiator Spartacus; he succeeded in overpowering most of the Romans. Nonetheless, the Roman government later killed him. Even though most of the girls in some well-to-do families went to primary schools to where they received basic education, they were forced into early marriage at their teens. This culture led largely to discrimination on women. Definitely, they had no voice in the community and they could not question any move by men (Duiker and Spielvogel 95).

Further, most men viewed them as children and even the law required the males to be their advocates. They could not even own property or even attend any function presided over by men. The Roman law considered slaves as personal properties that owners could possess, mistreat, and dispossess at will. With poor living and working conditions, slaves contributed to the growth of the Ancient Rome’s economy.

There are several reasons for the fall of the empire. Some of the combined dramatic events that led to the fall of Rome include political incompetence, invasion by the Visigoths and Huns tribes from central and northern Europe respectively, corruption, inflation and military overreach (Gordon 99). Historians have suggested that the infighting within the army coupled with the infiltration of Germanic tribesmen into the ranks diluted and weaken the once powerful force. Moreover, the extraneous expenses by the military in defending the borders of the empire from barbarian attacks drained the government.

With such overspending in the military, the government could not provide vital services, such as public housing and maintain quality roads (Gibbon 245). Frustrations set in among the Romans and they went on to lose the need to fight for the interests of the empire. Sensing lose of desire to defend the Empire, the government hired soldiers from foreign nations and unemployed city mobs. The new crops in the army were not only unreliable, but also expensive to maintain, thus pushed up inflation.

The increase in prices of essential commodities that began after the reign of Marcus Aurelius arose due to less gold to mint coins, as the Romans were spending them to pay for luxury items. The coins lost value due to the reduction in the number of gold, thus forcing merchants to increase the prices of their products.

Wealthy men carried out large-scale farming in large estates, latifundia, and used slaves as the source of labor (Duiker and Spielvogel 100). The large-scale aspect made it difficult for citizen farmers to compete with the low prices. Consequently, they abandoned farming and moved to cities with unemployed people.

Evidently, unemployment among the working class became rife in the Roman Empire; it went on to cause instability in the operations of the empire. Nevertheless, the Roman Empire later failed due to inadequate support from a section of citizens who were disappointed by the manner it carried out its duties. Evidently, the subjects of Justinian were the most affected group. The Empire experienced poverty; this was after the monks took over Europe and Asia (Gibbon 240). Acts of oppression are evident in the fall of the Roman Empires.

Works Cited

Duiker, William J., and Jackson J. Spielvogel. The Essential World History . 7th ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth;, 2013. Print.

Gibbon, Edward. “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.” International Journal Political Thought 140 (1977): 200-250. Print.

Gordon, William D. “The Nationality of Slaves under the Early Roman Empire.” J ournal of Roman Studies 14 (1924): 93-111. Print.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, September 8). Slavery in the Roman Empire. https://ivypanda.com/essays/slavery-in-the-roman-empire/

"Slavery in the Roman Empire." IvyPanda , 8 Sept. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/slavery-in-the-roman-empire/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Slavery in the Roman Empire'. 8 September.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Slavery in the Roman Empire." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/slavery-in-the-roman-empire/.

1. IvyPanda . "Slavery in the Roman Empire." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/slavery-in-the-roman-empire/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Slavery in the Roman Empire." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/slavery-in-the-roman-empire/.

• Racism in African American Studies and History
• "Artisans in Merchant Towns" by Sean Cadigan
• Jamaica: Post Emancipation Period Analysis
• Slavery and Racism: Black Brazilians v. Black Americans
• Artasian Project Empowering Central Asian Artisans
• Minting Coins, Incentives for Commerce, and Promissory Notes
• Marketing Prepaid Cards in "From Coins to Big Bucks"
• Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome
• The impact of globalization
• How Developments Changed Nature of Work
• The Maya Civilisation (Central America)
• Ancient Civilizations: The Maya Empire
• Medicine in Ancient Rome
• Welcome to Ancient Egypt: When Legends Were Born
• Concepts of Ancient Greek Culture

Please enable JavaScript in your web browser to get the best experience.

Slavery in ancient Rome

Antistia Plutia (right) was a former enslaved individual of Lucius Antistius Sarculo (left). He freed and married her. The couple is remembered by their freedmen in this funerary relief. Rome, Italy, around 30–10 BC.

Share the page

• Share on Facebook
• Share on X (formerly Twitter)

See the small inscribed plate  and more objects in the Greek and Roman life gallery.

What can a small, inscribed plate tell us about slavery in ancient Rome?

Slavery played a significant role in Roman society. Enslaved people were in the city, the countryside, households and businesses, and ownership wasn't limited to elites. Today, it's difficult to quantify their numbers. However, by exploring surviving objects we can build a picture of the difficult and varied lives those enslaved in ancient Rome endured, helping us better understand their impact.  Content warning: this story contains details of inhumane treatment of enslaved people in ancient Rome, including physical abuse and death.

What is this object?

Although seemingly just a small inscribed plate (5.8 cm in diameter), this object tells a dark and troubling story from the heart of the Roman empire . Found in Rome and dated to the 4th century AD, it's a tag for a human. Attached to a metal collar, an enslaved person was forced to wear it. Its Latin inscription reads: 

Tene me ne fugia(m) et revoca me ad dom(i)num Viventium in ar(e)a Callisti Hold me, lest I flee, and return me to my master Viventius on the estate of Callistus

The object is part of a series of inscribed collars, with or without tags, found in both Italy, particularly in Rome and North Africa. These collars (riveted so not easily removed) were used to deter enslaved people from escaping and to help with their recapture, should they try. The words on this tag, and others, are variations of ' tene me et revoca me'  (hold me and return me), with instructions on how to return the fugitive. Some of the inscriptions also include statements giving details about the wearer and the master, occasionally even offering a reward.

This, and other collars, date to the late imperial period (mainly 4th century AD). It's possible they became frequently used following the emperor Constantine's law in AD 316 banning the cruel and dehumanising practice of tattooing runaways' foreheads, a previously common punishment.  It seems the unnamed wearer of this tag had tried to flee at least once before, so their master Viventius had this collar made. As instructed, whoever found the individual was to return them to the estate of Callistus, located in the Transtiberine district in Rome, on the right bank of the river Tiber.

Where did Roman enslaved people come from?

We know very little about the wearer of this tag, only that they lived in or near Rome and their master considered them difficult. We have no way of guessing if this person was born into slavery or where they came from. In the Roman world there were many different ways someone could be forced into slavery. These included children born into slavery, people captured in war, individuals who were sold or self-sold into slavery and infants abandoned at birth. Less common were children sold by their parents, people being enslaved for debts or as punishment for crimes and people who were victims of kidnapping and piracy. We know of two slavery markets in the city of Rome. One was by the Temple of Castor in the Forum, the other near the Saepta Julia in the Campus Martius. Capture during war saw many enslaved, especially during the Republican period (509 BC to 27 BC). As a result, origins of those enslaved shifted with Rome's geographical expansion. Augustus' pacification of the Mediterranean, at the end of the 1st century BC, reduced the number of people enslaved through warfare. Still, the supply of captives continued thanks to the conquest of new territories such as Britain and Dacia (modern-day Romania), frontier warfare, and the suppression of revolts. Romans also traded enslaved people across and within the borders of Roman territory . In imperial times (27 BC to AD 476), imported people could come from areas just beyond the Roman frontiers – Ireland, Scotland, Eastern European countries bordering the Rhine and Danube, the Black Sea area, the Arabian Peninsula and Africa. However, enslaved people could also come from within the borders of the Roman empire, for example from Thrace, Asia Minor and Syria. As mentioned by the Roman writer Varro, the city of Ephesus (on the coast of modern-day Turkey) was a centre for the Roman slave trade. When Roman authors do reference an enslaved person's origin, it's usually a province in the empire's borders, such as Cappadocia and Phrygia (both modern-day Turkey) or Syria. The question of race and slavery in Roman times is a complex one. In the Roman world, enslaved people came from a range of ethnic backgrounds, often the same as their masters. Traders had to disclose the origin ( natio ) of the people they were selling, indicating Romans saw certain personal characteristics, physical strength, character and behaviour, as connected to where someone was from. These in turn could deter or encourage buyers. In a letter written during Caesar's invasion of Britain in 55 BC, Cicero jokes about the unlikelihood of finding British enslaved peoples educated in literature or music.

How important was slavery in the Roman world?

Slavery in ancient Rome is well documented. Various literary sources, legal documents, inscriptions and artistic representations show how common enslaved people were in everyday life. Yet we don't know exact numbers, making it hard to fully understand their importance to Roman society and its economy. Scholars estimate about 10% (but possibly up to 20%) of the Roman empire's population were enslaved. This would mean, for an estimated Roman empire population of 50 million (in the first century AD) between five and ten million were enslaved. This number would have been unequally distributed across the empire, with a higher concentration of enslaved people in urban areas and in Italy. Surviving evidence shows that enslaved people had a wide range of occupations. Many carried out hard manual labour under strict supervision, but they could also perform more specialised activities with a higher degree of autonomy. Some were highly autonomous and were even responsible for other enslaved people, known as vicarii . Today, it's difficult to fully appreciate the relative prevalence of these enslaved occupations or to measure exactly how much of the Roman workforce they accounted for. However, it's clear slavery played a significant role, acting as a vital component of Roman society and its economy. Enslaved people were ubiquitous in the city and countryside, in both households and businesses, and their ownership was not limited to the elite.

How much did enslaved individuals cost?

The price of an enslaved person in ancient Rome varied considerably depending on the sex, age, and skills of the individual. Based on literary and documentary sources, the average price for an unskilled or moderately skilled enslaved person in the first three centuries AD was about 2,000 sesterces. To give a sense of scale, in the first century AD, a legionary (a Roman foot soldier) received a salary of 900 sesterces per year – amounting to less than 600 following deductions for rations, boots, and hay. An ordinary centurion (a legionary's commander) was paid 15 times more, only needing to set aside wages for a few months in order to afford an enslaved person.

Skilled enslaved individuals cost considerably more. The Roman writer Columella, writing in the first century AD, tells us that a vinedresser (someone who worked on the cultivation of grapevines) could cost between 6,000 and 8,000 sesterces. However, a senator (whose properties had to be worth at least a million sesterces) could comfortably afford this. Roman documents discuss elite households having hundreds, if not thousands, of enslaved people, some of them highly trained and specialised. It's clear great funds were required to buy servants, as well as to maintain them. This is also true for those who performed necessary public services, paid at public expense. In first-century Rome, no less than 700 enslaved people worked on the maintenance of the capital's aqueducts – paid for by the public treasury and the emperor.

What was life like for the enslaved?

Under Roman law, enslaved people had no personal rights and were regarded as the property of their masters. They could be bought, sold, and mistreated at will and were unable to own property, enter into a contract, or legally marry.

Most of what we know today comes from texts written by masters. These authors had little interest in describing servants' daily lives and they only present us with polarised depictions of enslaved individuals. They are presented either as stereotypical 'good slaves' or, more commonly, as 'bad', 'disloyal', 'lazy' and deceitful people. Despite the text's elite bias, we get a sense of how differently people could be treated, often based on their occupations and skills. 

Some of the worst working conditions were those in mines or quarries. Enslaved people were forced to work with no respite, in deep, dark and narrow tunnels. The work was both physically demanding and dangerous, with the tunnels risking collapse. Describing the harrowing working conditions in Spanish mines, the historian Diodorus Siculus wrote in 1st century BC:

… the slaves who are engaged in the working of [the mines] produce for their masters' revenues in sums defying belief, but they themselves wear out their bodies both by day and by night in the diggings under the earth, dying in large numbers because of the exceptional hardships they endure. For no respite or pause is granted them in their labours, but compelled beneath blows of the overseers to endure the severity of their plight, they throw away their lives in this wretched manner […]; indeed death in their eyes is more to be desired than life, because of the magnitude of the hardships they must bear.

– (Diodorus Siculus 5.38.1)

The enslaved were also employed to work in agricultural settings. In Treatise on agriculture , writer Columella advises owners on how to treat the agricultural enslaved. He recommends a balance in order to achieve the greatest amount of labour while avoiding making living conditions so hard servants might rebel. It's likely many masters, if not most, ignored Columella's advice and were far harsher, if not openly abusive.  On the other hand, the philosopher Seneca, writing in AD 55-56, recommended a humane treatment of one's servant on moral grounds.

It is creditable to a man to keep within reasonable bounds in his treatment of his slaves. Even in the case of a human chattel one ought to consider, not how much one can torture him with impunity, but how far such treatment is permitted by natural goodness and justice, which prompts us to act kindly towards even prisoners of war and slaves bought for a price (how much more towards free-born, respectable gentlemen?), and not to treat them with scornful brutality as human chattels, but as persons somewhat below ourselves in station, who have been placed under our protection rather than assigned to us as servants.

– (Seneca, Clem. 1.18.2)

Despite playing an important role in urban economies, ancient legal sources don't list enslaved people among employees, but the instrumenta (tools or equipment) of a business or workshop. Most were trained in a specific craft or trade acting as agents, managers or salesmen. Yet, no matter how competent or autonomous they were, their masters were always legally responsible for their actions. Documents from the period focus on enslaved individuals' misbehaviour rather than their accomplishments. Noted are charges of theft, damage, negligence and laziness. As pictured, some formerly enslaved individuals highlighted their accomplishments and the tools of their trade on commissioned funerary monuments. 

Enslaved people could often be found in Roman houses. We find traces of their presence in archaeological records and in numerous representations in art and literature. When referenced in ancient texts they're often identified by their tasks, giving the impression of a great number of different roles and specialties. Just as enslaved people in urban occupations were considered to be part of the workshop they worked in, those in domestic settings were part of an owner's property, their numbers enhancing the owner's status. Enslaved people working in households mostly enjoyed a better quality of life than those working in mines or the fields, yet they too could be victims of physical and sexual abuse. Generally, they were required to perform tasks without being seen unless when serving a banquet. Here they were at their most visible, required to perform faultless service. In one letter, the philosopher Seneca describes the abuse enslaved people were subject to in elite houses:

When we recline at a banquet, one slave mops up the disgorged food, another crouches beneath the table and gathers up the left-overs of the tipsy guests. Another carves the priceless game birds […]. Hapless fellow, to live only for the purpose of cutting fat capons correctly […]. Another, who serves the wine, must dress like a woman and wrestle with his advancing years; he cannot get away from his boyhood; he is dragged back to it; and though he has already acquired a soldier's figure, he is kept beardless by having his hair smoothed away or plucked out by the roots, and he must remain awake throughout the night, dividing his time between his master's drunkenness and his lust; in the chamber he must be a man, at the feast a boy.

– (Seneca, Letter 47)

There are also examples of executions as punishment for enslaved people working in households. In AD 61, under the reign of  the emperor Nero , a distinguished senator was murdered by one of his household staff. Despite protests by the people, Nero backed the senate's decision to uphold an existing law. It stipulated that all enslaved members of the owner's household should be executed, a ruthless collective punishment intended as a deterrent. 

Those working in imperial settings were treated slightly differently. Formally, enslaved individuals owned by the imperial household were at the bottom of Roman society, like those belonging to any master. However, their connection with the emperor could grant them status surpassing their peers and nominal superiors. Working for the imperial administration could bring considerable influence.

Given that the tag at the top of this article was found in Rome, it's likely the wearer was employed either in his master's workshop or home. Even if these occupations weren't the worst, it's clear their life was so hard they attempted to flee at least once.

How did enslaved people obtain their freedom?

Individuals could be freed through manumission, a procedure through which a master could grant freedom to his servants. Manumission rates are unknown in ancient Rome and it's not clear how often people were freed. It's believed those working in cities had more chances of being manumitted than those in rural settings. Enslaved people could be formally released in three ways: by being included in the census list, through a lawsuit in the presence of a magistrate, or if granted freedom in a master's will. Once free individuals became citizens, however, they continued to owe duties to their former masters and were not eligible for public office.

They could be required to pay a sum of money to their master before being manumitted – a form of compensation. Many wouldn't have the money to pay, but with their  peculium it could be achieved. Granting  peculium was the practice of masters allowing enslaved people to manage their assets. While legally the peculium belonged to the master, it was considered the enslaved person's property and could be used to purchase freedom. Marriage was another pathway to freedom, open almost exclusively to enslaved women freed by male owners in order to contract a legal marriage together and have legitimate children. Such unions were unequal as husbands were entitled to a higher degree of control. Freed-wives also had fewer rights compared to non-freed spouses, or even freedwomen who married men other than their masters. Freedmen are over-represented in texts and inscriptions that survive from the time. Keen to erect memorials broadcasting their freedom and citizenship, 80% of ancient funerary inscriptions found in Ostia belong to freedmen, creating a picture of great social mobility which is only partly true. These are only the people who obtained freedom and were successful enough to display their newly acquired status. The majority of enslaved people left very little trace of their lives. To return to our unnamed individual, the wearer of the tag, their chances for freedom look bleak. That they wore an inscribed tag suggests their master considered them untrustworthy. It's unlikely they would have been granted a sizable peculium,  have acted on their masers' behalf, or been given any degree of autonomy. Like so many others, it appears this individual might never have seen freedom.

You may also be interested in

Introduction to ancient Rome

Roman Britain

Pompeii Live

History Cooperative

Roman Slaves: Slavery in Ancient Rome

Roman slaves were an ever-present and essential part of Roman society and its long history. Just as their functions in that society were multifarious – ranging from cooks, gardeners, builders, and gladiators – so were their regions of origin. Unlike in other periods of time, the race or ethnicity of slaves in ancient Rome was not a central part of their identity.

Table of Contents

Who Were Roman Slaves?

Roman slaves were known as “servi” or “servus” in Latin and were owned by other people and considered their property. Anyone could become a slave, and slaves in ancient Rome came from various sources, including war captives, debtors, criminals, and children born to slave parents.

Roman slaves performed a wide range of tasks and could be found in various settings, including households, agricultural estates, mines, workshops, etc. They worked as household servants, laborers, agricultural workers, tutors, nurses, and skilled craftsmen. Some slaves held high-ranking positions, such as secretaries or managers, while others endured backbreaking labor or were subjected to harsh conditions. This all depended on the owner of the slaves.

Slaves were considered property and didn’t have many rights. However, slaves could file complaints against severe mistreatment. They were not considered Roman citizens, but over time , some slaves were able to gain their freedom through various means and became Roman citizens and even gain wealth and influence in Roman society.

How Widespread Was Slavery in the Roman World?

Generally, slavery was very widespread across the Roman Empire and was an integral aspect of its very being. It has been argued that up to 30-40% of Italy’s population and 10-20% of the empire’s population were slaves at the height of Roman slavery.

As this shows, it was thought to have been most highly concentrated in Italy, followed by the wealthiest regions of the east (taking over from a long history of slavery in Classical Greece), as well as the most Romanized regions of Southern Spain, Southern Gaul, and North Africa.

As an institution, it seems to have been mostly limited to the elite, although some poorer citizens may have had the means to own some slaves as well. If they did, the remaining documentation does not offer us much insight.

Instead, we have an abundance of evidence – literary, archaeological, and epigraphical – that showcase the significance of slavery for the wealthy elite. In some cases, ownership of hundreds or even thousands of slaves is known through such documentary evidence.

For example, in the Annals of Tacitus (14: 43.4) the historian discusses how a particularly wealthy Roman has a retinue of 400 hundred slaves in Rome alone, distinct from the owner’s rural slaves.

How Important Were Slaves in the Roman World?

The widespread nature of slavery in the Roman empire and its long history in the Mediterranean world meant that slaves were an essential part of Roman life and the economy. As free peasants were often an important source of recruits for the Roman army , they could not be readily relied upon as a continual source of agricultural or domestic labor for the wealthy elite.

This explains in part why agricultural estates tended to be tilled and cultivated by groups of slaves so often in our sources. In these same sources, slaves also appear essential to the proper functioning of aristocratic households, filling the roles of cooks, cleaners, tutors, secretaries, and much more.

They also helped the state directly, by building public works, laboring in quarries and mines, and constituting a substantial portion of the emperor’s court bureaucracy. In this latter occupation, it is unclear how the Principate of the Roman Emperors could function at all without the large retinue of bureaucratic slaves it was known for.

Additionally, slaves filled another very important role in Roman society – as a marker of status for the wealthy elite. There is an interesting example in the account of the prosecution of the writer and philosopher Apuleius in 158 AD. 

Because he only turned up with a couple of slaves, he was mocked by those present at the trial. As with slavery in other periods of time, the number of slaves one possessed, bestowed prestige and status on the owner.

How Did Roman Slavery Develop?

As an institution and trade, slavery appears to have been tied to the very foundation of Rome itself, as the mythical founder Romulus reportedly permitted new citizens to be able to sell their own children into slavery should they wish to do so.

It also appears to have been in general a part of ancient Mediterranean warfare that the conquered or defeated could be enslaved by their victors. Given that the Roman Republic and Empire were so famously and successfully expansionist, it makes sense that they would then accrue a considerable amount of enemy slaves.

The ownership of slaves is attested in the earliest forms of documented Roman Law – the Twelve Tables – and was to be regularly legislated on thereafter. Historians such as Strabo also report that Roman connections with the ancient slave trade were augmented each time it defeated or outlived a rival empire – especially the Seleucid Empire in the east.

As more slaves became integrated into the Roman economy, to man, build, and maintain ever larger estates, quarries, and public works, they became an increasingly essential element to Roman life and society.

What Functions Did Slaves Fill in Ancient Rome?

Slaves in ancient Rome could fill almost any function or occupation. With this being said, the evidence suggests the majority of them worked on agricultural estates, for wealthy Roman or provincial landowners, or as domestic workers for the aristocratic elite.

In these positions, the day-to-day labor for their owners, might vary quite widely, especially in domestic settings. On agricultural estates, many would till the soil and grow crops, which could be consumed or sold by their owners. Many might also work as herders, which seems to have been a relatively fortunate role for a slave.

Indeed, herders appear to have had more independence than usual agricultural slaves and were often able to form family units. This helps explain, in part, why many slave rebellions (discussed more below) seem to have been initiated by herders in the first place.

In the domestic sphere, slaves could fill very specialized roles for their master’s family. Whilst (mainly female) slaves could be nurses, cooks, and prostitutes, they could also fill roles such as secretaries, tutors, and accountants, for which they would receive quite considerable training.

As a result, the slaves filling these latter occupations would be advantaged in the event that their master freed them. Many slaves were not so lucky and might be used outside of these settings as work gangs in state quarries, which were notorious for their poor conditions.

Others might also be forced to fight in the arena, as gladiators (though these roles were not always filled by unwilling slaves). Another considerable portion of the slave population could be employed by the state with various jobs.

As mentioned above, the Roman emperors increasingly began to rely on a large body of bureaucratic slaves who could help administrate the empire for them. As with the educated slaves in domestic settings, these ex-bureaucrats often enjoyed a prosperous period of freedom after their “manumission.”

How Were Slaves Treated in Ancient Rome?

Perhaps surprisingly, the treatment of slaves in ancient Rome could vary quite significantly as well. Yet, it is important to first bear in mind that they were seen throughout the Roman world as property to be unwillingly bought, used, and sold with no consideration of the slave’s preference or opinion.

That being said, the sources present a rather mixed and conflicting picture which is not always so easy for historians to deal with. This is because of a number of reasons. One is that some of the remaining literature (esp. Pliny the Younger and Cicero ) and epigraphy indicate quite close and friendly relations between slave and master, especially for those that were freed.

However, these would invariably have been domestic slaves, often the highly educated and valued ones. For the lesser slaves, whose roles seemed more expendable, we are often left in the dark about relations between slave and master and do not know how they were generally treated.

We do however have some portrayals of the horrific abuse that slaves suffered, in the works of writers like Juvenal and Seneca the Younger . Slaves could be randomly beaten or tortured, sometimes by professional “slave-floggers” and torturers. Moreover, they were deprived of almost all rights when compared with Roman citizens, although they still perhaps enjoyed more than later transatlantic slaves of the European empires.

For example, throughout the Roman Republic and Empire, an extensive body of legislation was passed that granted some protections to slaves. However, these laws – sometimes passed by the emperor himself – almost always framed slaves as property, which could not be stolen or destroyed.

Certain pieces of legislation, in the Digest and Code of Theodosius, did however attempt to rein in violent masters killing their own slaves. The emperor Hadrian passed legislation that forbade masters from throwing their slaves to wild beasts for public entertainment, just as Antoninus Pius attempted to curb excessive brutality towards slaves.

Eventually, this developed to the stage that killing a slave without sanction from a judge was declared a crime. However, these laws do demonstrate that masters had previously (and likely still did) kill their slaves in brutal ways, like “throwing them from a height,” “handing them over to fight wild beasts,” and “hanging them from a noose.”

Moreover, there were no regulations or restraints in place regarding what an owner could do with his slave sexually, at least if the owner was male. Whilst it was frowned upon in certain circles for aristocratic men to engage in sexual acts with male slaves (especially if they were passive participants), they were still very much permitted to do as they pleased.

Women on the other hand were not supposed to engage in such acts with slaves, although legislation passed throughout the Roman Republic and Empire (by Augustus , amongst others) suggested that it was relatively common for some to do so. Nonetheless, these restrictions were wholly influenced by patriarchal anxieties about the sexual “immorality” of women, engaging in intimate acts with socially inferior slaves.

In this vein, slaves were also seen as morally inferior as well and commentators often tried to justify the enslaved state through assumptions of their inner depravity and backwardness. These opinions proliferated throughout Roman literature and plays, with depictions of the “cunning slave” or stupid slave very prominent in domestic narratives.

Nonetheless, slaves were still usually paid in the Roman world, with a peculium . Although this was only a very modest salary it did allow the slave some freedom to purchase certain goods, just as it could be used to eventually buy their freedom. Moreover, many slaves appear to have been able to form family units and were not regularly chained up, as we see in later manifestations of slavery.

This does not mean however that their life was secure, or very free, especially on agricultural estates. On such estates, they were usually housed in barracks and kept in check by an overseer who may use brutal methods to keep them in check.

Additionally, the family units they might have formed could be easily broken up, with members sold to other estates or slavers, with no consideration for the slaves themselves.

Where Did the Roman Slaves Come From?

The Romans sourced their slaves in a variety of different ways. While there were very famous (and infamous) slave trading settlements and ports – for example at Delos in Greece – most Roman slaves are believed to have been born into slavery.

This meant that female slaves would possess unique value for a slave owner, as a producer of more slaves for the household or estate. Often these newborn slaves may have been the offspring of the master himself, although they would not legally be considered his kin. It is believed this was seen as a cheap and reliable form of continuous slaves, rather than relying on other sources.

These other sources included enemy captives whilst the Roman army was campaigning. In one instance, when the Greek city of Epirus was taken in 167 BC, 150,000 people were sold into slavery by the Roman state. However, as striking as this may be, such a scale of captive slaves was not the norm across the empire and the elite could not expect a continuous supply of slaves from Roman conquest.

Elsewhere, there was also a source of slaves from the “exposure” of children – who were left (usually in a known location) after they were born, or at a young age, because their parents did not think they could afford to raise them, or did not have the inclination to do so anyway. Opportunistic slave traders, or slaves working for the elite would regularly prowl these locations looking for new “stock.” 

Roman citizens could also find themselves as slaves – either due to their inability to pay off their debts or by being illegally kidnapped by slavers somewhere in the empire. We know the latter practice was quite widespread across the frontier areas and was a constant concern to successive emperors and their administrations.

We also know that children were sometimes sold to patrons and wealthy neighbors as slaves if the family did not have the means to raise their children – particularly in times of economic difficulty.

Could Roman Slaves Obtain their Freedom?

One fact that is most surprising about Roman slavery, is that a considerable number of those enslaved were expected to receive their freedom (although they were still the minority). Unlike the institution of slavery in the Greek world, it was almost seen as conventional that many domestic and state slaves would one day be “manumitted.”

The term “manumission” signifies the “freeing/letting go” that was carried out by the owner, usually in the presence of a magistrate, who would free the slave by laying a rod (festuca) on the head of the slave.

Their manumission was brought about, either by the master’s favor – perhaps due to the close relationship they shared – or through the slave actually buying their own freedom. As mentioned above slaves were usually given a small wage, known as a peculium , throughout their term of service, which could later be used to buy their freedom.

The freed slave, subsequently to be known as a “freedman” or “freedwoman” (libertus/a), was granted a cap of liberty known as “pileus”, along with documentation attesting to their new freedom. Whilst these were supposed to assure their perpetual freedom, some freedmen were re-enslaved by rapacious magistrates or officials.

Nonetheless, the process of manumission granted ex-slaves their citizenship and allowed them to engage in business ventures, much in the same way they had when they were owned by their masters.

Now, however, they were able to accrue considerable wealth, although they were often despised for doing so. A notorious example is Pallas, a freedman of the emperor Claudius , who garnered the ire of contemporaries like Tacitus and Pliny the Elder for the wealth he accumulated.

Yet, liberti were strongly expected to still serve their ex-master in a number of ways as their client. They were expected to show obsequium – obedience, and reverence – to their ex-master always and were also to carry out work ( operae ) for their master when it was requested.

They could not hold political office, nor could they marry citizens of senatorial status (though they could marry other citizens after 18 BC). These restrictions were often accompanied by distrust and prejudice against liberti, who were still seen as socially inferior, particularly when they attempted to rise above their station after manumission.

This negative attitude towards them was very pervasive during the Roman empire making them objects of mistrust of suspicion when they were close to emperors or other powerful personages. As discussed above they were also disparaged in all forms of literature, especially in plays like the Satyricon , where the protagonist freedman Trimalchio is presented as a gaudy upstart, overindulging in luxury.

It is also important to remember that many Roman slaves were unlikely to ever receive manumission, particularly because the price or conditions for liberation were often determined by the owner. Moreover, many of the slaves working in the harshest roles throughout the empire would not have lived long enough to receive their freedom.

Slave Rebellions and Resistance

Whilst some Roman slaves could someday hope for their eventual freedom, this did not mean that the history of Roman slavery was not littered with examples of resistance and rebellion. As early as 198 BC, the Roman historian Livy documents a serious slave rebellion in Italy that was followed by another, two years later.

These were followed slightly later by rebellions in Sicily (and others in Italy) that developed almost into breakaway revolts which had to be put down by Roman armies. These “Servile Wars” as they came to be known sometimes involved tens of thousands of slaves that wreaked havoc across the countryside.

The last of the Servile Wars was spearheaded by the famous gladiator slave Spartacus, which directly threatened the Italian heartland of Rome. Eventually, around 120,000 men, women, and children had been amassed, although they were ultimately defeated in 71 BC and 6,000 were infamously crucified along the Appian way which led into Rome.

After this, slave rebellions do seem to have decreased significantly, as authorities took measures to mitigate the chances of them happening again. Nonetheless, they demonstrate that life as a slave was sufficiently oppressive and difficult to embolden individuals into taking on the Roman state.

In this vein, there seems to have been a general feeling of unease and anxiety amongst Roman slave owners about their slaves. The legislation was passed that enabled slaves to be tortured if they were within close proximity to their master when they died, especially if the death seemed suspicious.

This, therefore, indicated that slaves may have occasionally killed their masters as well, perhaps if they were treated particularly badly. Yet slaves could also try to resist in nonviolent ways as well, such as running away.

From legislation and scattered anecdotes, it seems as though runaway slaves were quite a common feature of Roman cities and the countryside. Rewards would be put up for the capture and return of slaves who could be badly beaten for their transgression. Whilst some on the frontiers could perhaps have escaped, it would have been much harder for slaves in the empire’s heartland of Italy.

Where Can We Learn about Roman Slaves?

Since slaves were so prevalent in Roman society, it is no surprise that they are often mentioned by contemporary writers. Whilst these sources are useful for giving a glimpse into the occupations and lives of ancient Roman slaves, they are of course written invariably by the slave-owning elite of the Roman world.

Fortunately, however, we do have an abundance of funerary inscriptions set up by ex-slaves themselves who had received manumission from their masters. These go someway in providing a first-hand glimpse into the lives of Roman slaves, although they only reflect the lives of those who were lucky enough to receive manumission.

Writers like Cato and Columella describe the use of slaves carrying out agricultural and horticultural work quite extensively. In these works, the primary focus is on tending a garden or managing an estate, but naturally, this means that the slave workforce is often discussed in some detail.

Similarly, writers like Pliny the Younger, Cicero, and Aulus Gellius , when discussing domestic life, often provide glimpses of the day-to-day occupations of slaves in the house. Roman law and legislation also help to substantiate our understanding of Roman slavery as it documents the legal and economic position of slaves in daily life.

As discussed above, we are also provided with perspectives and portrayals of Roman slaves from Roman drama, comedy, and philosophy. Whilst Seneca laments the lot of slaves in the Roman world, Juvenal seems to laugh at their anguish and suffering.

Collectively then, we are fortunate to have a considerable diversity of different sources to consult when looking at Roman slavery. They of course have their limits, but they help us to get an understanding of where slaves fit into the Roman world. They show us that Roman slavery was clearly an oppressive (and often brutal) condition, but also a truly unique institution that could sometimes be a vehicle for social elevation.

How to Cite this Article

There are three different ways you can cite this article.

1. To cite this article in an academic-style article or paper , use:

<a href=" https://historycooperative.org/roman-slaves/ ">Roman Slaves: Slavery in Ancient Rome</a>

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

7.2 Slavery in the Roman Empire

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe the legal and social structures that supported slavery in the Roman Empire
• Discuss the different experiences of enslaved men, women, and children
• Explain the importance of gladiators in Roman culture

Slavery was a fundamental part of Roman daily life. Enslaved people came from many parts of the large empire and had been enslaved in many different ways. They worked in a variety of contexts and were subject to their master’s whims and punishment. Many were trained as gladiators , professional fighters paid to battle before an audience, sometimes to the death, but others worked in the cities and countryside in a variety of roles. The freeing of enslaved people was a common practice, and freed people were important to the continued functioning of the Roman economy and political order.

The Structures of Roman Slavery

Enslavement was the result of a variety of circumstances in the Roman world; there was no single mechanism that sustained the system. During the Roman Republic, it appears that most enslaved people were former soldiers captured in war. Slave dealers purchased these captives from defeated armies and brought them to various slave markets throughout the empire for sale to buyers in need of slave labor. Following the civil wars during the reign of Augustus, however, prisoners of war were fewer, and the system relied more heavily on other sources.

Some historians believe natural reproduction accounted for a large number of new enslaved people; the children of enslaved women were considered the property of the household in which the mother lived. Enslavement could also be the result of kidnapping and piracy. Some enslaved people were sold into bondage through patria potestas . Others had been abandoned as infants by families that did not want to or could not care for a child; these children often ended up in the hands of slave traders. Finally, while involuntary debt bondage had been outlawed since the time of the early Roman Republic, people could sell themselves into slavery to pay off debts. Slave markets, often kept supplied by piracy, were an important element of the system, and the one at Delos (which was most active in the second and early first century BCE) was the largest; upwards of ten thousand enslaved people might be sold in a single day.

The freeing of enslaved people through manumission was an expected practice in Rome, though the rate at which it occurred is difficult to assess. It usually happened when a person was around eighteen years old, but not simply in return for good behavior. Some of the enslaved were allowed to keep part of their earnings in order to purchase their freedom. And enslaved women could also be freed after producing a certain number of children. Manumission was made official before a Roman magistrate or in a slaveholder’s will. It was often accompanied by a sum of money so that the newly freed could more assuredly begin their lives as freed persons. The debt of obligation was clear, however, since a freed person became the client of their former master.

Freed people formed a substantial class in Rome, but with a fair number of restrictions on their conduct. They were often beholden to their former master’s influence and prevented from holding most important political or religious positions. Many did go on to become independently wealthy professionals in trade, agriculture, and education, and some were even slaveholders themselves. A few occupied prominent positions in powerful households. They were denied the full rights of Roman citizenship, however, though their children were considered full citizens.

Enslaved people were subject to brutal treatment, and a series of revolts illustrates their efforts to seek freedom. In the late second century BCE, rebellions in Sicily inspired uprisings elsewhere in the Mediterranean, notably in the Greek mines. A few decades later, Spartacus instigated the most famous slave revolt. Originally from Thrace or Greece, Spartacus was enslaved after being captured in battle and was trained as a gladiator in Capua in central Italy. In 73 BCE, he planned to escape, along with a substantial number of other enslaved people. Though their original plan may have been only to get away, they took up weapons and fought for their freedom. Spartacus eventually raised an army of more than seventy thousand and defeated a number of armies sent by the Roman Senate. Finally, the Roman general Crassus defeated Spartacus in battle, putting an end to the revolt in 71 BCE ( Figure 7.7 ). However, Spartacus’s rebellion was the tipping point. Following these violent conflicts, there seems to have been some effort by Rome to avoid future revolts, as seen in the laws of Augustus that controlled the practice of manumission.

Life under Slavery

Enslaved people led lives that varied across the empire, depending on their age and gender and whether they lived in rural or urban areas. They worked as unskilled laborers, artisans, and assistants to merchants and shopkeepers. Many were trained as teachers, doctors, musicians, and actors. Others helped build public works such as bridges and roads and even served as imperial administrators. In the city, and in the household especially, they had more advantages and avoided the brutal physical labor demanded in mines, quarries, and latifundia across the empire. There, more than one hundred enslaved persons might labor, their harsh life evidenced by their poor clothing, cruel treatment, and inability to raise funds to buy their freedom.

Still, enslaved people in any context were a moment away from punishment by slaveholders, who were perpetually concerned with avoiding conspiracy and rebellion. A culture of uncertainty, coercion, and submission was the result of the constant threat of potential violence. Enslaved people could be whipped, beaten, or tortured and were often sexually abused. In Petronius’s Satyricon , a novel written in the first century CE, the freed Trimalchio discusses the services he offered while enslaved: “Still, I was my master’s favorite for fourteen years. No disgrace in obeying your master’s orders. Well, I used to amuse my mistress too. You know what I mean; I say no more, I am not a conceited man.” Enslaved people who ran away and were caught could be branded or forced to wear a collar with their owner’s name on it.

Though the enslaved were denied the official rights of marriage, they could form families and have children, which often occurred in urban settings. The slaveholder could always manipulate the relationships between enslaved people for personal ends. Enslaved children were put to work, perhaps with simple duties in the house, and over time enslaved people might be promoted to different roles within a household.

In Their Own Words

Slavery in the ancient novel.

Roman novels, which would have been read primarily by the upper classes, give us a glimpse of the lives of enslaved people during the empire. The Golden Ass by Apuleius, written in the mid-second century CE, follows the adventures of a wanderer named Lucius after he is magically transformed into a donkey; the first passage here is Lucius’s observation of enslaved people. In the second passage, an excerpt from Petronius’s Satyricon , the formerly enslaved Trimalchio mistreats his own enslaved people during a lavish dinner party.

The pale welts from chains crossed every patch of their skin like brush-strokes. Their flogged-up backs under sparse patchwork were no better covered than stretches of ground that shade falls on. Some of them had thrown on an exiguous vestiture, which extended only to the loins, yet all were calm so that their scraps of tatters kept no secrets. Their foreheads were inscribed with brands, their hair half-shaved, their ankles braceleted with fetters, their pallor hideous, their eyelids gnawed by gloomy smoke of the murky fumes, which left them less able to access light at all. Like boxers who fight bathed in fine dust, these men were filthy white with floury ash. — Apuleius , The Golden Ass

As he was speaking, a boy dropped a cup. Trimalchio looked at him and said, “Quick, off with your own head, since you are so stupid.” The boy’s lip fell and he began to petition. “Why do you ask me?” said Trimalchio, “as if I should be hard on you! I advise you to prevail upon yourself not to be stupid.” In the end we induced him to let the boy off. As soon as he was forgiven the boy ran round the table. — Petronius , Satyricon

• What do you learn from these fictional accounts about the treatment of enslaved people and Roman attitudes toward them?
• What do these passages reveal about the conduct of slaveholders?

Gladiatorial combat was an important element of Roman culture and a prominent part of public entertainments. Matches originated in central Italy in the third century BCE and were originally part of funeral games, spectacles that honored the deceased. The first games in the city of Rome occurred in 264 BCE, with three pairs of gladiators fighting. In the centuries that followed, the number of games increased until, under the emperors, they included hundreds of gladiators.

Gladiators came from a variety of backgrounds, and though some were volunteers, enslaved people forced into the role formed a substantial number. A team of gladiators was called a familia and was trained in a gladiatorial school by a lanista , the manager of the group. The lanista and other trainers assessed new recruits and picked the weapons they would use in combat. Daily training was strenuous, but gladiators were expected to fight only a handful of times over a year.

Matches usually consisted of differently armed gladiators fighting one another. In one common type of match, gladiators armed with swords fought a retiarius , who was armed with a net and a trident ( Figure 7.8 ). Gladiators did not usually fight to the death, but the crowd played a major role in the fights, often encouraging gladiators to kill their wounded opponents. The emperor, if in attendance, could also influence the outcome by giving a “thumb up” or “thumb down,” meaning allow the opponent to live or die, respectively. The most talented and successful gladiators could acquire a devoted following of fans as well as earn money for fighting.

Link to Learning

Explore a newly discovered gladiatorial training camp in Austria.

There is also evidence that both senators and women participated in gladiatorial combat, possibly to ceremonially reenact scenes from myth. A law enacted by the emperor Tiberius in 19 CE declared that no senator or person of equestrian rank could take part in the fighting, suggesting that their participation had been an ongoing issue. That women took part is clear in a stone relief from the first or second century CE, showing two female gladiators fighting ( Figure 7.9 ).

The Colosseum was a massive structure in the middle of the city of Rome that was the site of many public entertainments, including gladiatorial matches. Built between 69 and 79 CE, it was named the Flavian Amphitheater , after the ruling dynasty at that time. It was also known as the Colosseum because a colossal statue of the emperor Nero stood nearby. (Well over one hundred feet tall, the statue was later rededicated to the Roman sun god Sol.) The amphitheater was officially dedicated in 80 CE by the emperor Titus in a ceremony that included one hundred days of games. Its design featured a rising arrangement of columns in different styles and a complicated network of barrel vaults. Up to fifty thousand spectators could be seated within the structure, and spectacles included gladiator matches, mock naval battles, and animal hunts. The impressive displays of showmanship were intended to be entertainment, but they also served an important political function. As part of a policy mockingly called “bread and circuses,” these epic games (and the distribution of free wheat) were meant to distract the people from potential weaknesses in Roman governance. The idea was that those whose immediate needs were being met with food and entertainment were less likely to notice social inequality, become discontented, or foment rebellion. The games were also a way to bolster popular enthusiasm for the sitting emperor, who usually attended regularly.

Explore a virtual reality reconstruction of the Colosseum , the site of public spectacles in Rome, including gladiatorial matches. This video gives a sense of the Colosseum’s scale and what Romans may have seen when they entered the structure as gladiators or as spectators.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-1/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Ann Kordas, Ryan J. Lynch, Brooke Nelson, Julie Tatlock
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: World History Volume 1, to 1500
• Publication date: Apr 19, 2023
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-1/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-1/pages/7-2-slavery-in-the-roman-empire

© Dec 13, 2023 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

Slavery in ancient Rome: how important were enslaved people to Roman society?

Whether you worked in the mines or as a concubine, life as an enslaved person in ancient Rome could be thoroughly unpleasant. Here we explore the dangerous world of forced labour...

• Share on facebook
• Share on twitter
• Share on whatsapp
• Email to a friend

The Roman empire was hugely dependent on forced labour. It was a key foundation on which Rome’s power, wealth and influence was built. A great many enslaved people were set to work in menial and manual jobs – including agriculture, mining and construction.

As historian Philip Matyszak explains, these types of jobs could be particularly brutal. “Being sent to the mines was a drawn-out death sentence,” he says “They worked in very dangerous, very unhealthy conditions lit by oil lamps, constantly breathing in fumes. They worked in a state of acute misery.”

Unfortunately, those working above ground in agriculture fared little better. “They were treated by the farmers as part of the livestock; offered as much compassion as was given to the cattle, the sheep and the goats.”

Not all enslaved people performed menial labour

Some of those enslaved, however, undertook work in what would now be considered white-collar jobs, such as teaching or accounting. For instance, middle-class Roman families, in their admiration of Greek culture, would often seek out educated slaves from Greece as home tutors for their children. Enslaved people from lands deemed to be of lesser cultural worth, such as Britain or Germany, were generally less attractive when it came to work that carried with it a level of responsibility.

• Read more about life in Roman Britain

That educated people could be put into slavery illustrates the idea that a large swathe of the population could be susceptible to a life – or a good few years, at least – in servitude. “Anyone could be a slave,” says Matyszak. “It was one of those misfortunes that could happen, like getting a terrible illness. You could decide to go off and visit a temple in Greece, get caught by pirates on the way and end up in the olive fields in north Africa. It was something that could happen to a lot of people.”

More like this

And piracy was just one way in which people became ensnared in slavery. Any child born to an enslaved mother would automatically become enslaved themsleves – regardless of the social standing of their father. There were also plenty of instances of free children being sold into slavery in order to improve a family’s financial circumstances or settle a debt.

What jobs did enslaved people do in ancient Rome? Here are three examples...

Agricultural slaves, praegustator (food taster), nomenclator (name caller), enslaved people as property.

Under Roman law, enslaved people were considered property. As with personal possessions, the wealthier you were, the more enslaved people you owned and the higher your social standing. The most prosperous households owned slaves for every imaginable purpose, purchased at the slave markets found in almost all Roman towns. Whether a slave was needed for cooking, for childcare or as a concubine, during the late Roman republic at least, supply was high and trade was brisk.

Many enslaved people hailed from the territories into which the Roman republic had expanded: a large proportion of these were former enemy soldiers, spared execution in return for spending the rest of their days in forced labour. According to Matyszak, it would be fair to suggest that certain military campaigns were effectively recruitment drives: “Some of the Republican wars in Greece almost translate as huge slave-raiding expeditions. The sack of Epirus, in 167 BC, for instance, ended with some 150,000 people enslaved.”

With the vast majority of Rome’s geographical expansion occurring during the days of the republic, the early era of the subsequent Roman empire – the relatively stable period known as Pax Romana – saw this supply line very much dwindle. Accordingly, legislation was introduced to further limit the ability of a slave to find freedom.

Devoid of legal rights, certainly during the republic, slaves were subjected to whatever punishment their owners meted out. Disobedience was met with brutal treatment that was often violent – and potentially fatal. For instance, in the event of a slave murdering his master, the punishment had dire consequences for the late owner’s other slaves, all of whom faced execution too.

Certain slaves – particularly those working in more prestigious roles – could develop a close relationship with their owner, which sometimes resulted in the slave being freed. This was the experience of Tiro, who worked as Cicero’s secretary for many years. The goodwill of slave owners was rare, though. Many slaves who were freed only did so by saving up any modest income – such as money given to them by their master for small personal expenses – and buying their way out of servitude.

• Read more about how Roman slaves could buy their freedom

While escaping from forced work was almost exclusively an individual pursuit, there are examples of slaves rising up against the system, either against their own master or in organised rebellions. The most famous rebellion was led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus in 73 BC in one of the Servile Wars . It’s believed that Spartacus was killed in battle, while the surviving 6,000 slaves who had followed him were crucified, their bodies gruesomely strung up along a road called the Appian Way. The normal balance of power had been restored.

Was Spartacus a slave?

Very little is known for certain about Spartacus, but the records do show that he was sold into slavery to a gladiatorial school in Capua, 16 miles north of Naples. He may have come from Thrace and could have fought in the Roman army – it’s believed that the name Spartacus may have been given to him once he was enslaved.

Spartacus escaped captivity in 73 BC, along with 70 other enslaved people. Together, they made their stand on Mount Vesuvius, defeating the forces sent to deal with them. This victory inspired other runaway slaves flocked to their side – it’s estimated that Spartacus’s army numbered 100,000 at its peak.

Initially Rome didn’t take what it saw as a minor revolt seriously, but after a number of victories, General Marcus Licinius Crassus was sent to put an end to what would become known as the Third Servile War.

By 71 BC, Crassus had defeated the slave army and 6,000 surviving rebels were crucified. Spartacus is believed to have been killed in battle, but his body has never been found. Although Spartacus was ultimately unsuccessful, his attempt to rid the republic of slavery went on to inspire reams of books, films and television shows, as well as others hoping to instigate revolutions.

What to read more about the history of slavery? Here are some of our most popular articles...

• Slavery in ancient Greece: what was life like for enslaved people?
• Lincoln and slavery: "If I could save the union without freeing any slave, I would"
• Abolition in Britain: the link between slavery and the British national identity

Nige Tassell is a freelance journalist specialising in history

This content first appeared in the September 2020 issue of BBC History Revealed

JUMP into SPRING! Get your first 6 issues for £9.99

+ FREE HistoryExtra membership (special offers) - worth £34.99!

Sign up for the weekly HistoryExtra newsletter

Sign up to receive our newsletter!

By entering your details, you are agreeing to our terms and conditions and privacy policy . You can unsubscribe at any time.

JUMP into SPRING! Get your first 6 issues for

USA Subscription offer!

Save 76% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $45 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com

HistoryExtra podcast

Listen to the latest episodes now

History Notes Roman Imperial History Notes

Slavery Essay

Updated slavery essay notes.

Roman Imperial History

A range of essays written for Part I Paper 13 (European History 31BC-900AD) of the Cambridge History Tripos. The essays provided focus on the early part of the paper: the Roman Principate.

These essays would provide a good introduction to anyone studying Roman history. Essays average around 3000 words, and each includes a bibliography.

Topics covered include: - Augustus; - the history of Tacitus; - the condition of slaves; - the role of local elites in running the Empire; - the 'third-century c...

The following is a more accessible plain text extract of the PDF sample above, taken from our Roman Imperial History Notes . Due to the challenges of extracting text from PDFs, it will have odd formatting:

Buy the full version of these notes or essay plans and more in our Roman Imperial History Notes .

• Oxbridge Notes' prizewinning note marketplace has been servingstudents since 2010 with premium study materials
• Reap the benefits of joined-up learning and earn higher grades, just like our 75,000+ happy customers.

Need instant answers? Our AI exam tutor is here to help.

Ask questions 🙋 Get answers 📔 It's simple 👁️👄👁️

Our AI is educated by the highest scoring students across all subjects and schools. Join hundreds of your peers today.

More Roman Imperial History Samples

• 3rd Century Crisis Essay
• Augustus Principate Essay
• Economic Growth Essay
• Local Elites Essay
• Senators Under Principate Essay
• Tacitus Essay

• Corrections

Slavery in Ancient Rome: The Journey to Freedom

What was it like to be a Roman slave? Read on to discover the harsh realities of slavery in ancient Rome and the routes to freedom for the lucky few.

Roman society was structured according to class and wealth. Its hierarchical system saw the senatorial , aristocratic class at the top of the social pyramid. In the middle were the equestrians, the plebeians, and the freedmen, in that order. Those with the lowest social status were the slaves.

Many Roman slaves lived lives of unimaginable cruelty. After all, Roman law designated slaves as property, not people. But slavery in ancient Rome underpinned much of society’s success, and the freeborn citizens of Rome were actually heavily dependent on slaves for their world to operate effectively.

Vast numbers of slaves were traded throughout the empire , from Britain in the North to Syria in the East. At the beginning of the Imperial era, it is believed that the ratio of slaves to freeborn people in the city of Rome was 3:1. Slave ownership was common for those at the top of society. Plutarch tells us that the Republican consul, Marcus Licinius Crassus (pictured above left), owned so many slaves that he had 500 just for acquiring and rebuilding property. But it was also not uncommon for plebeians, as well as ex-slaves, to own a few slaves as well. Slave ownership was a sign of status and wealth which nearly everyone in ancient Rome aspired to.

Evidence for Slavery in Ancient Rome

Roman literature, epigraphical sources, and archaeological finds all provide us with information about slavery in ancient Rome. The letters of Pliny the Younger in particular provide excellent source material on slavery, but there are also obvious limitations to written work produced by elite members of Roman society . Many, like Pliny, were prone to idealization. Sadly, there is no surviving literature written from the viewpoint of someone actually living the life of a Roman slave.

Get the latest articles delivered to your inbox

Please check your inbox to activate your subscription.

Epitaph inscriptions, as we shall see, provide some excellent evidence for the relationships between slaves, ex-slaves, and former masters. Archaeological excavations of the domains of slaves are also very informative. For example, the remains of amphitheaters — the arenas where gladiator slaves and prisoners of war fought — stretch from ancient Britain to Turkey. They serve as a stark reminder of how extensive enforced servitude in the Roman Empire actually was.

The Life of a Slave in Ancient Rome

There were a number of routes into slavery in ancient Rome. One of the most common was being a prisoner of war. The expansion of the Roman Empire from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE saw many thousands of conquered people forced into servitude.

Some people were sold into slavery. This could be for a number of reasons. Piracy was common across the ancient Mediterranean and beyond . Those captured by pirates were then sold on like plunder. People who could not pay their debts could even end up selling themselves into slavery in lieu of payment.

Finally, there were those who were unfortunate enough to be born into slavery. Slave mothers were forced to hand their children over to their owners soon after birth. It was also not uncommon for slave owners to encourage relations between slaves in order to increase their numbers.

There were many different types of slaves and they could be found in every walk of life in ancient Rome. Domestic slaves were perhaps the most common. Some were educated or highly skilled and therefore much sought after. Tutors for children, specialist cooks, and even hairdressers could command high prices.

The success of urban life depended on an army of slaves. Many worked in civic positions in public libraries and baths and also in government administration jobs, often alongside freeborn plebeians. At the other end of the spectrum were prostitutes who worked under the watchful eye of violent brothel-keepers.

Many slaves were subjected to lives of manual labor. Some helped to run the rural estates of wealthy landowners, while others endured the horrific world of the mines , often digging for precious gold and silver. Here the incredibly harsh conditions meant that life expectancy could be as low as a few months.

Roman Slaves and Their Masters

Slavery in ancient Rome was subject to various laws , mostly drawn up in favor of masters, rather than slaves. Slave owners had legal dominium over their slaves, which essentially amounted to the power of life and death. Some slaves tried to resist servitude and ran away or attacked their masters. The punishments for those who were caught were very harsh. If a slave attacked or murdered a master then not only the perpetrator but the entire household of slaves could be executed.

It was, arguably, in a master’s interest to treat his slaves fairly and most probably found that this resulted in a more productive workforce. This is not to say that Roman slaves led happy lives but benefits were sometimes granted, such as a small allowance ( peculium ). Pliny tells us that he even permitted informal marriage pacts and the making of wills .

Some slaves developed close relationships with their masters built on mutual respect, including, for example, the famous orator and politician, Cicero , and his personal secretary, Tiro. The following extract is taken from a letter sent by Cicero’s brother to Cicero on hearing that Tiro was to be set free. It highlights the genuine affection held for Tiro throughout the family.

‘ I am truly thankful for what you have done with regard to Tiro, in judging his former status to be below what he deserved and preferring us to have him as a friend rather than a slave .’ (Cicero, Letters to Friends 16:6)

Gladiators — the Celebrity Slaves

Due to their position at the center of public entertainment and adulation, it is perhaps easy to forget that most gladiators were also slaves. Prisoners of war and convicted criminals were often forced to become gladiators if they had the physical requirements. These men went on to live and train at a combat school ( ludus ) under a specialized trainer, often an ex-gladiator himself ( lanista ).

Many fought to the death in amphitheaters under the gaze of huge crowds — although it is a myth that a gladiator died in each and every fight. Gladiators were very expensive commodities and their popularity with the crowd often meant that they were spared death.

It is perhaps a step too far to describe gladiators as the glamorous representatives of slavery in ancient Rome. But some became very well-known and lived their lives in the spotlight. Ancient sources tell us that some women were very fond of gladiators. Small jars of sand soaked in their sweat were even sold outside amphitheaters as an aphrodisiac.

A gladiator who was particularly successful could sometimes earn his freedom, at the discretion of the lanista . If granted, he would be awarded a wooden sword (a rudis ) as a symbol of his freedom. One example of such a man was the gladiator Flamma, whose epitaph survives today. The inscription tells us that he was given the rudis four times. However, each time he returned to work as a gladiator. Perhaps a life of fame was sometimes too alluring to give up.

Routes Out of Slavery in Ancient Rome

When a person was granted freedom from slavery in ancient Rome, it involved a process called “manumission.” There were several different methods of manumission . One of the most common was through a ceremony held in front of a magistrate. Here the slave would kneel before the magistrate and be touched with a rod on the shoulder. Then they would be given the pileus , a soft conical-shaped hat that served as a symbol of their freedom.

Many slaves were also set free as a condition of their master’s will. Others were simply declared free by their master, then allowed to formally register as a citizen. Slave women could also be freed by marrying their masters. This was normally done to allow any subsequent children to be born as free citizens. Finally, there were those who bought themselves out of slavery, but this was less common.

Freedmen and Freedwomen in Ancient Rome

Freedmen and freedwomen in ancient Rome held the legal status of libertus and liberta , respectively. They were allowed to become citizens but with certain restrictions. Most notably, they could not hold major positions of public office, nor enroll in military service. One important advantage, though, was that their children would become full Roman citizens.

The relationship between ex-slaves and their former masters was one of the cornerstones of Roman society . This was a system of patronage which involved a series of mutual benefits and obligations. Freedmen were expected to visit their former master each morning and carry out various administrative tasks. They also assisted with canvassing for votes if their master was standing for public office. Some freedmen ran small businesses on behalf of their former owners. Conversely, the patron was obliged to provide money and/or food to help their ex-slave and their family. They would also often introduce them to business contacts and trade networks.

Most freedmen worked in urban trade or crafts, setting up small businesses based on their skills. Some became very wealthy as a result of their business’ success, such as the baker Eurysaces whose vast tomb is pictured above.

Slavery in ancient Rome held a stigma that freed people found hard to shake off. Freeborn people would often view ex-slaves as socially inferior and vulgar. Latin literature provides us with some interesting examples of the much-maligned stereotype of the uncivilized freedman. The Satyricon , a novel by Petronius , features an extremely wealthy freedman named Trimalchio. Trimalchio goes to great lengths to appear educated and cultured to his freeborn dinner guests, with little success. Petronius’ mocking portrayal only serves to deepen the social persecution of the ex-slave. At one point, the freeborn narrator haughtily describes his experience of Trimalchio’s dinner party as “ more like a musical comedy than a respectable dinner party. ”

Many hundreds of dedicatory inscriptions involving slaves, ex-slaves, and masters survive today. These inscriptions provide vital first-hand evidence of life after slavery in ancient Rome. They also reveal some fascinating details about individual journeys from slavery to freedom.

The above epitaph inscription is dedicated to Lucius Antistius Sarculo (pictured left) and his wife Antistia Plutia (pictured right), by their freedmen Rufus and Anthus. The inscription states that Rufus and Anthus paid for the inscription from their own funds. This in itself is a poignant mark of the bond formed between master and ex-slave. But we also learn from the inscription that Plutia was herself a freedwoman and the former slave of Antistius. This shows that Plutia had risen from a life of slavery to become the wife of a wealthy freeborn citizen, with slaves and freedmen of her own.

The Legacy of Slavery in Ancient Rome

Slavery in ancient Rome was, without doubt, an abhorrent aspect of Roman society by today’s standards. But to the Romans (at least those who were freeborn) it was entirely normal and accepted as a necessary part of daily life. Slavery in so-called civilized western countries was not made illegal until the 19th century . Despite this, it still exists today in many countries throughout the world in various forms. Slavery in ancient Rome arguably led to many more centuries of enforced servitude, cruelly imposed by one human upon another.

The Roman Senate: An In-Depth Understanding

By Laura Hayward MA Classics, PGCE Classics, BA Latin with Greek Laura Hayward is a contributing writer and researcher from London, UK. She is a specialist in the field of Classics, in which she has either studied or worked for over twenty years. She holds a B.A. and M.A. in Classics from University College London. She has also worked as a teacher of Classics in a leading independent school in London. Her particular areas of interest are Latin language and literature as well as Roman art and epigraphy.

Frequently Read Together

Slaves in Ancient Roman Comedy: Giving a Voice to the Voiceless

Roman Republic vs. Roman Empire and The Imperial System

Marcus Licinius Crassus: The Rise and Fall of Rome’s Wealthiest Man

• Ancient History

What was slavery like in ancient Rome?

Slavery was a pervasive and intrinsic part of ancient Rome's social and economic structure, with an estimated one-third of the empire's population being enslaved at its peak.

From household servants to laborers, gladiators to skilled artisans, slaves played an essential role in the daily life of the ancient Romans.

Despite the brutal conditions of their servitude, some slaves managed to achieve freedom and even rise to positions of power and influence.

The story of slavery in ancient Rome is a complex and often harrowing tale, one that reveals much about the society and values of this iconic civilization.

How did people become slaves?

In ancient Rome, people could become slaves in a variety of ways. The most common way was through being captured in war or as a result of piracy.

These individuals would be sold as slaves in markets and would then become the property of their new owners.

Additionally, children born to slave mothers were automatically considered slaves, as were individuals who were unable to pay off their debts and were sold into slavery to cover the amount owed.

Slavery could also be a form of punishment for certain crimes. However, it is important to note that not all slaves in ancient Rome were treated equally, with some being treated better than others depending on their skills and the nature of their work.

The notorious slave markets

The slave markets in ancient Rome were bustling centers of commerce where slaves were bought and sold.

The most famous of these markets was the one located in Rome's Forum Romanum, called the "Forum Boarium."

This market was named after the oxen that were sold there but also sold a wide variety of other goods, including slaves.

Other slave markets were located throughout the city, often near major ports or along well-traveled roads.

At these markets, prospective buyers could inspect the slaves they were interested in purchasing, checking their physical condition, skills, and temperament.

The slaves would then be auctioned off to the highest bidder, with the profits going to the seller.

What did slaves do?

Slaves in ancient Rome had a wide range of roles and responsibilities, and their tasks varied depending on the type of work they were trained for and the wishes of their owners.

Some slaves worked in agriculture, either on large estates or small farms, and were involved in tasks such as planting, harvesting, and caring for livestock.

Others worked in urban settings as domestic servants, performing tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and caring for children.

Skilled slaves were often trained in specific crafts or trades, such as carpentry, metalworking, or weaving.

Some slaves were even trained to be gladiators, forced to fight to the death for the entertainment of their owners and the crowds.

In general, slaves in ancient Rome were used to perform the tasks that free citizens did not want to do or could not afford to hire others to do, and they were seen as valuable commodities to be used for their owners' profit and convenience.

How were slaves treated?

The treatment of slaves in ancient Rome varied widely depending on the owner and the type of work the slave was engaged in.

While some owners treated their slaves relatively well, providing them with decent living conditions and even opportunities for education or advancement, others were notoriously cruel, subjecting their slaves to brutal physical punishment, exploitation, and inhumane working conditions.

Slaves were seen as property rather than people, and as such, owners had complete control over their lives and could do with them as they pleased.

However, there were some legal protections for slaves in ancient Rome, including restrictions on the types and severity of punishments owners could inflict and the ability of slaves to earn or buy their own freedom.

Additionally, some owners recognized the economic value of keeping their slaves healthy and well-fed and thus provided for their basic needs. 

What happened when the slaves revolted?

The Servile Wars were a series of three slave revolts that took place in ancient Rome between 135 BC and 71 BC.

The term "servile" refers to slaves, who made up a significant portion of the population in Rome at the time.

The first Servile War began in 135 BC when a slave named Eunus, who was from Syria, led a rebellion of slaves working in the sulfur mines on the island of Sicily.

Eunus declared himself king and was able to establish a large and well-organized army of slaves.

The rebellion lasted for nearly a decade and resulted in the deaths of thousands of people on both sides before it was finally suppressed by the Roman general Publius Rupilius.

The second Servile War began in 104 BC when a slave named Athenion led a rebellion of slaves in the region of Campania near Naples.

The rebels were able to defeat several Roman armies before being defeated and killed by the Roman general Quintus Servilius Caepio.

The third and final Servile War began in 73 BC when the gladiator Spartacus led a rebellion of gladiators and slaves in the region of southern Italy.

Spartacus was able to lead his army of rebels in several victories against Roman armies before being defeated and killed by the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BC.

The Servile Wars were some of the most significant slave revolts in ancient history and demonstrated the power and potential of enslaved populations to resist their oppressors.

These uprisings also highlighted the brutality of the slave system in Rome and the deep inequalities that existed between free citizens and those who were enslaved.

How could slaves become free?

In ancient Rome, slaves had several ways of gaining their freedom. One common method was through manumission, which was the legal process of freeing a slave.

There were three main ways this could happen:

• The slave's owner could grant them their freedom as a reward for loyal service or for personal reasons.
• A slave could purchase their freedom from their owner using money they had earned through working or been given by a patron.
• A slave could be set free through a formal ceremony called a "vindicta" that involved a third party asserting the slave's right to be free.

In addition to manumission, some slaves were able to gain their freedom through other means.

For example, slaves who were able to show that they had been mistreated by their owners or had been illegally enslaved could petition for their freedom in court.

Slaves who had been captured in war and subsequently freed by their captors could also become free citizens. 

Becoming a 'freedman'

A freedman in ancient Rome was a former slave who had been granted his freedom through manumission or other means.

Freedmen occupied a unique social position in Roman society, as they were no longer slaves but were not considered to be full citizens either.

Despite this, they were still able to engage in many aspects of Roman society, including business, commerce, and even politics, although they were often subject to discrimination and faced certain restrictions.

Freedmen were required to take on a new name upon being freed, often one that reflected their former status as a slave, such as "Marcus Tullius Tiro," the name of the famous freedman of Cicero.

Some former slaves were able to gain wealth and power through their newfound freedom, either by starting their own businesses or by working for wealthy patrons.

However, many freedmen continued to struggle with economic and social challenges, and were often viewed with suspicion and distrust by free citizens.

Being an imperial slave: the most attractive option?

Being an imperial slave in ancient Rome had some advantages and privileges that were not available to most other slaves.

The imperial slaves were owned by the emperor or the imperial household and were responsible for various tasks related to the administration of the empire and the running of the imperial palace.

These tasks included everything from cleaning and cooking to serving as personal attendants and even serving as advisors to the emperor.

One of the main advantages of being an imperial slave was the potential for upward mobility.

Imperial slaves had access to education and training that was not available to most other slaves, and many were able to rise through the ranks to become trusted advisors and confidants of the emperor. 

Another advantage of being an imperial slave was better living conditions and treatment.

The imperial household was known for providing its slaves with relatively good food, clothing, and living accommodations compared to other slave owners.

Additionally, the emperor himself had the power to intervene in cases of mistreatment or abuse of his slaves, providing them with a measure of protection.

What do you need help with?

Download ready-to-use digital learning resources.

Copyright © History Skills 2014-2024.

Contact  via email

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Slavery in the Roman Empire

2023, The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery, eds. Pargas and Schiel

A brief but comprehensive survey of evidence and problems for the practice of slavery in the Roman Empire.

Related Papers

Paper delivered at the 3rd North American Congress of Greek and Latin Epigraphy, Washington D.C, 2020.

Ancient History Bulletin, 25, 2011, 73-132

Morris Silver

Ramita Udayashankar

Analyze the nature of slavery in the Roman Empire

Walter Scheidel

This paper discusses the location of slav ery in the Roman economy. It deals with the size and distribution of the slave population and t he economics of slave labor and offers a chronological sketch of the development of Roman sl very. © Walter Scheidel. [email protected]

The Position of Roman Slaves

Martin Schermaier

Steven Umbrello

Dan Yosipovitch

My thesis examines the legal status of slaves in the ancient world and provides a deeper understanding into the social position and economic role these individuals had in their respective societies. The analysis delves into the different roles and functions slaves had particularly in ancient Rome and the Near East. This paper centers on the function of a slave to their master as chattel and indenture, otherwise commonly known as debt-slavery. Chattel, known as the traditional form of slavery, is when an enslaved person is the personal property of the owner and treated like a commodity, capable of being exchanged or sold. Indenture is a form of bondage where people pledge themselves to pay off a loan. These constructions are determined and supported largely by the written legal codes of these periods. This includes records, literature, transactions or disputes, which refer to slaves in these ancient societies. Although these codes are often fragmentary and often lack supporting accou...

Moses Maka Ndimukika

Aaron Irvin

In slave societies, slaves form a fundamental, if not the fundamental, unit of labor. In slave societies such as the American South and ancient Rome, slaves engaged in a wide range of economic activity, from serving as labor on massive agricultural plantations, to serving as workers in manufacturing, to personal body-slaves. As such, the study and examination of slavery and institutions of slavery has focused on slavery as primarily an economic institution, and the keeping of slaves as economic activity. In this paper, I propose a different analysis. Rather than examining slavery as an institution brought about and propagated by economic factors, I will argue that slavery in the ancient Roman world was primarily a social and cultural institution. I will argue that while slavery had its economic advantages, it likewise had economic disadvantages when compared to an alternate system of labor, namely wage-laborers. It is my contention that in the Roman Empire, slavery existed as a social institution, one that was driven by factors of culture, society, and politics, rather than economics. To this end, I will examine the existence of the alternatives to slavery in the ancient world and compare these systems against systems of slavery present in the Roman Republic and Empire, and the American South. Economic analysis and comparison of slave society in the American South and ancient Rome will be primarily based on statistical and archaeological evidence and models derived from both time periods.

Allison K Thomason

RELATED PAPERS

Revista Direito e Práxis

thiago pinto

Conservation Genetics …

Jacqueline Batista

Revista cubana de medicina tropical

Carmen Fernández

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

Władysław Zielecki

Tukang Wallpaper malang

Θανάσης Ριζάκης

MedEdPublish

Arlan Arlan

Natural Science: Journal of Science and Technology

I Nengah Suwastika

Human Rights and the Refugee Definition

Raza Husain

Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi

rıdvan keskin

Eleonora Tola

rowan ahmed

Ingeniería y Región

João Paulo Sierakowski

Journal of Exercise Science &amp; Fitness

Brigita Mieziene

HANDE ORTAY

Canadian Bulletin of Medical History

Jonathan Reinarz

Acta Horticulturae

Sayed Azam-Ali

Argentine Journal of Cardiology

HERNAN CLAUDIO DOVAL

Language, Culture and Curriculum

Catherine Elder

Silvia Ribeiro Santos Araujo

agus ardinansyah

Aomori Law and Political Science Review, vol. 23

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Shailesh Kumar Panday

Abubakar sadiq Idris

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024