case study about ecotourism

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• Travel Guide
• Sustainability

Ecotourism Costa Rica Case Study: Who Benefits?

Published: November 14, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Jyoti Vanness

• Central & South America
• Travel Destinations

Introduction

Ecotourism has become a buzzword in the travel industry, with travelers increasingly seeking out destinations that prioritize sustainability and environmental conservation. One country that has made significant strides in developing and promoting ecotourism is Costa Rica.

Renowned for its breathtaking biodiversity and commitment to environmental protection, Costa Rica has positioned itself as a leading destination for eco-conscious travelers. From lush rainforests and diverse wildlife to immaculate beaches and stunning volcanoes, the country offers a plethora of natural wonders for visitors to explore.

In this article, we will delve into the concept of ecotourism and discuss why Costa Rica serves as an excellent case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with this form of sustainable travel.

At its core, ecotourism involves responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment, sustain the well-being of local communities, and provide educational and enjoyable experiences for visitors. It goes beyond traditional tourism by incorporating principles of conservation, community empowerment, and environmental stewardship.

Costa Rica, with its commitment to environmental protection and sustainable development, has emerged as a prime example of how ecotourism can positively impact a country’s economy, society, and natural resources.

Throughout this article, we will explore the economic, social, and environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica. We will also discuss the challenges and criticisms that this form of tourism faces in the country, shedding light on the complexities of balancing tourism growth with environmental preservation.

Join us on this journey as we uncover the fascinating world of ecotourism in Costa Rica and examine the question: Who truly benefits from this unique approach to travel and conservation?

Definition of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is a form of tourism that focuses on sustainable travel experiences, promoting the conservation of natural resources and the well-being of local communities. It encompasses responsible travel practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment while providing educational and enriching experiences for visitors.

Ecotourism goes beyond traditional tourism by emphasizing the importance of environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and community empowerment. It aims to create a positive and symbiotic relationship between tourists, local communities, and the natural environment.

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education.” This definition highlights the three pillars of ecotourism: environmental sustainability, community development, and visitor education.

The environmental sustainability aspect of ecotourism involves minimizing the ecological impacts of tourism activities. This can be achieved through practices such as reducing water and energy consumption, managing waste effectively, and protecting fragile ecosystems and wildlife habitats. Ecotourism encourages tourists to appreciate and respect the natural beauty and biodiversity of the destinations they visit.

Community development is another essential component of ecotourism. It focuses on empowering local communities by involving them in decision-making processes, providing economic opportunities, and preserving their cultural heritage. Ecotourism initiatives often collaborate with local communities to ensure that they directly benefit from tourism-related activities, such as hospitality, guiding, and the sale of local products.

Visitor education plays a crucial role in promoting ecological awareness and sustainability. Ecotourism seeks to educate tourists about the natural and cultural significance of the destinations they visit, as well as the importance of responsible travel practices. By providing educational experiences, ecotourism encourages tourists to become ambassadors for conservation and advocates for sustainable tourism.

Overall, the concept of ecotourism is centered around the idea of promoting a harmonious and mutually beneficial relationship between tourists, host communities, and the environment. It seeks to create a positive impact on local economies, empower communities, and protect natural habitats for future generations.

Overview of Costa Rica

Costa Rica, a small country located in Central America, is often referred to as a “natural paradise” due to its incredible biodiversity and stunning landscapes. Situated between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, Costa Rica is home to a wide array of ecosystems, including rainforests, cloud forests, mangroves, beaches, and volcanoes.

Despite its size, Costa Rica boasts an astounding 5% of the world’s biodiversity, making it one of the most biodiverse countries on the planet. It is estimated that the country is home to around 500,000 species, including over 12,000 different plant species, 850 bird species, 250 mammal species, and countless reptiles, amphibians, and insects.

The country’s commitment to environmental conservation is evident through its extensive system of national parks, reserves, and protected areas, which cover around 25% of its land. Costa Rica was one of the first countries to recognize the value of its natural resources and has been at the forefront of sustainable development for several decades.

Costa Rica’s emphasis on sustainability has garnered international recognition. It has been named the “Greenest Country in the World” by the Happy Planet Index and consistently ranks highly on the Environmental Performance Index.

In addition to its natural beauty, Costa Rica also offers a rich cultural heritage. The country is home to various indigenous communities, each with its own traditions, languages, and customs. Visitors have the opportunity to learn about and engage with these vibrant cultures through community-based tourism initiatives.

Costa Rica’s tourism industry has experienced significant growth in recent years. It has become a popular destination for eco-conscious travelers seeking immersive experiences in nature and opportunities for adventure activities like hiking, zip-lining, and wildlife observation.

With its commitment to sustainability, Costa Rica has taken the lead in promoting and developing ecotourism. The government has implemented policies and initiatives to encourage the growth of sustainable tourism practices, including the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program, which recognizes and rewards businesses that operate in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Overall, Costa Rica’s remarkable natural beauty, dedication to environmental conservation, and thriving ecotourism industry make it an ideal case study for examining the benefits and challenges associated with sustainable travel. As we delve deeper into the topic, we will explore how ecotourism has positively impacted the country’s economy, society, and environment.

Ecotourism Development in Costa Rica

Costa Rica has been at the forefront of ecotourism development, setting an example for the world with its commitment to environmental stewardship and sustainable tourism practices. The country’s journey towards becoming an ecotourism hotspot can be traced back to the 1970s when it made a conscious decision to prioritize the conservation of its natural resources.

Recognizing the potential of its rich biodiversity and pristine environments, Costa Rica began investing in the creation of national parks and protected areas. Today, the country boasts an impressive network of over 30 national parks, wildlife refuges, and biological reserves, which offer visitors unparalleled opportunities to experience and appreciate its natural wonders.

The ecotourism industry in Costa Rica has grown exponentially over the years, with a significant increase in the number of eco-lodges, nature-based tour operators, and community-based tourism initiatives. These businesses strive to provide authentic and sustainable experiences that showcase the country’s unique ecosystems while promoting conservation and benefiting local communities.

The government of Costa Rica has played a crucial role in promoting and regulating ecotourism development. It has implemented policies and initiatives that incentivize businesses to adopt sustainable practices, such as the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) program mentioned earlier. This certification program assesses the sustainability performance of tourism businesses, recognizing those that meet specific criteria related to environmental, social, and cultural sustainability.

In addition to government efforts, Costa Rican communities have been actively involved in the development of ecotourism. Many local communities have started their own initiatives, offering visitors the chance to experience their culture, traditions, and way of life. This community-based approach ensures that the benefits of tourism are distributed more equitably and help empower local populations.

Ecotourism in Costa Rica not only focuses on land-based activities but also encourages responsible marine tourism. The country’s extensive coastline is home to vibrant coral reefs, marine biodiversity, and numerous protected marine areas. Visitors can engage in activities such as snorkeling, scuba diving, and sea turtle conservation projects, all while respecting the fragile marine ecosystems.

Overall, the development of ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only enhanced the country’s reputation as a nature lover’s paradise but has also provided numerous economic and social benefits. Through sustainable tourism practices, Costa Rica has successfully demonstrated that it is possible to generate revenue from tourism while preserving the environment and supporting local communities.

Economic Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism has brought significant economic benefits to Costa Rica, contributing to the country’s overall growth and development. The sustainable tourism practices and emphasis on conservation have created a strong and thriving ecotourism industry, which has become a major source of revenue for the country.

One of the key economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica is job creation. The growth of the tourism industry has led to the creation of employment opportunities in various sectors, from hospitality and tour guiding to ecotourism management and conservation efforts. Local communities have been able to capitalize on the demand for eco-friendly accommodations, eco-tours, and other nature-based experiences, providing livelihoods for many individuals and supporting small businesses.

Furthermore, ecotourism has stimulated entrepreneurship and the development of local businesses. Many small-scale eco-lodges, restaurants, and tour operators have emerged, often owned and operated by members of the local communities. These enterprises not only contribute to the diversification of the tourism industry but also help to retain economic benefits within the communities themselves.

The revenue generated from ecotourism activities also has a trickle-down effect on the economy. Money spent by visitors on accommodations, meals, transportation, and souvenirs circulates within the local economy, supporting local suppliers and service providers. This multiplier effect creates additional economic opportunities and helps to stimulate the growth of other sectors, such as agriculture and handicrafts.

In addition to direct economic benefits, ecotourism generates revenue for environmental conservation. The funds collected from entrance fees to national parks and protected areas, as well as through conservation initiatives, contribute to the preservation of Costa Rica’s natural habitats and the protection of its biodiversity. These resources are then reinvested in maintaining the integrity of these ecosystems, improving visitor infrastructure, and supporting research and educational programs.

Moreover, the success of ecotourism has positioned Costa Rica as a top travel destination for nature enthusiasts, attracting a steady stream of international visitors. This has resulted in increased tourism revenues, as travelers are willing to pay a premium for authentic and sustainable experiences. The monetary value placed on Costa Rica’s natural beauty and eco-conscious approach has created a competitive advantage and captured the attention of discerning travelers.

Overall, the economic benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica have been significant, creating jobs, fostering entrepreneurship, and stimulating economic growth. By incorporating sustainability into its tourism practices, Costa Rica has transformed its natural resources into a valuable economic asset, ensuring a prosperous future for both the tourism industry and the local communities it supports.

Social Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has not only brought economic prosperity but has also had a profound impact on the social well-being of local communities. It has fostered community empowerment, cultural preservation, and improved quality of life for many individuals.

One of the key social benefits of ecotourism is the empowerment of local communities. Through community-based tourism initiatives, local residents have been given the opportunity to actively participate in the tourism industry. They have become guides, hosts, and entrepreneurs, showcasing their culture, traditions, and way of life to visitors. This active involvement not only generates income but also helps to preserve and celebrate the unique cultural heritage of the communities.

Ecotourism has also provided educational opportunities for residents of these communities. As tourists seek immersive and educational experiences, local community members have the chance to share their knowledge and expertise, serving as interpreters and educators. This exchange of knowledge enhances cultural understanding and promotes respect for diverse cultures and traditions.

Furthermore, ecotourism has played a vital role in raising awareness about environmental conservation among both locals and visitors. Through guided tours and interpretive programs, visitors learn about the importance of protecting the environment and the actions they can take to minimize their impact. Local communities, in turn, develop a sense of environmental stewardship, as they witness firsthand the benefits of preserving their natural resources for future generations.

Another significant social benefit of ecotourism is the fostering of a sense of pride and identity within local communities. By showcasing their natural and cultural heritage, communities are able to reinforce their own worth and uniqueness. This recognition and appreciation from visitors bolsters community pride and self-esteem, strengthening social cohesion.

Additionally, the interaction between visitors and local communities can promote cross-cultural exchange and understanding. Tourists have the opportunity to engage with locals, learn about their way of life, and gain a deeper appreciation for different cultures. This cultural exchange encourages tolerance, empathy, and a sense of global citizenship.

Moreover, ecotourism has provided opportunities for the preservation of traditional practices and crafts. Many local artisans have been able to revive and sustain traditional handicrafts, such as weaving, pottery, and woodworking, which are then showcased and sold to tourists. This preservation of cultural heritage helps to maintain traditions, generate income, and provide a sense of pride and continuity within the community.

Overall, the social benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica extend beyond economic gains. Through community empowerment, cultural preservation, and educational opportunities, ecotourism has positively impacted the social fabric of local communities, fostering a sense of pride, preserving traditions, and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

Environmental Benefits of Ecotourism

Ecotourism in Costa Rica has had profound environmental benefits, playing a significant role in the conservation and protection of the country’s rich natural resources. By promoting sustainable practices and raising awareness about environmental issues, ecotourism has contributed to the preservation of Costa Rica’s unique ecosystems.

One of the key environmental benefits of ecotourism is the conservation of biodiversity. Costa Rica is home to an astounding array of plant and animal species, many of which are endangered or threatened. Ecotourism prioritizes the protection of these species and their habitats, ensuring that visitors have minimal impact on delicate ecosystems. By adopting responsible travel practices, such as staying on designated trails, minimizing waste, and respecting wildlife, visitors can experience the natural wonders of Costa Rica without causing harm to the environment.

Another important environmental benefit of ecotourism is the preservation and restoration of natural areas. Many ecotourism initiatives invest in the restoration and rehabilitation of degraded environments, such as reforesting areas that have been deforested or rehabilitating coastal habitats. These efforts not only enhance the beauty and integrity of the landscapes but also provide essential habitats for wildlife and contribute to the overall health of ecosystems.

Ecotourism also supports and funds the establishment and management of protected areas. The revenue generated from entrance fees and tourist activities in national parks and reserves helps to maintain and protect these areas. These funds are used for conservation efforts, such as patrolling against illegal activities, conducting research, and implementing sustainable management practices. They also support educational programs and infrastructure development, providing visitors with an informative and enjoyable experience while minimizing negative impacts on the environment.

Furthermore, ecotourism encourages sustainable resource management. By showcasing the value of intact ecosystems, it promotes the sustainable use of natural resources, such as water, energy, and land. Eco-lodges and other nature-based accommodations often employ environmentally friendly practices, such as water and energy conservation measures, waste management strategies, and the use of renewable energy sources. These initiatives minimize the ecological footprint of tourism and serve as examples of sustainable practices that can be replicated in other areas.

Ecotourism also plays a role in raising awareness about environmental issues and promoting environmental education. Through guided tours, educational programs, and interpretive materials, visitors gain a deeper understanding of the importance of environmental conservation. This education fosters a sense of responsibility and empowers tourists to make informed choices that minimize their impact on the environment, both during their visit and in their everyday lives.

Overall, the environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are far-reaching. By prioritizing the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, ecotourism has helped to safeguard Costa Rica’s rich biodiversity, support the establishment of protected areas, promote sustainable resource management, and raise environmental awareness among visitors and local communities.

Challenges and Criticisms of Ecotourism in Costa Rica

While ecotourism has brought numerous benefits to Costa Rica, it is not without its challenges and criticisms. It is important to recognize and address these issues to ensure the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of ecotourism practices in the country.

One of the main challenges of ecotourism in Costa Rica is the potential for negative environmental impacts. Despite efforts to promote responsible travel practices, some tourists may engage in activities that harm the environment, such as improper disposal of waste, disturbance of wildlife, or damage to fragile ecosystems. Balancing the desire to attract tourists with the need for environmental protection requires continued education and enforcement of sustainable practices.

Another challenge is the potential for the commodification of culture and the loss of authenticity. Commercialization and the demand for cultural experiences can sometimes lead to the exploitation of local traditions and customs, turning them into commodified spectacles for tourist consumption. It is crucial to strike a balance that respects and celebrates local cultures while preserving their integrity and authenticity.

Infrastructure development can also pose challenges to ecotourism in Costa Rica. As tourism grows, there is a need for increased infrastructure, such as accommodations, transportation, and recreational facilities. However, poorly planned or excessive infrastructure development can result in the degradation of natural habitats, increased pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Careful management and sustainable infrastructure planning are necessary to minimize these negative impacts.

Furthermore, the economic benefits of ecotourism may not always reach the local communities who bear the burden of hosting tourists. There is a need to ensure that the revenue generated from ecotourism is distributed equitably and contributes to the overall well-being of the local population. This can be achieved through community empowerment, providing opportunities for local businesses, and supporting initiatives that preserve and celebrate local cultures.

There are also concerns about the risk of over-tourism in popular ecotourism destinations in Costa Rica. Increased visitor numbers can place stress on fragile ecosystems and disrupt the natural balance of these areas. Proper management strategies, including visitor limits, trail restrictions, and seasonality control, are necessary to mitigate the potential negative effects of over-tourism.

Critics argue that ecotourism in Costa Rica has become commercialized and focused more on profit than conservation. Some businesses may use the label of “ecotourism” as a marketing tool without genuinely prioritizing sustainable practices. Greenwashing, where businesses falsely claim to be environmentally friendly, can mislead tourists and undermine the credibility of genuine ecotourism efforts.

Finally, climate change poses a significant challenge to the sustainability of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events can threaten ecosystems and impact wildlife habitats. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are necessary to ensure the long-term viability of ecotourism in the face of these environmental challenges.

Awareness and active management of these challenges and criticisms are vital for the continued success of ecotourism in Costa Rica. Through collaboration and commitment, stakeholders can address these issues and work towards a more sustainable and responsible approach to ecotourism in the country.

Costa Rica serves as an exemplary case study for the positive impacts and challenges of ecotourism. Over the years, the country has successfully harnessed the power of sustainable tourism to conserve its natural resources, empower local communities, and boost its economy.

Through the development of eco-friendly accommodations, nature-based tourism initiatives, and community-based tourism projects, Costa Rica has created numerous job opportunities and entrepreneurial ventures for its residents. Local communities have been able to showcase their cultural heritage and benefit from the revenue generated by ecotourism activities.

The environmental benefits of ecotourism in Costa Rica are undeniable. The preservation of biodiversity, restoration of natural areas, and funds allocated for the management of protected areas have contributed to the conservation of the country’s fragile ecosystems. Additionally, by promoting sustainable practices and environmental education, ecotourism has raised awareness about the importance of environmental stewardship among both tourists and locals.

However, the challenges and criticisms associated with ecotourism in Costa Rica should not be overlooked. Environmental impacts, cultural commodification, infrastructure development, equitable distribution of benefits, over-tourism, greenwashing, and the impacts of climate change all pose challenges that require ongoing attention and management.

Despite these challenges, it is clear that ecotourism has had a transformative impact on Costa Rica, positioning it as a global leader in sustainable travel. By tackling these challenges head-on and continuously improving sustainable practices, Costa Rica can continue to reap the benefits of ecotourism while mitigating its negative impacts.

In conclusion, the success of ecotourism in Costa Rica demonstrates that by prioritizing environmental conservation, promoting community empowerment, and fostering educational experiences, sustainable tourism can be a powerful catalyst for positive change. Costa Rica serves as an inspiration and a model for other countries, showing that it is possible to create a thriving tourism industry while protecting the natural beauty and cultural heritage that make our world truly special. As travelers and stakeholders, it is our responsibility to support and promote sustainable tourism practices, ensuring that ecotourism continues to be a force for environmental preservation and social progress.

1. The International Ecotourism Society. (2021). What is ecotourism? Retrieved from https://ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism/

2. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2021: Costa Rica. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/economic-impact/country-analysis/country-profiles-2021/#C

3. Castillo, R. R. (2019). Ecotourism in Costa Rica: A review of its economic, environmental, and social impacts. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 27(3), 940-950.

4. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press.

5. Lindberg, K., & Hawkins, D. (Eds.). (1993). Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners and Managers (Vol. 1). The Ecotourism Society.

6. McNamara, K., & Honey, M. (2020). Costa Rica and ecotourism development: A critical analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 519-535.

7. Spenceley, A. (Ed.). (2012). Responsible Tourism: Critical Issues for Conservation and Development. Earthscan.

8. Weaver, D. B. (2008). Ecotourism (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

9. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2021). Tourism Highlights 2021 Edition. Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/publication/tourism-highlights-2021-edition

10. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2021). Costa Rica: The Greenest Country in the World. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/content/files/2021/reports/Country%20Profiles%202021/CostaRica2020.pdf

Note: The above references are for informative purposes only. It is recommended to consult additional sources for comprehensive research on the topic.

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Ecotourism – Case Study

Case Study of Ecotourism in Kenya – The Kimana Project Three-quarters of wildlife in Kenya can be found outside of the National Parks. A large amount of the land outside of Kenya’s National Parks is owned by the Masai Mara. Three tented camps have been set up on Masai land in Kimana, located between the migration route from the Amboseli and Tsavo National Parks and is run by local people. They pay the Masai rent for the use of their land.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Local people’s perception of the impacts and importance of ecotourism in Central Nepal

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (SU); [email protected] (SGC)

Affiliations Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States of America, Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft

Affiliations Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal, Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal

Roles Methodology, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal, Faculty of Forestry, Agriculture and Forestry University, Hetauda, Makawanpur, Nepal

Roles Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Himalayan Conservation and Research Institute Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal, College of Forestry, Agriculture & Natural Resources, University of Arkansas, Monticello, AR, United States of America

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies, College of Environmental Studies, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, Natural Resources Conservation Nepal (NRCN), Kathmandu, Nepal

• Suraj Upadhaya, 
• Sarada Tiwari, 
• Beeju Poudyal, 
• Sagar Godar Chhetri, 
• Nabin Dhungana

• Published: May 27, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637
• Reader Comments

Ecotourism contributes to conserving natural resources and promoting natural and cultural resources stewardship. However, without the strong support and involvement of local people, it is not easy to achieve the stated goals. This study aimed to understand the local people’s perception of the impacts and importance of ecotourism. We conducted a semi-structured interview of 167 respondents from Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal’s prime center for ecotourism. The result revealed that more than 70% of respondents are interested in ecotourism activities, and their interests are significantly affected by their age, academic qualification, and occupation. Local people from the study area perceived that infrastructure development and increase in the knowledge base are significant impacts of ecotourism. The study showed that local people’s socioeconomic and demographic characteristics significantly influenced their perceived impacts of ecotourism. Detailed understanding and consideration of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics can contribute to effective outreach and planning process, potentially resulting in the higher promotion of ecotourism.

Citation: Upadhaya S, Tiwari S, Poudyal B, Godar Chhetri S, Dhungana N (2022) Local people’s perception of the impacts and importance of ecotourism in Central Nepal. PLoS ONE 17(5): e0268637. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637

Editor: Jun Yang, Northeastern University (Shenyang China), CHINA

Received: January 27, 2022; Accepted: May 4, 2022; Published: May 27, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Upadhaya et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The data underlying the results presented in the study are available from https://github.com/HimalayanConservationResearchInstitute/ecotourism-cnp?fbclid=IwAR3V3qFwmcBfJ4m-ZUCZZ315BbDUi5dIv155z2ErdYgi8k64aAPZX8x9xNE .

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1 Introduction

The tourism industry is one of the world’s largest industries and is associated with many sectors of the world’s economy. It creates jobs, drives exports, and generates prosperity across the globe [ 1 , 2 ]. Tourism contributes 10.4% of total gross domestic products (GDP), approximately US $8.8 trillion annually, creating 319 million jobs to the world economy [ 1 ]. In Nepal, travel and tourism contributed 7.9% of total GDP, approximately US $746.3 million annually, and created 1.05 million jobs [ 1 ].

Ecotourism is defined as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, creates knowledge and understanding through interpretation and education of all involved; visitors, staff and the visited" [ 3 ]. It represents nature-based travel to a relatively undisturbed touristic destination [ 4 ]. In both developed and developing countries, ecotourism is viewed as an engine of economic advancement and a pathway for improving the livelihoods of communities that might otherwise struggle to grow and flourish [ 5 , 6 ]. Ecotourism helps poverty alleviation, job creation, income redistribution, and export of domestic products to international markets [ 7 , 8 ]. Ecotourism can promote sustainable development through managing biological diversity and ecosystem services and functions by ensuring quality tourism experiences and absorbing or adapting to the pressures of tourists [ 9 ]. It focuses on community development, poverty alleviation, biodiversity conservation, and traditional economic activity, including agriculture, livestock, and hunting [ 10 ]. In developing countries like Nepal, it supports employment, markets, and cultural conservation and promotes ownership, management, and equitable sharing of benefits from natural resources among communities in the local area [ 11 – 13 ].

Nepal is popular for natural, historical, cultural, and adventure activities. For international tourists, it is famous for its low-cost tourism destinations. Due to higher buying power resulting from a favorable currency exchange rate and lower living expenditures, inbound tourist numbers are high [ 14 ]. The majority of the tourists prefer Nepal as a destination for trekking, rafting, wildlife safari, and cultural pilgrimage. Nepal’s rich biodiversity is also another high attraction for tourists. This includes watching spectacular species such as the One-horned Rhino, Asian Elephant, and Royal Bengal Tiger. Many ecotourists opt for their destination in the protected areas of Nepal, such as Chitwan National Park (CNP), Bardiya National Park, and Suklaphanta National Park. While natural attraction provides the foundation of tourism in any country, promoting an increase in tourist numbers depends on positive tourism experiences [ 15 ].

Similarly, the availability of facilities, quality delivery of services, and hospitality help sustain the quality and growth of tourism [ 15 ]. CNP has been serving these facilities through local people, entrepreneurs, and people in business. The primary services provided by the local people are manufacturing handmade souvenirs, showcasing their tradition through dance, homestay, and guiding the ecotourists. In turn, the local community earns foreign currency, advances their livelihood, and is motivated to develop ecotourism.

Several studies have explored the perceived impacts of ecotourism on the local community. Developing ecotourism industries and interactions with tourists significantly impact local communities [ 16 ]. These interacting forces can influence the communities’ values, behavior, lifestyles, and quality of life [ 17 ]. The development of ecotourism industries can positively and negatively affect both the natural resources and local communities’ livelihoods [ 15 ]. It is also found that ecotourism has supported the conservation of natural resources, promoted alternative energy sources, and enhanced women’s empowerment [ 12 ]. Households involved in ecotourism-related activities have a significantly higher living standard [ 18 ]. Their purchasing power will be greater than their counterparts and vice-versa [ 19 ]. There is a trade-off between economic benefits and environmental and socio-cultural costs that requires a balance between the protection of natural resources, livelihood improvement, and community development [ 20 ].

People’s perceptions of the sustainability of ecotourism revealed different perspectives. The perspectives of the individuals are influenced by their socio-demographic factors. For instance, the demands and necessities of the low-income and high-income individuals are different. As a result, they observe the resource from their perspectives. Low-income residents benefited from fuelwood, non-timber forest products, and fodder [ 21 ].

In contrast, high-income individuals benefited from timber extraction, forest-based enterprises, and large businesses. These benefits motivate local people to conserve forestlands and associated biodiversity. Also, the provision of wildlife damage compensation schemes provided by the Nepal Government has dramatically improved the attitudes of local people toward conservation [ 22 ]. Similarly, the revenue generated from ecotourism can be used to manage and conserve wildlife species and their habitat [ 23 ], community development, conservation education, and skills development [ 24 ]. Besides, ecotourism promotes and keeps alive local culture and traditions. Many hotel owners encourage tourists to visit Tharu (ethnic community) villages in CNP to understand better Tharu’s culture, art, living style, and traditions [ 25 ]. The community shows a warm welcome and respect to the tourists. The tourist visits the area to see the local culture, encouraging locals to conserve their indigenous practices. Also, local people perceived that the presence of tourists enhanced their pride in the region [ 26 ]. Ecotourism also played a crucial role in sustaining traditional practices and making prosperous communities.

Though ecotourism has many positive aspects, there are also some negatives. The fast growth of the tourism industry might have negatively impacted society, the environment, and the economy [ 27 ]. Drug abuse, illegal sexual activities, and other illegal activities have been enhanced due to tourism activities [ 25 ]. Also, a report by [ 28 ] found that the consumption of drugs and alcohol, robbery, and prostitution has increased in this area. These negative economic externalities encompass a rise in the price of goods and services [ 29 ]. Due to Nepal’s small and tourism-dependent economy, the pricing effects on commodities might become a permanent and nationwide phenomenon that affects the lives and welfare of all inhabitants [ 30 ]. In addition, tourism might have negative impacts on forests and biodiversity. Unplanned tourism activity is responsible for environmental degradation, waste generation, and pollution [ 13 , 31 ]. Therefore, unmanaged tourism development activities are a risk to the sustainability of the tourism industry.

In sum, previous research has identified several impacts of ecotourism, even when ecotourism helps uplift people’s livelihood. However, those studies focused on the major tourist flow areas where there are sophisticated services provided by hotels, lodges, and big business owners to the visitors. Also, rural and urban residents’ perception of ecotourism is significantly different [ 32 ]. So, to our knowledge, there is a paucity of information on local peoples’ perception of ecotourism in the study area. Also, its impacts on various social and economic aspects are still lacking.

A previous study also suggested that a host community’s participation in ecotourism development is closely linked to its access to knowledge about ecotourism and its related ability to control and manage local tourism resources [ 33 ]. Another study argued that understanding whether the host community benefits from ecotourism activities is crucial for sustainable management [ 34 ]. Host community participation facilitates access to benefits from ecotourism activities, but it also entails the right to a say in exerting controls on the ecotourism development process [ 6 ]. A sense of ownership and perceptions of ecotourism by host communities is an important issue for ecotourism development [ 6 ]. Today, policymakers pay increasing attention to economic development and growth and less attention to the effects of this growth on the environment, leading to the degradation of biodiversity. It is found that behavioral and functional activities in the area influenced tourism activities. It is not easy to accurately identify tourism’s social, ecological, and economic impacts [ 32 ]. Therefore, this study seeks to understand the local community’s perceptions of ecotourism impacts.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 study area.

Chitwan National Park (CNP) was the first national park declared in Nepal (in 1973) and has an area of 932 km 2 . CNP was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The Kumroj, a village and one of the potential destinations for ecotourism, covers 21.22 km 2 of land in the buffer zone of CNP ( Fig 1 ). The total area of Kumroj comprises 3.10 km 2 of forest area, 12.98 km 2 of agricultural land, 3.66 km 2 of grassland, 0.94 km 2 of water bodies, and the remaining 0.54 km 2 of other lands [ 35 ]. It consists of 1,750 households with 8,082 residents representing 16 different castes comprising indigenous Tharu and Darai communities along with hill migrants [ 35 , 36 ]. People of Kumroj depend on agriculture as the main source of income, besides which they rely on forest resources through plantation and regeneration of forest to sustain their livelihood. The degraded forest was recovered through community participation after 1980, and ecotourism was started in 1997 [ 36 ]. The renovation of the community forest and the increased presence of wildlife in the forest managed by the Kumroj buffer zone community forests users’ group have assisted the ecosystem regeneration. Then after, they promoted ecotourism, which can support local livelihood and conservation of forest resources [ 37 , 38 ]. Through ecotourism activities which started in 1997, this community of forest users group is generating approx. $45,000 annually [ 36 ]. Kumroj area has prime value for recreation, cultural richness, and wilderness, making it potential for ecotourism.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.g001

2.2 Data collections

The target population for this study consisted of local communities living in the adjacent villages (Khumroj) of Chitwan National Park. A total of 167 households (10% of the total households) were interviewed, which is enough for generalizing the results in the study area at a 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error [ 39 ]. The authors themselves carried out the interviews in June-July of 2019 for this study. Stratified random sampling (SRS) with a sample interval of ten was applied, i.e., every tenth household after the first randomly selected households was surveyed. The SRS method was used because it provides a well-representation of the population. The head-of-household was asked to answer the questions. Only one person had selected from one household for an interview. If the head-of-household member was not available, we interviewed a family member above 18-years-old. In addition, the head-of-household who understood the Nepali (local) language and who was willing to participate at the time of data collection was included in this study. If both cases were not possible, the household was not included in the sampling.

Face to face semi-structured questionnaire was used for data collection (S1). So far, there is no institutional review board or national ethical guidelines for social science research in Nepal. However, the study adhered to established standards in research ethics, such as keeping the personal identifier confidential and obtaining verbal consent before starting the questionnaire survey. We also maintained confidentiality by keeping the filled-up questionnaire safely, using the data only for analysis purposes, and discarded immediately after completing the data entry. Data were collected according to the convenience of respondents, and time was allocated to 25–30 minutes for each respondent. A questionnaire survey was the primary source of data collection. The four-page survey instrument included two parts. Part 1 covered the respondent’s demographic characteristics, including gender (male and female), age (recoded as two categories; Young and Old, based on the median age of Nepalese people ~ 25 years), and education (illiterate: who did not go to school or cannot read or write; literate: who went to school or can read and write). Ethnicity was measured into four possible categories. Household income was recoded into two categories (1) Less than Nepal’s median household income and (2) higher than median household income per month. The second part of the survey solicited respondents’ perceptions of various aspects of ecotourism. Respondents were asked to state their perceptions about the benefits of ecotourism. Respondents who perceived that ecotourism is beneficial answered "Yes" otherwise "No."

Similarly, those respondents who think ecotourism changed their lifestyle responded "Yes" otherwise "No." Respondents were asked about their level of interest in ecotourism and their response, and we categorized their responses into "high," "medium," and "low." These two "Yes" and "No" and "high," "medium," and "low" three answers were used in the Chi-square test. Due to space limitations and the survey’s primary objective, we did not ask about the quantitative benefits of ecotourism.

In addition to the questionnaire survey, we also conducted key informant surveys (n = 5) with personnel from Kumroj Buffer Zone Community Forest Users Group and the homestay management committee to understand the local area better. During the key informant survey, we discussed existing services available for ecotourism, the socioeconomic situation, and the operational plan of the group.

2.3 Data analysis

Data were reviewed and checked daily for completeness, consistency, and accuracy. After finishing the data collection, all the data were rechecked, edited, coded, categorized, entered, and analyzed in the computer program using R software.

For further analysis, we grouped variables into different categories. We described perception with seven different dependent variables., 1) Local people’s interest in ecotourism: this variable can be defined as the residents’ have an attentiveness or being attracted to continue their business; 2) local people’s perceptions about the economic impacts of ecotourism: this means whether people believed or have some evidence of raising the economic activity in their areas due to ecotourism; 3) impacts of ecotourism in changing respondents’ lifestyle: this variable identifies the resident’s perception regarding their improvement of different facilities such as switching from fuelwood to gas, more conscious about the health and safety, and being more informed; 4) impacts of ecotourism in causing economic inequality in the study area: it explains about the negativity of the inflow of tourism. For example, increase in bus fares, land, room, house, and overall market; 5) ecotourism as the reason for the increase in commodity price: the variables try to reveal the disproportion of the goods and services such as market prices of the basic daily necessities; 6) perceptions towards the impacts of ecotourism in infrastructure development in their area: this explained about whether resident’s experienced about the development of infrastructure in their community such as road construction and maintenance, electricity and other utilities; and 7) impacts of ecotourism on knowledge improvement of locals: the variable explains how the local people gather the information regarding the ecotourism activities and their level of awareness about the current ecotourism demand in the market.

Similarly, we have the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents as independent variables. Age, gender, caste, education status, household income, and occupation were the major socioeconomic factors. We grouped ethnicity into four major groups, namely (1) Brahmin/Chhetri/Newar (BCN); (2) Janajati; (3) Madhesi; (4) Dalits. Similarly, we grouped the education level into three categories (1) illiterate, (2) school level, and 3) university level. However, for the convenience of analyzing the data, we further grouped it into two categories (1) illiterate and (2) literature. Likewise, we categorized household income into three categories, (1) low, (2) medium, and (3) high, based on the minimum salary of the Government of Nepal. Again we further group them into two categories (1) low; and (2) high using the national median income [ 40 ]. Similarly, the respondents’ ages were grouped into three categories (1) young age; (2) middle age; and (3) elderly age group. In addition, the occupation of the respondents was grouped into three major categories (1) agriculture, (2) business, and (3) others (remittance, pension, etc.). Given the nature of the data, we employed a chi-square test to assess the association of these variables to respondents’ perceptions.

Of the 167 household respondents interviewed, 85 respondents were male (50.90%), and 82 were female (49.10%). The majority of the respondents were 25 years or older ( Table 1 ). The median age of the respondent was 25 years. Most of the respondents interviewed were between the age of 15–39 years (43.71%), followed by 40–59 years (39.52%) and above 60 years (16.77%). Twenty-six percent of respondents were illiterate, while 73.66% of respondents have primary school or higher academic qualifications. The major source of livelihood was found to be agriculture. More than two-thirds of the respondents’ major source of income was agriculture, followed by business and other jobs ( Table 1 ). The median monthly income of the respondents was NRs 14,700 (the US $1 = NRs 103). Most of the respondents (83.23%) were less than NRs 18,500 monthly income, which is the minimum salary of the Government of Nepal. Only a few respondents (6 or 3.59%) had income more than NRs. 30,000, and the remaining respondents (13.17) had income between NRs. 15,001- NRs 30,000.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t001

3.1 Local people’s interest in ecotourism

The results showed that more than 70% of the respondents showed high or medium interest in ecotourism in their area ( Table 2 ). One of the possible reasons for showing greater interest is that local people benefited from ecotourism. A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between different socio-demographic characteristics and the respondents’ interest in ecotourism. Among six variables, an education level (p = 0.016) and occupation type (p<0.001) were statistically significant to the interest of the local people in ecotourism at a 95% level of significance ( Table 2 ). The finding is logical because educated people were more aware of the opportunity of having ecotourism. Similarly, an occupation that depends upon the inflow of tourists in the area would increase the business’s profitability.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t002

3.2 Perceptions of local people on the economic impacts of ecotourism

Most respondents think that ecotourism is not responsible for a change in their lifestyle. Only 9% of respondents think that ecotourism brings a difference in their lifestyle ( Table 3 ). The study revealed that people were only fulfilling their basic needs rather than making more money which significantly improved or changed their lifestyle through tourism activities. The contingency table indicates that variables such as income (p = 0.003), age (p<0.001), and occupation (p<0.001) of the respondents were statistically significant to the change in lifestyle of the people ( Table 3 ). In contrast to the impacts of ecotourism on the changing lifestyle of respondents, more than 83% of respondents think that ecotourism is responsible for creating economic inequality among locals in the study area ( Table 4 ). No single socio-demographic characteristic was found to be significant. However, most respondents with low income and involved in agriculture think that ecotourism is the reason for economic inequality in the community ( Table 4 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t004

More than 90% of respondents reported that ecotourism is not responsible for increasing commodity prices in the study area ( Table 5 ). However, most respondents with high income reported that the increase in commodity prices in their place is due to ecotourism. The chi-square test shows that respondents’ ethnicity, income, occupation, and age significantly affect their response towards ecotourism’s impacts on an increase in commodity price ( Table 5 ). Most respondents in agriculture occupations do not think that increased commodity price is due to ecotourism. Similarly, respondents with low income believe that there is no relationship between ecotourism and increased commodity prices ( Table 5 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t005

Most of the respondents (92%) perceived that infrastructure development in their area is due to ecotourism. They saw infrastructure development as the direct impact of ecotourism in their community. The chi-square test shows that only age and education are significant among the socio-demographic factors, with respondents’ perceptions of ecotourism impacts infrastructure development. More than 90% of the respondents who have at least school-level education think that infrastructure development in their area is due to ecotourism. Similarly, respondents of older age feel the same ( Table 6 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t006

3.3 Perceptions of local people on the social impacts of ecotourism

The results show that majority of the local people perceived that their knowledge base had been improved due to ecotourism. They believe that ecotourism impacts the educational development of their children. The result showed that most of the respondents with low income think that ecotourism activities in their area have helped to improve their children’s knowledge and language abilities ( Table 7 ). The chi-square test shows the significant relationship between respondents’ income level and perceptions of ecotourism’s impacts on knowledge improvement ( Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.t007

4 Discussion

Our study showed that local people from the Kumroj Buffer zone of Chitwan National Park have both positive and negative perceptions of the impacts of ecotourism. We found that people living around CNP are interested in ecotourism. Local people’s higher interest is obvious in areas like CNP, where the ecotourism industry is well established. As [ 41 ] suggested, the higher interest of local people in ecotourism is directly influenced by multiple factors, including local organizations and groups involved in providing ecotourism services. Such associations or networking agencies encourage local people to engage in ecotourism activities by conducting meetings, agri-business exhibitions, and extension programs. Our results also showed that the demographics and socioeconomic status of the local people were associated with their interest in ecotourism activities. This study revealed that most respondents recognized that infrastructure development in their area is due to increased ecotourism activities. Our results align with the existing studies by [ 42 ], ecotourism activities contribute to the infrastructure development of the area. We also found that old-aged and literate locals perceived ecotourism contributes to infrastructure development. The local people who perceive that their knowledge base is improved due to ecotourism activities are typically low-waged. People with low income appreciate the income from ecotourism as their primary source of income, which enables their children to get an education.

The study found that most residents were interested in ecotourism activities, and those interested residents were literate. This suggests that educated people are more interested in ecotourism. Educated people are an essential aspect of conserving natural resources and protected areas. These ecological protection areas also allow academic institutions to organize and implement field-based education for their students [ 43 ], which will enable them to see many benefits and positive aspects of ecotourism. This interest increase in ecotourism activities creates many different economic dynamics in the Kumroj Buffer Zone Area. A previous study suggests that due to the influx of tourists in the area, local people suffer from an increase in the price of commodities [ 1 ]. Still, local people from the Khumroj Buffer zone do not perceive that ecotourism significantly impacts commodity prices. This local people’s perception is significantly associated with their ethnicity, income, occupation, and age. In contrast, the study found that ecotourism is responsible for creating economic inequality among the local people. We feel that this aspect should be explored in-depth in future research.

Also, the study found that tourism helps in promoting infrastructure development. This perception of infrastructure development due to ecotourism activities is associated with the respondents’ age and education level. The previous study also showed that tourism activities encourage establishing facilities such as road access, hotel, lodges, resorts, restaurants, infrastructure, souvenir shops, grocery, and gift shops [ 12 , 44 ]. These facilities encourage large business personnel to engage in a range of tourism activities and create an opportunity to produce and sell local products such as vegetables, fruits, livestock, and handmade souvenirs [ 45 ]. In addition, ecotourism encourages small businesses such as nature guide services and travel and tours company in the areas. These infrastructure developments and other physical facilities enhance the economic benefits at the local, provincial and national levels. The economic benefits that residents perceive from ecotourism development include more employment opportunities, increased income, and business opportunities [ 1 , 9 , 19 , 30 ]. For instance, according to the CNP authorities, a total of 152,671 tourists visited and generated NRs 24,19,60,998.28 (US $1 = NRs 103) revenue in the fiscal year 2017/2018.

The social impacts of ecotourism on the local community are often perceived as improving residents’ quality of life, education standard (or literacy rate), leadership skills, and improvement in the language [ 1 , 46 ]. Due to the rise in income and economic activity, the local people can afford their basic needs, resulting in better living standards. Also, people can afford better schools for their children, be aware of their health, access to new technologies, and enhance social networks. Therefore, many locals switched from traditional cooking stoves to improved ones, reducing the dependency of forest products such as firewood. Our results align well with previous research where most of the residents switched to biogas plants and solar energy systems for the household energy source [ 47 ]. It is also found that CNP provides funds to the local people for road construction, school building maintenance, and biogas plants due to tourism activities [ 47 ]. Also, it creates opportunities for cultural exchange and the revitalization of local traditions [ 48 ]. Tourism can also result in social and cultural benefits such as more recreational opportunities for residents, improved public services and infrastructure, and a source of social change [ 1 , 48 , 49 ]. However, ecotourism may also have costs or adverse socio-cultural effects. As a source of change, ecotourism can have a negative impact on traditional family values, lead to cultural commercialization, and create socio-cultural conflicts in the host community due to differences in the economic welfare and purchasing power between the host community and tourists [ 50 ].

People perceived that ecotourism had played a vital role in the sustainable development of human welfare. A steady increase in tourists has positively and negatively impacted the region [ 51 ]. However, sustainable tourism management has always been a better strategy to mitigate tourism’s adverse effects [ 52 ]. The local peoples’ perceptions and attitudes towards ecotourism significantly contribute to sustainable tourism management.

5. Conclusions

Knowing local residents’ opinions is necessary in tourism destinations’ planning process and governance. Understanding their perceived impacts of ecotourism is needed for positive output. This study explored the relationship between local peoples’ perception of impacts and the importance of ecotourism with their socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. This study looked into the most overlooked aspect of ecotourism management, and the findings will serve as the foundation for local governments’ social aspects of ecotourism planning. Further, the study could serve as a guide to compare these famous ecotourism destinations with other tourist areas with similar characteristics, considering that results are not generalizable. The socio, economic and ecological conditions of each context influence the results; although they might have some common characteristics with other destinations, they are still unique to the particular local destination [ 17 ].

We hope this study will help fill in existing gaps in literature around the perceived impacts of ecotourism in underdeveloped countries Nepal. Though our research investigated the association between respondents’ socioeconomic and demographic characteristics and their perceived impacts and importance of ecotourism, we did not do any research that explored the causal effect of these associations. Furthermore, this study did not examine how local people perceived the ecological impacts of ecotourism. We suggest doing this as this will provide a more comprehensive understanding of the perceived impacts of ecotourism on all three aspects of sustainability viz, social, economic, and ecological.

Supporting information

S1 file. survey guide used to collect data..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268637.s001

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to all the respondents from Kumroj Village for participating in this study. The authors also acknowledge feedback from the two anonymous referees and the editor of this journal, which helped improve the quality of the manuscript.

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Costa Rica: A case study of ecotourism

Sam McManus

With Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south in Central America, Costa Rica is a thin green strip of tropical rainforest and volcanoes that rise up between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Its human population is a little over five million, and it is one of the most biologically diverse places in the world due to its unique geography and the many resulting microclimates, which allow for a vast array of ecosystems.

It has become the poster child for sustainable ecotourism throughout the world. With a quarter of its land under the protection of national parks or reserves, the country has become a world-leading example of how linking tourism with a growing protected area network can lead to the simultaneous growth of both its socioeconomic and environmental sectors. The country’s journey to this point is a fascinating one:

José Figueres Ferrer, the son of Spanish parents settled in Costa Rica, was a well-educated, prosperous coffee grower and rope manufacturer, but his criticism of the government of Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia in July 1942 forced him into exile in Mexico for two years. He then embarked on a political career, founding the Social Democratic Party upon his return, which eventually led to him becoming a revolutionary leader, culminating in the overthrow of Costa Rica’s government via civil war. When he became provisional president of Costa Rica in 1948, he abolished the national army, nationalised its banking sector, granted women and Afro-Costa Ricans the right to vote, guaranteed public education and a host of other decrees which set the country on a path to prosperous stability, subsequently making it an increasingly popular tourist destination in the region.

By sheer dumb luck I was staying in the surf town of Santa Teresa, which happens to be located right next to Cabo Blanco Absolute Natural Reserve on the southern tip of the Nicoya Peninsula. This unbelievably beautiful and wild reserve was the first nationally protected area in Costa Rica, established in 1963 by Karen Mogensen from Denmark and her Swedish husband Nicolas (Olaf) Wessberg, both examples of the steadily increasing influx of international tourists. With the aid of an international agency, they bought 1,250 hectares of land on the peninsula to protect it against the local farmers who were deforesting huge swathes of rainforest to feed the international demand for beef, causing soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and decimating wildlife populations, including many rare and endemic species.

Nicolas was later tragically murdered in 1975 whilst spearheading the conservation of the now established and equally beautiful Corcovado National Park on the more southerly Osa Peninsula, and Karen died in 1996. Yet their legacy remains to this day. Both witnessed the first national park of Santa Rosa, established in 1972 in the northwest of the country – the first of now 28 national parks. As with much of human history, Costa Rica’s progress towards developing a national system for ecotourism was long and complex, combining many factors, successes and setbacks. Yet the overarching principle was that as more tourists visited, more wilderness was set aside for protection, as the government could clearly see this is where the long-term economic benefit lay.

Costa Rica’s National Park Services was created, and by 1998, all the natural reservations were organised under a national system. Costa Rica was popularly deemed as the leading ecotourism country in the world, which attracted more tourists in a positive feedback loop model; whereby conservation efforts protect the natural environment whilst also generating healthy economic results, creating in turn both direct and indirect employment, contributing to a reduction of poverty. Tourist numbers steadily increased from 329,000 in 1987, to 1.03 million in 1999, over 2 million in 2008, and 3.14 million tourists in 2019.

A number of systems have been put in place help manage the impact of this increasing footfall including the Bandera Azul (blue flag) programme which promotes development while curbing the negative impacts of mass tourism. It assists local communities to work against pollution and protect the environment by evaluating the environmental quality of coastal areas, and awarding them a number of stars. The voluntary Certification for Sustainable Tourism Programme (CST) encourages businesses to become sustainable in a variety of ways, including using recycled products, implementing water and energy saving devices, properly disposing and treating waste, conserving and expanding Costa Rica’s forests, in a way that can be measured and publicised. Millions of trees are planted every year as a result, and the tree coverage of the forests across the country have literally doubled in the last 30 years.

The model also has a positive effect on the lives of the local people. The country continues to face some challenges such as income inequality and some of the darker sides of the tourism industry such as sex tourism, but as models go it is pretty fantastic. Costa Rica again came first in the Happy Planet Index rankings in 2020 which measures how well nations are doing at achieving wellbeing and long, happy, sustainable lives of its populations, having previously come top in the 2009 and 2012 rankings also. By 2015, the country was also able to produce 99% of its electricity from renewable sources, and the government continues to invest in renewable energy generation in an effort to meet its goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2021. According to the non-profit Borgen Project, the majority of this energy, 67.5%, comes from hydropower, with wind power generating 17%, geothermal sources 13.5% and biomass and solar panels comprising 0.84%. The remaining 1.16% is from backup plants.

Costa Rica’s eco-tourism experiment offers a path to recovery for the rest of the world.

Over the past years nearly every single local guide we’ve used to lead groups through mountains, forests and deserts has commented to me on the changing and increasing unpredictability of weather patterns, and I can see the effects of global warming for myself, increasingly both in person and via the global media. I am not ahead of the curve, but I am on the curve, and am doing what I can to help protect what Carl Sagan called our ‘Pale Blue Dot’. Christiana Figueres, daughter of the previously mentioned three-time president José Figueres Ferrer, was the former Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

She was a key architect of the 2015 Paris Agreement. This is a legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 Parties at the 21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 21) in Paris, on 12 December 2015. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius. To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century. The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

This historic agreement also coincided with the establishment of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the COP 21 in Paris, to end poverty, protect the planet and enable a path to prosperity for all. The SDGs are increasingly becoming integrated as a global language that institutions can agree upon, and work towards. Christina Figueres published a book in 2020 with co-author Tom Rivett-Carnac entitled:

Th e Future We Choose: Surviving the Climate Crisis

I would encourage you to read this or listen to it as an audiobook, as it lays out the steps we can each take in our daily lives to help achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.

For my part, I wish to continue to use adventure travel as a medium to help promote sustainable practices in countries across the world, and to educate our clients on their importance. Adventure travel is still faced with the ‘elephant in the room’ conundrum of the international flights clients and guides need to take to reach some destinations, and the resulting carbon emissions these produce. While we may indeed have green hydrogen-powered planes in 30 years’ time, in the meantime we will continue compensating for these carbon emissions by planting trees via our partner charity WeForest, in Ethiopia, Brazil, and other countries.

More than just aiming for carbon-neutrality, however, we can do far better by actively contributing to the regeneration and rewilding of the environments we visit, by partnering with local conservation organisations that use versions of the model laid out by Costa Rica in other countries around the world. For our adventure itineraries we partner with conservation charities in the countries we travel in, and are seeing this as a welcome growing trend across fellow travel companies. This is an opportunity for the adventure travel industry to financially support conservation in destinations around the world, reduce its overall carbon footprint, and engage travellers in the world’s climate issues. If our itineraries are more culturally focused, we partner with philanthropic charities, to help the vulnerable in the communities we meet, such as the Fistula Clinic in Ethiopia, for example. By using local suppliers for accommodation, meals, transport and guides, funds will also always find their way into the local economies.

Taken from:

' Wax & Gold: Journeys in Ethiopia & other roads less travelled '

by Sam McManus.

UK: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1838493700

 USA:   https://www.amazon.com/dp/1838493700

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Please read our Adventure Itinerary & Essential Information for more information and don't hesitate to contact us if you would like to chat through whether you have found a suitable adventure for you.

Grade 1-3: Entry Level

You need to be in good physical health to enjoy your active holiday, but you don’t need to be an experienced hiker. These itineraries offer a mix of sightseeing and easier walking for around 2-4hrs a day, with the emphasis on sights and cultural experiences. 

Walks will be well marked or on defined pathways, and often around sites of interest. The expected amount of descent/ascent will depend on the landscapes of the destination, but will not exceed 400m/day, and will often be much less. Walks are at low altitude (below 3000m). 

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack with water and essentials. Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have a pair of comfortable and worn in walking shoes/boots.

Grades 4-6: Intermediate

You need to have a good level of fitness and be a regular walker for these adventures, with ideally some trekking experience. You can expect to be walking for 3-6 hours per day, not including rest stops, normally on good trail paths but with some uneven surfaces at times. 

You will not be required to carry more than a day sack. You may be walking in more challenging temperatures. You will generally be walking at low altitude (below 3000m) but may walk at altitudes up to 4000m. The amount of ascent could be up to 800m in a day but will frequently be less. You may walk on consecutive days.

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable clothing for this adventure.

Grades 7-9: Challenging

You need to have a good level of fitness with previous experience of trekking. Extra training before your trip will ensure that you get the most out of your adventure. Areas will be remote and terrain uneven. 

Expect to walk for 5 – 8 hours a day, not including breaks, with some very steep ascents and descents. You will be walking at altitude (over 3000m but not higher than 5000m).

Ensure you are aware of the weather conditions likely in the destination you are visiting and have suitable equipment/clothing for this adventure (see the packing list for your adventure).

Please check individual itineraries for details of what you will need to be carrying with you.

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Case: Ecotourism

This case explores a variety of ethical issues concerning ecotourism. The setting is a fictitious lodge in Botswana's Okavango Delta, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Mini-vignettes offer three perspectives. Nuru is a poor Botswanan who lives near the lodge and would like to be involved in its activities. Rachel, the lodge's new manager, has just come to the position from working as a field biologist specializing in African elephants with Conservation International (CI), a non-profit dedicated to worldwide conservation of ecosystems.

This biodiversity case is part of a larger collection of Life and Environmental Science ethics education resource sets on ethics of emerging biotechnologies, big data in the life sciences, human enhancement, and biodiversity. Doctoral students from Arizona State University’s Center for Biology and Society developed the resources under the direction of Karin Ellison and Joseph Herkert between 2014 and 2019.

Okavango Game Lodge lies on the outskirts of the world-famous Okavango Delta in Botswana, Africa. A UNESCO World Heritage site, this delta is unique because it floods during the dry season in what would be an otherwise arid landscape. Thus, the flooded delta draws a remarkable number of wildlife from all over southern Africa, including cheetahs, rhinoceros, lions, zebras, giraffes, and elephants.

When the lodge was built in 1980, environmental impact was a minor concern. In recent years, however, the lodge has shifted its focus to eco-tourism, or tourism that is directed toward enjoying the natural environment while supporting conservation efforts. The redirection came in part from the realization that the lodge depends on the delta’s wildlife as a draw for tourists. In addition, lodge managers were intrigued by a national certification program that provides incentives and guidelines for the development of eco-tourism lodges (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013).

Nuru lives in a small village near the Okavango Game Lodge. Her people, the Hambukushu, are one of the many groups indigenous to the area, each with a distinct culture and language. The Hambukushu are known for their mixed economy of agriculture, fishing, hunting, and pastoralism (Bock 1998).  Nuru is an accomplished blanket weaver, and she also works with her husband and their four children on their small sorghum farm. Despite these means of income, Nuru and her family are living below the poverty line in Botswana, like most of their neighbors. Nuru, her family, and the community are excited by the expansion of ecotourism in the area because of the potential for increased job opportunities and development.

As required by Botswana’s government for any ecotourism venture, the village must elect a Community Trust, a board of trustees who mediate between the village and the lodge to ensure equitable distribution of benefits. Several large-share landowners step up to the plate; they are well-known in the community, all older men, long-time residents, and among the most affluent. Many of them own larger parcels of land closer to the center of town or near new roads and see the potential to develop shops, restaurants, and services that benefit from the influx of tourists.

Nuru’s small farm lies several kilometers from the lodge, the town, and the newest roads, and thus does not benefit from such development. But the Community Trust notifies her that as part of the Okavango Game Lodge’s ecotourism initiative, Nuru and other community members are invited to sell their handmade crafts in the Craft Market during the high visitation season, May through December. Nuru also notices that members of her own community who already have lucrative jobs as shop owners, small-hoteliers, or safari-managers (most often men) are securing jobs at the Okavango Game Lodge in the kitchens, as waiters, and as cleaners.

One day, Nuru sees a job posting for safari guides and wildlife educators at the lodge. Although she has no formal training, Nuru has been living and farming in the delta region her whole life, so she decides she has the know-how to perform the job duties. This could be her first chance at a steady income to support her family.

The lodge’s manager, Rachel Jacobs, is a South African biologist with a lifelong passion for wildlife. She completed her bachelor’s degree in Conservation Biology and her master’s degree in Wildlife Ecology and became a field biologist with a focus on African elephants with Conservation International (CI), a non-profit dedicated to worldwide conservation of ecosystems. After 5 years working throughout many southern African countries with CI, she learned that Okavango Game Lodge was seeking a new manager to direct an eco-tourism overhaul of their safari and educational programs, as well as their facilities.

She applied for and accepted the job, seeing it as the perfect opportunity to apply her passion for wildlife and conservation in the hotel and game-lodge industry that she believes is too often at the heart of many human-wildlife conflicts. In her work with CI, she often confronted lodges and hotels over issues with over-exposed wildlife, development, and pollution. Safari and trophy hunting programs would sometimes allow guests to come too close, too often to wildlife. And lodge facilities come with a host of infrastructure projects that increase the flow of visitors, and thus also increase amounts of waste and pollution, further development, and wildlife exposure.

Upon arriving to the lodge, Rachel immediately went to work on initiatives to help the lodge reach their new environmental and sustainability goals. However, she was presented with two concerns.

First, to initiate and sustain improvements, Rachel would like to secure investments from American developers. With such investments, the lodge could employ electric vehicles and solar-powered boats, build the infrastructure to recycle grey-water, and manage their own waste recycling plant. Through these efforts, they could cut their waste footprint by as much as 85%. But to recruit top investors, Rachel would need to agree to share a margin of the lodge’s profits with the investors, cutting from the revenue that could otherwise enter the local economy.

In addition, Rachel faces a hiring conundrum. To improve the lodge’s wildlife conservation and educational programming, Rachel would like to hire more safari guides and wildlife educators. As she pages through applications, she recognizes some old friends. A handful of her colleagues from university and CI have applied to be safari guides and wildlife educators, and Rachel believes their world-class expertise could inspire and impress guests of the lodge. But she also notes a dozen applications from members of the nearby Hambukushu village. One application, Nuru’s, catches Rachel’s eye as the only woman from the village who has applied to a be a safari guide. Nuru could be the first woman villager employed in such a position. This excites Rachel, but still, can Nuru’s application compete with an expert hire from Conservation International? In general, she wonders, would village members know enough to lead safaris? The lodge already hosts a twice weekly fair for village members to sell crafts to tourists, and several village members work in the kitchens and in housekeeping. Perhaps that is enough.

Mahendra, an animal behavior specialist who studies elephants, hails from Massachusetts, United States. In addition to being a well-known expert in elephant behavior and social structures, he is an avid traveler and photographer. Mahendra is planning a trip to one of his regular field sites, the Okavango Delta. In fact, the largest population of elephants in the world (~130,000) migrate to the flooded plains each year (UNESCO 2017). This July, he will be bringing his wife and teenage daughter for the first time so he will be staying in a hotel or lodge rather than his usual “roughin’ it” conditions. As Mahendra begins to plan his trip, he reviews his accommodation options.

First, there is an affordable option. Sanctuary Inn is in the town of Maun, the closest city to the delta. The Inn is staffed and owned by long-time residents of Maun. They provide breakfast and modest amenities at a rate less than half what the large game lodges charge. Mahendra would need to take a daily car or jumper-plane to field sites, but he could probably afford more days in the field staying at a cheaper inn.

Dreaming, Mahendra also looks up rates at the Royal Safari Camp. This one is located right in the heart of the delta. As with any lodge in such a location, you can see wildlife up-close-and-personal, sometimes daily! Work would be right on his doorstep. The price is steep, but the amenities are similar to a four- or five-star hotel in Boston. That would be the best of both worlds, and his family prefers this option.

Finally, Mahendra views the Okavango Game Lodge. Mahendra notices that the lodge is Green and Green+ certified by the Botswanan government, indicating that conservation and sustainability are priorities for the lodge. They also host a “Craft Market.” Local men and women line the road leading up to the lodge, selling baskets, bracelets, woven clothing, and other local goods and souvenirs. The lodge is located on the delta, so the prices are high. But the lodge has more rustic accommodations, so rates are not so steep as at the Royal Safari Camp. In any case, Mahendra would have easy access to field sites as well as the opportunity to cross paths with fellow elephant expert turned eco-lodge manager, Rachel Jacobs.

Discussion Questions:

• How are benefits to the community distributed among different households, including Nuru’s? Is that distribution equitable?
• How can the village achieve more equitable distribution of benefits of ecotourism? Can the lodge help? How?
• Summarize the competing interests Rachel must consider in her management of the lodge. Which should she prioritize? How does her background potentially influence her priorities? Might Rachel be problematically biased against “experiential knowledge” ( vs. knowledge that accompanies advanced degrees)?
• Should Rachel accept the money from foreign investors to achieve her sustainability and conservation goals? Why or why not?
• Should Rachel hire Nuru as a safari guide and wildlife educator? Why or why not?
• Where should Mahendra stay for his trip to the Okavango Delta, and why?
• What ethical, logistical, and other concerns are relevant to his decision?
• In an ecotourism project, how should environmental and social-developmental goals be combined? Are there trade-offs between affording new sustainability measures vs. development goals? Justify your position drawing on the experiences of each character above.
• When involving the community, should the lodge accept existing local gender and wealth hierarchies or should they address the inequities they perceive? Explain your response by citing examples from the case. 

Bibliography:

Aciksoz, S., P. Bollukcu, and D. Celik. 2016. “Ecotourism and Ethics in Protected Areas: Bartin-Sogutlu Village.” Oxidation Communications 39: 3621-3636.

Acott, T. G., H. L. La Trobe, and S. H. Howard. 1998. “An Evaluation of Deep Ecotourism and Shallow Ecotourism.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 2: 238-253.

Bock, J. 1998. “Economic Development and Cultural Change among the Okavango Delta Peoples of Botswana” Botswana Notes and Records 30: 27-44.

Botswana Tourism Organisation. 2013. “Eco Certification System.” Accessed June 24, 2017.  http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-system  

Botswana Tourism Organisation. 2013b. “Eco Certification Criteria.” Accessed June 24, 2017 http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-criteria  

Ceballos-Lascuráin, H. 1996. Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guidelines for its development . Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2017. “Africa: Botswana.” World Fact Book. Accessed July 8, 2017. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bc.html

Clifton, J., and A. Benson. 2006. “Planning for sustainable ecotourism: the case for Research Ecotourism in Developing Country Destinations.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 14: 238-254.

Gilbert, N. 2010. “c.” Nature News , May 6. http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100506/full/news.2010.222.html

He, G., X. Chen, W. Liu, S. Bearer, S. Zhou, L. Y. Cheng, H. Zhang, Z. Ouyang, and J. Liu. 2008. “Distribution of Economic Benefits from Ecotourism: A Case Study of Wolong Nature Reserve for Giant Pandas in China.” Environmental Management 42: 1017-1025.

Holden, A. 2003. “In need of a new environmental ethics for tourism?” Annals of Tourism Research 30: 94-108.

Jones, S. 2005. “Community-based ecotourism: The significance of social capital.” Annals of Tourism Research 32: 303-324.

Lenao, M., and B. Basupi. 2016. “Ecotourism development and female empowerment in Botswana: A review.” Tourism Management Perspectives 18: 51-58.

Mbaiwa, J. E. 2015. “Ecotourism in Botswana: 30 years later.” Journal of Ecotourism 14: 204-222.

Scheyvens, R. 1999. “Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities.” Tourism Management 20: 245-249.

Stark, J. C. 2002. “Ethics and ecotourism: connections and conflicts.” Philosophy and Geography 5: 101-113.

Stem, C. J., J. P. Lassoie, D. R. Lee, D. D. Deshler, and J. W. Schelhas. 2003. “Community Participation in Ecotourism Benefits: The Link to Conservation Practices and Perspectives.” Society and Natural Resources 16: 387-413.

Stevens, P. W., and R. Jansen. 2002. Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy. Gaborone: Government of Botswana.

The Nature Conservancy. 2017. “Eco-Trips and Travel.” Accessed June 30. https://www.nature.org/greenliving/what-is-ecotourism.xml

TIES (The International Ecotourism Society). 2017. “What is Ecotourism?” Accessed June 25. http://www.ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism

TIES. 2015. “TIES Announces Ecotourism Principles Revision.” The International Ecotourism Society. Accessed July 5. http://www.ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotourism-principles-revision

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). 2017. “Okavango Delta.” Accessed July 6. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1432

Vanhove, M.P.M., A-J. Rochette, and L. J. de Bisthoven. 2017. “Joining science and policy in capacity development for monitoring progress toward the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in the global South.” Ecological Indicators 73: 694-697.

Wilson, J. 2014. “The first all-female guiding team in Africa – Our Chobe Angels.” Out and About, Chobe Game Lodge . April 24. Accessed July 1. http://www.chobegamelodge.co.bw/blog/first-female-guiding-team-africa-chobe-angels/

World Travel and Tourism Council. 2015. Travel and Tourism, Economic Impact 2015: Botswana. Available at: https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/botswana2015.pdf London, UK

The International Ecotourism Society:  http://www.ecotourism.org

The Nature Conservancy: https://www.nature.org/greenliving/what-is-ecotourism.xml

Botswana Ecotourism Certification System: http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/eco-certification-system

The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of Karin Ellison, OEC - Life and Environmental Sciences Editor, and Joseph Herkert, OEC Engineering Editor. They provided valuable input in selecting the topic and crafting the resource.

Ecotourism There is no one definition of "ecotourism," but the common thread through most definitions is that ecotourism should be nature-based tourism that has both environmental and socio-economic benefits. The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as: "...responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education" (TIES 2015; TIES 2017). With a focus on conservation of the environment, empowerment of the local communities, and interpretation for a greater understanding of nature, TIES paints ecotourism as a win-win-win. Similarly, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) defines ecotourism as: "Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact, and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples" (Ceballos-Lascuráin 1996, 20). The Nature Conservancy argues that ecotourism should be sensitive to biodiversity as well as appreciating the local cultures. They also highlight that there should be "local participation in decision-making." (The Nature Conservancy 2017).

Although ecotourism, in theory, is a win-win-win for the environment, the local community, and the tourism industry (hoteliers and tourists), there can be situations in which one or more parties are unduly burdened. For example, any kind of tourism to environmentally and culturally sensitive areas can be detrimental when visitors come in large numbers (Stem et al. 2003), leading to increased waste and habitat disturbance. Any benefits (e.g., revenue for protected areas and local communities, education for travelers and locals, etc.) must be weighed against potential negative impacts.

Ecotourism and Ethics Environmental ethics asks us to reflect on humanity's responsibility toward the environment. What are those responsibilities? How ought we behave toward nature? (Holden 2003). It is appropriate to evaluate ecotourism practices in these terms to see if promises of environmental stewardship and motivations are true in practice. Just as there are competing definitions of ecotourism, there are also competing claims as to what constitutes the most ethical motivations and practices. For example, some environmental ethicists argue that true ecotourism is non-consumptive, and thus non-utilitarian, and eco-centric (nature-centered); they view all organisms as having intrinsic value (Reviewed in Aciksoz et al. 2016; TIES 2015). Others argue that all ecotourism is inherently utilitarian, viewing nature as a commodity to sell accommodations (Stark 2002; Holden 2003). Holden claims that transitions toward ecotourism (such as in the hypothetical Okavango Game Lodge case) are often anthropocentric (human-centered); lodges transition only when they notice that other modes of tourism destroy the environment that draws human visitors in the first place (2003). In Holden's view, a lodge manager is concerned with environmental well-being only so far as it contributes to the health of their eco-tourism business. Finally, what are an eco-lodge's responsibilities to the local community? There are experts who believe that eco-tourism practices must be in harmony with not only the natural environment, but also the human environment (Aciksoz et al. 2016; Mbaiwa 2015; Stark 2002).

Some find it is helpful to frame ecotourism practices as "deep" or "shallow," with the acknowledgement that such classifications are fluid and gradated (Acott et al. 1998). Deep-ecotourism practitioners are guided by a deeply intrinsic value of the natural world. They are ecocentric, and encourage first-hand experiences with nature and culture. Shallow-ecotourism is more utilitarian; a healthy environment is valued as a driver of visitation. Such a framework acknowledges the array of motivations and practices you might find among eco-tourism projects, but the terms "deep" and "shallow" are normative, and thus it would be more neutral so simply use the labels "ecocentric" and "anthropocentric" ecotourism, again with the understanding that the classifications are fluid and gradated.

Ecotourism in the Delta The Okavango Delta, one of the largest inland deltas in Africa, lies in northwest Botswana, a sparsely populated country in southern Africa with just over 2.2 million residents across a territory the size of France (CIA 2017). This UNESCO World Heritage Site floods during the dry season, transforming the brown, arid landscape into a lush, nutrient-rich oasis, providing water for countless animals and plants during the arid winters (UNESCO 2017). This wetland system is largely untouched by human development, with restrictions on permanent settlements.

In the last two decades, the national government in Botswana has become dedicated to ensuring that the massive tourism industry has a small footprint on the delta it depends on (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013). Note that such motivations for a national ecotourism program are indicative of anthropocentric ecotourism; the government has a utilitarian value of nature as being crucial to maintaining levels of tourism. (This makes sense, as travel and tourism contributed to 8.5% of the nation's GDP in 2014 with projected increases around 5% per year through 2025 (World Travel and Tourism Council 2015).) However, such values and motivations may not be replicated on the local scale.

In 2002, as part of the Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy, the national government launched an Ecotourism Certification System, "designed to encourage and support responsible environmental, social, and cultural behavior by tourism businesses and make sure they provide a quality, eco-friendly product to consumers." According to this certification system, ecotourism must be sensitive to natural and cultural heritage with opportunities for biodiversity conservation and economic development. Thus, development initiatives for local communities are required to be integrated at the outset of all certified ecotourism projects (Stevens and Jansen 2002). Through this program, lodges and hotels are expected to minimize negative impacts on their social, cultural, and environmental surroundings, ensure equitable distribution of benefits to their host communities, invest part of their revenue in conservation, provide educational programming for guests and locals, and provide a "quality" experience to guests.

Case Overview In this case, each character experiences some of the benefits; we will explore later whether those benefits are distributed fairly. In short, we see that Nuru and the Hambukushu community are benefitting from an influx of revenue that contribute to new infrastructure, job opportunities, and tourist patrons of shops and restaurants. Nuru is employed by the craft market and has also applied for a position as a safari guide and wildlife educator. Rachel feels fulfilled in carrying out her personal conservation mission by changing practices and programming at the lodge. She also knows that certification with the national government will bring more guests and more revenue to support her initiatives. Mahendra has options; if he values cultural, social, and environmental sustainability he can choose an eco-lodge that fits that ethic. And he may also benefit through enhanced research opportunities with the lodge due to proximity to his field sites. Finally, the delta environment is likely to benefit from more sustainable tourism practices that can protect the area from waste, pollution, and unsustainable uses of resources. While each character and the environment derive some benefit, there are also tradeoffs and tensions.

Nuru According to the definitions of ecotourism above, one component of a successful ecotourism venture is that it is economically beneficial (such as providing income and employment opportunities) to the local community. And more broadly, biodiversity is often defended as a resource of food and income for the world's poorest people (Gilbert et al. 2010). However, a review of several studies presented at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London in 2010, found that evidence linking conservation projects (including ecotourism ventures) with poverty alleviation is only anecdotal. Those locals who do benefit are most often the affluent members of the community (Gilbert et al. 2010).

For example, in a case study in Wolong Nature Reserve, China, He et al. (2008) found there was significant inequality among rural stakeholders; those who were closer to roads and further from the reservation reaped the benefits both of direct tourism and indirect infrastructure improvements. Also, He et al. found that the nonpermanent souvenir shops are run by the less affluent locals, while the year-round permanent shops were run by community elites. And when rural residents are employed, it is often in low-skill, low-wage jobs (cleaners, waiters, cooks) (He et al. 2008; Lenao and Basupi 2016).

J. E. Mbaiwa, an expert on and scholar of ecotourism in Botswana, found that across the last 30 years, ecotourism ventures in Botswana have often been successful, but only when certain socio-economic and political dynamics are at play (Mbaiwa 2015). Specifically, villages tend to benefit most when an active and fair Community Trust implements ecotourism projects in the community (Mbaiwa 2015). Community Trusts are government prerequisites for any ecotourism projects in Botswana; they are registered legal entities comprised of adults who have lived in the village for more than five years.

In Nuru's village the Board of Trustees are affluent, male members of the society. Many of them own large parcels of land close to main roads and the village center. Thus, the distribution of revenue and other indirect benefits like infrastructure improvements may be skewed toward such members of society. In addition, jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities are most available to those members of Nuru's village who are already trained to take such positions or who have the land and facilities necessary to start a restaurant or shop. While a job at the Craft Market provides nice supplemental income, Nuru will find that her business is sensitive to seasonality (the delta is most popular May through December). A job at the lodge could provide better security and income, as well as opportunities for upward mobility into management positions.

To improve the distribution of benefits to rural, less affluent members of her village, perhaps Nuru should run to be elected to the trust. Her voice could represent those with similar struggles. In addition, the lodge could help by initiating a training program to build foreign language, hospitality, and entrepreneurial skills. A real-life example, the Chobe Game Lodge located in Botswana's Chobe National Park implemented the first female safari guide training program in an effort to provide more equitable job opportunities (Wilson 2014). It is worth noting that in Botswana, societies are traditionally patriarchal, and women tend to be excluded from some opportunities (Lenao and Basupi 2016; Jones 2005). However, the country has started to pass legislation aimed toward removing or counteracting prior discrimination (Lenau and Basupi 2016). Still, initiatives to improve opportunities for women should be done in a way that will not be construed as imposing western gender norms.

Rachel Given Rachel's background as a biologist, CI employee, and her new focus on making Okavankgo Game Lodge a sustainable eco-lodge, it is highly possible that she holds an ecocentric ethic. She accepted the manager position to reduce the negative impacts of the lodge on the environment, not because the lodge depends on the environment for business (though it does), but because she has seen in her prior career the damage lodges' can cause to the environment and animals she has harbored a life-long passion for. This ethic stands in contrast to the utilitarian view of ecotourism held by the national government and certification program.

Rachel's passion for the environment drives her to seek foreign investments that will initiate and maintain several sustainability measures at the lodge, but such investors will request that revenue be shared. Her ethical viewpoint and passion may lead her to accept the compromise, meaning she may be blind to the potential damage such agreements could do to the local economy. Thus, in one sense, accepting foreign investments could suit her ecocentric ethic, but to others with a more anthropocentric leaning worldview, Rachel could be entering an unethical deal. For example, according to our definitions of ecotourism above, "ecotourism ventures should only be considered 'successful' if local communities have some measure of control over them and if they share equitably in the benefits emerging from ecotourism activities" (Scheyvens 1999). But it is also possible that Rachel could justify her foreign investments in terms of benefits to the local community. Increased investments could lead to better facilities that attract more guests and thus more revenue. Rachel could grant control over revenue, and related investments, to the local Community Trust.

In addition, Rachel's focus on western standards of scientific expertise may make her more likely to hire her CI colleagues as opposed to Nuru, because she knows she can trust her old friends to espouse and practice her same ecocentric worldview. And logistically, her CI colleagues would require less training; most speak many foreign languages, are experienced in education, and all have expertise in ecology and conservation. She might also realize, however, that she could balance the hiring process by hiring one or two of her CI colleagues to then train several local hires, including Nuru.

Is it possible to be ecocentric and still be concerned about the local community? Ethical worldviews come in gradients. Rachel may realize that she can still achieve her goals without foreign investments, albeit more slowly. First, in a conversation with the Community Trust, she might find that many of her raw materials and food can be sourced locally, meaning lower costs, a boost to the local economy, and a more authentic culinary experience for guests. She could also take advantage of the tax incentives for sourcing and employing locally -- a budget saver.

And perhaps her ecocentric ethic means she hopes the she can inspire both guests and locals to have a better appreciation for nature. One way to get the local community excited about her projects, is to involve them. She could have them arrange a cultural education program to supplement environmental education (Stem et al. 2003). She might also initiate a training program to build entrepreneurial skills in the community, because although direct employment with ecotourism has been found unlikely to influence conservation perspectives, indirect benefits such as education opportunities and infrastructural improvements can have a positive influence on conservation perspectives (Stem et al 2003). Plus, Rachel would be building the capacity of the local community to participate in the educational and tourism market. In other words, she would be contributing to their economic empowerment (venues for regular income), psychological well-being (potential for building optimistic futures), social empowerment (keeping revenue local to contribute to community groups, health clinics, etc.) and political empowerment (allowing community voices to guide development) (Scheyvens 1999).

Mahendra Where Mahendra decides to stay will depend on his world view, as well as how he weighs that against logistical concerns. If Mahendra is a strong ecocentric, he will certainly want to support the Okavango Game Lodge as the only ecotourism option. However, if he does not have a strong ecocentric ethic he may be more concerned with either (a) saving money or (b) keeping his family comfortable, in which case we would stay at the Sanctuary Inn or the Royal Safari Camp respectively. The Okavango Game Lodge does get logistical bonus points for being conveniently close to his field site. Also, depending on Mahendra's awareness of and concern for local and indigenous communities, he might be either pleased that the lodge sponsors a Craft Market or disappointed by the Craft Market as the lodge's only (current) meager attempt at community engagement and support.

Considering that Mahendra knows of Rachel's background as a fellow elephant biologist, Mahendra might consider reaching out to her to initiate a community science program. Perhaps he could become a regular patron of the Okavango Game Lodge, implementing a training and employment program for locals and lodge guests who are interested in partaking in elephant research. This would be considered "research ecotourism," providing research opportunities for visitors and locals that focus on the delta region's biology (in this case, specific to elephant biology) (Clifton and Benson 2006). Additionally, employing community members to help with "mapping, measuring, and monitoring" could increase local capacity to self-employ or seek employment as safari guides, wildlife educators, or ecologists. This could also be seen as part of a broader call to increase biodiversity knowledge and knowledge acquisition skills in developing countries (Vanhove et al. 2017).

Conclusion The Botswana government's "Ecotourism" certification level is defined as follows:

Ecotourism: This level upholds the principles of ecotourism, as stated in the Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy (2002) and defines those facilities that have met all the principles of ecotourism. The level reflects the facilities' commitment to and involvement with local communities in tourism development, nature conservation, environmental management and interpretation of the surrounding environment to the guests. (Botswana Tourism Organisation 2013b)

In this case, there are trade-offs between affording new sustainability measures vs. achieving developmental goals, particularly if Rachel's ecocentric ethic drives her to compromise with foreign investors and leads her to hire only her CI colleagues. However, if Rachel wishes to achieve the final "Ecotourism" certification level, she will need to balance her goals with community engagement and development. So "success" in this case is a balancing act for the lodge and the community.

It is worth noting that "success" depends on your environmental ethic. Those who tend toward anthropocentric will want to see environmental goals balanced with developmental goals. Someone who is strongly ecocentric, like Rachel, might be willing to compromise developmental goals in order to move more quickly with sustainability and environmental initiatives. It's also worth noting that community involvement with ecotourism doesn't necessarily change the terms in which locals see the forest so much as it keeps them too busy with new jobs to conduct old, potentially "harmful" activities, such as converting protected land to agriculture (e.g., Stem et al. 2003). Should ecotourism project managers like Rachel be satisfied to simply keep people preoccupied? Then, questions remain: If people had time, would they hunt? It tourism levels dropped, would the forest lose its value? So perhaps Rachel should push for "loftier goals," such as a greater respect for nature or a shared ecocentric ethic. But how could she go about achieving that? And what does it mean to respect nature? There are different interpretations, and utilitarian values don't necessarily equate with "disrespect."

Rachel needs to develop a greater understanding of the community's own environmental ethic before she decides to impose her own. A good practice would be to offer involvement and training with the eco-lodge wherever she can, especially to underrepresented members of the local community. Most importantly, balancing community development needs, local traditions and values, and sustainable development, is not amenable to one-off solutions; rather it requires careful and continuous attention.

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Case study: Ecotourism in Kenya

By Matt Burdett, 27 January 2018

On this page, we look at ecotourism in Kenya as one case study of sustainable tourism in one low-income country.

Ecotourism in Kenya

Kenya has a wide range of ecotourism activities, including cultural (indigenous peoples) and environmental (hiking and adventure tourism, and wildlife safaris). For example (Kenya Travel Tips, 2018):

• About 7.5% of the country is designated for wildlife conservation
• There are 23 National Parks and 28 National Reserves, plus six marine reserves
• Wide range of wildlife including lions, elephants, zebras and over 1070 bird species
• 536 kilometers of coastline, which is largely sandy beaches
• Six World Heritage Sites

Tourism is a major industry in Kenya. However, it is very difficult to ascertain detailed figures on ecotourism, although there are some figures about tourism in general. The Kenya National Bureau of Statistics collects detailed information about tourism. The number of international visitors has been largely stable for several years there has been a slight decrease:

• Reported Visitor Departures by Purpose, 2009 – 2016. Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2017.

The number of tourists visiting the Game Parks and National Reserves actually decreased during the same period, as shown below. This corresponds with the slight decrease in overall holiday visitors during the same period, but it is not evenly distributed among the parks with some, such as the Nairobi National Park, experiencing an increase.

These visitors contribute an estimated US$1 billion per year to the Kenyan economy, which is roughly 10% of gross domestic product. Tourism is the biggest industry in Kenya, employing 9.3% of workers (Kenya Tourism Board, 2016).

National scale ecotourism

Responsibility for tourism in Kenya is under the Kenya Tourist Board. It has a sustainability committee which works on four principles (Kenya Tourism Board, 2016):

• Environmental conservation
• Education and empowerment
• Social responsibility
• Culture and heritage preservation

The Kenya Tourist Board introduced an ‘Eco-rating Scheme’ in 2002 for accommodation providers (such as hotels) and in 2015 this was expanded to tour operators with the ‘Travel Life’ rating scheme. There are now over 100 eco-rated facilities in Kenya. There are also annual awards given for the most sustainable practices.

These advances are in line with Vision 2030, Kenya’s national development plan. Tourism is the lead sector in the plan to achieve a transformation of the national economy (Kenya Tourism Board, 2016).

Kenya’s plans for tourism rely on five pillars to avoid greenwashing . ‘Greenwashing’ is a term “used to describe the act of misleading consumers regarding the environmental practices of a company or the environmental benefits of a product or service” (Greenpeace, n.d.). The five pillars are:

• Pillar 1 – Leveraging the Might of Giants / Benchmarking. This means that Kenya looks abroad at similar policies to learn lessons, such as looking at Ecotourism Australia, and CAST in the Caribbean
• Pillar 2 – Broad & Inclusive Sustainability Guidelines. Reference to the Sustainable Development Goals.
• Pillar 3 – Education & Specialization. Includes support for three major tourism conferences held annually in Kenya.
• Pillar 4 – Recognition of Champions. Eco-rating Schemes and other awards.
• Pillar 5- Partnership / Integration. Includes stakeholder agreement and recognition.

Local scale sustainable tourism: The Maasai Mara National Reserve

• Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Source: Key45, 2003.

The Maasai Mara National Reserve was first established in 1961. Since then it has earned a reputation as one of the best ecotourism destinations in the world. Ecotourism is encouraged by tour companies and accommodation providers.

Cottars Safari Service

Cottars is one of the oldest tourism companies in Kenya, having been first registered in 1919. It is an award winning ecotourism company that makes efforts to be sustainable. It operates in the area around the Maasai Mara National Reserve.

• When visitors come to the area and use Cottars, they are expressly charged a lease fee for wildlife conservation. Some of this revenue is shared with local communities and also used to help develop the 6,000 acre Olderikesi Wildlife Conservancy on the edge of the Reserve as a way to expand the area under conservation.
• Cottars employs accredited guides to ensure they are in harmony with the environment and culture of the area; many of these guides are from the local area.
• Tourists are encouraged to bring a few items with them from their home country that can support local people, such as school supplies for the Olpalagilagi Primary School for a total of 200 students.
• Cottars takes tourists to visit the local Maasai villages which helps to provide a market for traditional products such as beads, which helps local people economically.
• Financial and legal support was provided to local communities to fight for land rights, resulting in the legal ownership of the Olderkesi Group Ranch in 2010.
• Combines with groups such as Bridging the Gap; a bridge was built across the Sand River, preventing an average of six deaths per year and allowing local people to access social amenities.

(Sources: Cottars, 2015; Cottars.com, 2012)

Olarro Lodge

• Olarro Lodge, Kenya. Source: Sunsafaris.com

Olarro Lodge is a rural hotel about halfway between Nairobi and Lake Victoria, near the border with Tanzania. In January 2015, it won the coveted Gold Eco-rating Certification from Ecotourism Kenya. It is about 5 km from the Maasai Mara nature reserve, and is within the Olarro Conservancy. The conservancy is a 7,500 acre area which is owned by around 150 local Maasai landowners. To ensure the principles of ecotourism are successfully implemented, the Lodge has made several alterations to be more sustainable.

• Solar power is produced on-site with 150 solar panels
• Two wind turbines add to the electrical supply
• Water is heated with 17 solar water heaters, which can heat around 600 liters of water each
• Signage encourages visitors to save electricity
• Energy saving light bulbs are found throughout the hotel
• Water is sourced from a natural spring within the conservancy, and rainwater is harvested from rooftops of the buildings and stored in three 100,000 litre underground tanks
• Waste water is treated on-site and used to provide irrigation for the hotel’s lawns
• Guests are encouraged to behave more sustainably by being educated about these features on their arrival

• Olarro Lodge, Kenya. Source: Karanja and Shabanji, 2015.

Cottars, C., 2015. Cottars Strive for Excellence in Sustainable Tourism. In Naturals Magazine number 06. https://ecotourismkenya.org/resource-centre/downloads/#toggle-id-7 Accessed 27 January 2018.

Cottars.com, 2012. Cottar’s Conservation, Community, Culture & Commerce. http://www.cottars.com/conservation-community Accessed 27 January 2018.

Greenpeace, n.d. Greenwashing. https://stopgreenwash.org/history Accessed 27 January 2018.

Karanja and Shabanji, 2015. Replicable Best Practices At Olarro Lodge. In Naturals Magazine number 06. https://ecotourismkenya.org/resource-centre/downloads/#toggle-id-7 Accessed 27 January 2018.

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2017. Statistical Abstract 2017. https://www.knbs.or.ke/publications/ Accessed 27 January 2018.

Kenya Tourism Board, 2016. Sustainable Tourism Report 2016 http://ktb.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/KTB-Sustainable-Tourism-Report-2016.pdf Accessed 27 January 2018.

Kenya Travel Tips, 2018. Tourism in Kenya. https://www.kenyatraveltips.com/tourism-in-kenya/ Accessed 27 January 2018.

Key45, 2003. Gnus and zebras in the Maasai Mara park reserve in Kenya. Wildebeest and zebra migration in Maasai Mara. Sourced from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GnusAndZebrasInMaraMaasai.jpg Accessed 27 January 2018.

Sunsafaris.com, n.d. https://www.sunsafaris.com/safari/kenya/Maasai-mara/olarro-lodge.html Accessed 27 January 2018.

Case study: Ecotourism in Kenya: Learning activities

• Why is Kenya a suitable destination for ecotourism? [4]
• Outline the changes in tourism numbers in Kenya in recent years. [3]
• Outline the national approach taken to ecotourism in Kenya. [5]
• Suggest how the Maasai Mara National Reserve can be considered in keeping with ecotourism principles. [6]
• Do you consider tourists to the Olarro Lodge are ecotourists? Explain your answer. [4]
• Overall, do you think ecotourism can bring benefits to people in Kenya? Why? [8]

Other tasks

Conduct research into another remote tourist destination that offers ecotourism, such as the Kuna Yala of Panama. Compare the efforts made by both destinations and suggest which is the more sustainable form of ecotourism.

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Ecotourism: A Case Study

Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that tourists who participate in ecotourism activities want reassurance that their host follows defined ecotourism principles. By Des Langkilde.

Table of Contents

Ecotourism Definitions

In his book ‘Ecotourism: An Academic Definition’ (1999 p.43) David A. Fennell defines ecotourism as “… a sustainable form of natural resource-based tourism that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented (control, benefits, and scale). It typically occurs in natural areas, and should contribute to the conservation or preservation of such areas.”

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines Ecotourism as “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.”

In a nutshell, the principles that define ecotourism include destinations that:

• Minimise human impact on the environment;
• Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect;
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts;
• Ensure direct financial benefits for conservation and empowerment for local people; and
• Raise sensitivity to the host countries’ political, environmental, and social climate.

Case Study: Grootbos Private Nature Reserve

A visit to Grootbos provides a prime example of Ecotourism Principles in action – it’s more than just five-star accommodation and eco-adventures; it’s about making a real and effective contribution to the unique natural environment of the Walker Bay region and its people.

From the beginning, Grootbos has been committed to the conservation of the region’s biodiversity as well as the upliftment of the local community.

Back in 1991, when Heiner and Eva Lutzeyer purchased a 123 hectare farm on the mountain slopes overlooking Walker Bay between the villages of Stanford and Gansbaai, little did they realise that their enterprising sons Michael and Tertius would succeed in establishing what has become a pristine botanical treasure trove, wildlife sanctuary, international 5-star eco-lodge and a world leader in luxury ecotourism.

Over the years, Grootbos staff have cleared all alien vegetation from the property, restored damaged areas, and now manage the land in accordance with strict ecological principles. The rehabilitation and development of this 2500 hectare property are well chronicled in the book ‘ Field Guide to the Flora of Grootbos Nature Reserve and the Walker Bay region ‘ by Sean Privett and Heiner Lutzeyer. Of the 9 250 species of flowering plants to be found in the UNESCO protected Cape Floristic Region, 760 species are found within Grootbos, of which six are totally new to science, and found only in this particular part of the reserve.

The friendly and knowledgeable guides at Grootbos take pride in sharing their love for nature and the outdoors, and they know Grootbos and its surrounds like the palm of their hand and display an eagerness to share its many secrets with guests.

Their humorous commentary and intriguing tales aim to convey science and history through stories that bring the landscape to life. Coming from different backgrounds, cultures and schooling, each guide adds an individual quality and flair to the Grootbos experience – a personal touch and friendliness beyond mere service.

In terms of empowering local people and associated non-profit programmes, Grootbos employs in excess of 150 full-time staff, some 80 per cent of whom are from local disadvantaged communities.

In conclusion, if I were a lodge owner, a hotel general manager, or a tourist attraction/destination manager looking to apply ecotourism principles into my business operations, I’d certainly look at tapping into the Grootbos Foundation’s expertise for assistance.

For more information, visit www.grootbosfoundation.org or www.grootbos.com

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Promoting Ecotourism: A Case Study on Sagada, Philippines

Related Papers

I am just starting to gather data. I have not yet started making abstracts for my own research. these article is authored by someone else. it is another reference.

Ramon B A Alampay

The Philippines, through tourism, aspires to become a stronger player in the integrated travel industry of today. Yet, the country realizes that in order to do so, it must conserve, protect and strengthen the cultural, historical and natural resources upon which the Philippines draws its unique competitive advantages. All these in a manner that can be sustained for the benefit and enjoyment of future generations of Filipinos. This book, a collection of research papers funded by the Philippine APEC Study Center Network (PASCN), reflects the scope and complexity of sustainable tourism development. The various papers also mirror the complexity of sustainable tourism development and hint at the multidisciplinary approach that this mode of tourism needs to succeed. Each paper applies a different disciplinary framework to its particular tourism problem: economics, sociology, anthropology, environmental science, management science, human resources development, and others. Each paper also provides a unique academic angle on sustainability and tourism.

www.cdrj.ssu.edu.ph

Ronald Orale

Samar is the third largest island in the Philippines blessed with worldclass, less known ecotourism destination like highly diverse forest/reefs, gigantic caves, waterfalls, beaches, etc. Tourist arrival share attributed mostly to the private sector remains very low because of poor intervention especially from the local government. Private-led initiatives to promote Samar’s world-class sites are relatively successful, bringing in tourists from all over the world. Samar’s ecotourism sites are rated by these tourists higher in terms of panoramic appeal but poor in terms of accessibility; support structure, services and facilities compared to the more known and government-supported destinations in the Philippines. Samar Island towns are one of the poorest in the Philippines. Increasing tourist arrival through improved government intervention will result into a better economic activity which will potentially reduce the poverty level in the three provinces of Samar.

Rowena Abat - Parducho

The 7,107 islands of the Philippines make it one of the most frequently visited places by tourists in Asia and the Pacific. This paper attempted to review existing literatures on how ecotourism serves as a strategy for nation building, as well as establish the need for more conscious efforts to make its contributions sustainable.

Mary Jean Abello-Camarin

Tourism is said to be a fragmented industry or group of industries, composed primarily of competing businesses which have no collective strategy, leading to a complex and fragmented area for development of government policy (Noel Scott, 2012). Such nature of tourism requires a more focused regional tourism planning approach that significantly responds to sustainable tourism products (Buhalis and Costa, 2006). This study delved into the crafting of a tourism development framework for Caraga Region as a planning approach to ensure sustainability of its predominantly nature-based tourism assets. The five Provincial Local Governments of Caraga were rated through a survey on the implementation level of tourism-related initiatives. Results revealed that the tourism-related initiatives’ implementation has bearing to the tourist arrivals of the provinces from 2010-2014. The problems encountered in the implementation of the initiatives were rooted on balancing market-led and supply-led development approaches that will both deliver satisfying tourist’s experience and preserve the integrity of tourism resources. Tourism therefore must not be done in isolation (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2011) to achieve this. Patterned to the integrative tourism development model of Getz, the study concluded that Caraga Region’s tourism development framework must be anchored on responsible governance, infrastructure development, green tourism product development, human resource development and peace and security. Key Words: Caraga Region tourism development framework, tourism development, tourism

ziyad zarkasi

Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research

Jazztin Jairum Manalo

Sustainable tourism has been considered by many local governments as part of their initiatives for economic upliftment. It is one of the major sources of income through the use of their tourist attraction without compromising the natural resources situated within. The enactment and effective implementation of the local government’s policy have achieved a promising efficient outcome for sustainable tourism.. The city of Puerto Princesa had a long history considering its transformation from an environmentally degraded city into one of the major ecotourism sites around the world. Thus, this paper presents the case of Puerto Princesa and its practices as well as economic development by practicing sustainable tourism and effective policy implementation. The City Ordinance No. 163-91 and 640 has improved the lives of the communities by practicing cleanliness and effective waste management their surrounding and tourist destinations. Economic development and benefits from sustainable tourism reflects the city of Puerto Princesa as a role model for Local Government Units. The passing of City Ordinances on Cleanliness drive have played an important role in effective waste management of the city. The key role of having a strong political will in the local government has strongly maintained its best practices for two decades up to the present.

Jay-r B Cabayan Jr.

Gessa Mae Abriol

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Case Study on Ecotourism

Ecotourism case study:.

Ecotourism is the form of tourism which is characterized with the visiting of the undisturbed places free of the influence of the human activity. The term ‘ecotourism’ was introduced in the 1980-ies and the practice of this kind of tourism is becoming more and more popular among the people who are looking for new impressions. Ecotourism is the balance and harmony between recreation and ecology and presupposes the wise usage of the natural values. The main features of ecotourism are the rejection of comfort, mass communication, and the inventions of the human civilization.Furthermore, ecotourism advertises other values: observation of nature and broadening of the outlook and spirit on the basis of the communication with nature.

The main idea of ecotourism is the involvement of tourism into the process of the protection of the natural environment. Tourists are supposed to keep all the litter with themselves and never pollute the environment or cause any damage to animals and plants. Today tourism has become extremely popular among people of the whole world and it causes many problems for the surrounding world, because the majority of tourists are careless and do not know how to behave in the wild nature. Ecotourism is supposed to teach people protect nature and increase their knowledge about the world around. Another plus of ecotourism is the possibility to learn something new about the traditions and culture of the local settlements.

We Will Write a Custom Case Study Specifically For You For Only $13.90/page!

The most typical places for ecotourism are forests, valleys, rivers and lakes and national parks.If one expects to prepare a successful ecotourism case study, he will need to improve his knowledge on the general aspects of the topic and only then he will manage to focus on the direct problem and solve it effectively. So, a good case study should possess a strict and logical structure and reliable content. A student should collect data with the help of different means and find as much information about the case as possible. The more one knows about the problem and its background the better chances he has to succeed in the writing process.

It is important to find out about the reason of the problem and analyze its consequences. After the profound analysis one will be able to brainstorm an effective solution to the problem and demonstrate his professional skills.The most difficult thing connected with the process of case study writing is the organization of the paper. Fortunately, due to the existence of the Internet one is able to look through a good free sample case study on ecotourism in Kenya or Malaysia, and understand the way of its writing. A free example case study on ecotourism in India is a valuable piece of advice for every student, because he learns about the ways of formatting and data analysis.

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