Research methodology vs. research methods
The research methodology or design is the overall strategy and rationale that you used to carry out the research. Whereas, research methods are the specific tools and processes you use to gather and understand the data you need to test your hypothesis.
To further understand research methodology, let’s explore some examples of research methodology:
a. Qualitative research methodology example: A study exploring the impact of author branding on author popularity might utilize in-depth interviews to gather personal experiences and perspectives.
b. Quantitative research methodology example: A research project investigating the effects of a book promotion technique on book sales could employ a statistical analysis of profit margins and sales before and after the implementation of the method.
c. Mixed-Methods research methodology example: A study examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance might combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. It could include surveys to quantitatively assess the frequency of social media usage and its correlation with grades, alongside focus groups or interviews to qualitatively explore students’ perceptions and experiences regarding how social media affects their study habits and academic engagement.
These examples highlight the meaning of methodology in research and how it guides the research process, from data collection to analysis, ensuring the study’s objectives are met efficiently.
When it comes to writing your study, the methodology in research papers or a dissertation plays a pivotal role. A well-crafted methodology section of a research paper or thesis not only enhances the credibility of your research but also provides a roadmap for others to replicate or build upon your work.
Wondering how to write the research methodology section? Follow these steps to create a strong methods chapter:
At the start of a research paper , you would have provided the background of your research and stated your hypothesis or research problem. In this section, you will elaborate on your research strategy.
Begin by restating your research question and proceed to explain what type of research you opted for to test it. Depending on your research, here are some questions you can consider:
a. Did you use qualitative or quantitative data to test the hypothesis?
b. Did you perform an experiment where you collected data or are you writing a dissertation that is descriptive/theoretical without data collection?
c. Did you use primary data that you collected or analyze secondary research data or existing data as part of your study?
These questions will help you establish the rationale for your study on a broader level, which you will follow by elaborating on the specific methods you used to collect and understand your data.
Now that you have told your reader what type of research you’ve undertaken for the dissertation, it’s time to dig into specifics. State what specific methods you used and explain the conditions and variables involved. Explain what the theoretical framework behind the method was, what samples you used for testing it, and what tools and materials you used to collect the data.
Once you have explained the data collection process, explain how you analyzed and studied the data. Here, your focus is simply to explain the methods of analysis rather than the results of the study.
Here are some questions you can answer at this stage:
a. What tools or software did you use to analyze your results?
b. What parameters or variables did you consider while understanding and studying the data you’ve collected?
c. Was your analysis based on a theoretical framework?
Your mode of analysis will change depending on whether you used a quantitative or qualitative research methodology in your study. If you’re working within the hard sciences or physical sciences, you are likely to use a quantitative research methodology (relying on numbers and hard data). If you’re doing a qualitative study, in the social sciences or humanities, your analysis may rely on understanding language and socio-political contexts around your topic. This is why it’s important to establish what kind of study you’re undertaking at the onset.
Now that you have gone through your research process in detail, you’ll also have to make a case for it. Justify your choice of methodology and methods, explaining why it is the best choice for your research question. This is especially important if you have chosen an unconventional approach or you’ve simply chosen to study an existing research problem from a different perspective. Compare it with other methodologies, especially ones attempted by previous researchers, and discuss what contributions using your methodology makes.
No matter how thorough a methodology is, it doesn’t come without its hurdles. This is a natural part of scientific research that is important to document so that your peers and future researchers are aware of it. Writing in a research paper about this aspect of your research process also tells your evaluator that you have actively worked to overcome the pitfalls that came your way and you have refined the research process.
1. Remember who you are writing for. Keeping sight of the reader/evaluator will help you know what to elaborate on and what information they are already likely to have. You’re condensing months’ work of research in just a few pages, so you should omit basic definitions and information about general phenomena people already know.
2. Do not give an overly elaborate explanation of every single condition in your study.
3. Skip details and findings irrelevant to the results.
4. Cite references that back your claim and choice of methodology.
5. Consistently emphasize the relationship between your research question and the methodology you adopted to study it.
To sum it up, what is methodology in research? It’s the blueprint of your research, essential for ensuring that your study is systematic, rigorous, and credible. Whether your focus is on qualitative research methodology, quantitative research methodology, or a combination of both, understanding and clearly defining your methodology is key to the success of your research.
Once you write the research methodology and complete writing the entire research paper, the next step is to edit your paper. As experts in research paper editing and proofreading services , we’d love to help you perfect your paper!
Here are some other articles that you might find useful:
What does research methodology mean, what types of research methodologies are there, what is qualitative research methodology, how to determine sample size in research methodology, what is action research methodology.
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This is very simplified and direct. Very helpful to understand the research methodology section of a dissertation
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Published on 25 February 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.
Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research.
It should include:
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How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, frequently asked questions about methodology.
Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .
It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.
You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.
What research problem or question did you investigate?
And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?
Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?
Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .
In order to be considered generalisable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.
Here, explain how you operationalised your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria, as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.
Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.
Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.
Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.
The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.
The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on 4–8 July 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.
Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.
In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.
Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)
Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.
Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .
Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.
In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness shop’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.
Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.
Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.
Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.
Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods here.
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Next, you should indicate how you processed and analysed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.
In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:
In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).
Specific methods might include:
Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.
Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.
In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .
Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.
The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .
Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:
Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.
Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. interviews, experiments , surveys , statistical tests ).
In a dissertation or scientific paper, the methodology chapter or methods section comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion .
Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.
For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.
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Why do you need a research methodology, what needs to be included, why do you need to document your research method, what are the different types of research instruments, qualitative / quantitative / mixed research methodologies, how do you choose the best research methodology for you, frequently asked questions about research methodology, related articles.
When you’re working on your first piece of academic research, there are many different things to focus on, and it can be overwhelming to stay on top of everything. This is especially true of budding or inexperienced researchers.
If you’ve never put together a research proposal before or find yourself in a position where you need to explain your research methodology decisions, there are a few things you need to be aware of.
Once you understand the ins and outs, handling academic research in the future will be less intimidating. We break down the basics below:
A research methodology encompasses the way in which you intend to carry out your research. This includes how you plan to tackle things like collection methods, statistical analysis, participant observations, and more.
You can think of your research methodology as being a formula. One part will be how you plan on putting your research into practice, and another will be why you feel this is the best way to approach it. Your research methodology is ultimately a methodological and systematic plan to resolve your research problem.
In short, you are explaining how you will take your idea and turn it into a study, which in turn will produce valid and reliable results that are in accordance with the aims and objectives of your research. This is true whether your paper plans to make use of qualitative methods or quantitative methods.
The purpose of a research methodology is to explain the reasoning behind your approach to your research - you'll need to support your collection methods, methods of analysis, and other key points of your work.
Think of it like writing a plan or an outline for you what you intend to do.
When carrying out research, it can be easy to go off-track or depart from your standard methodology.
Tip: Having a methodology keeps you accountable and on track with your original aims and objectives, and gives you a suitable and sound plan to keep your project manageable, smooth, and effective.
With all that said, how do you write out your standard approach to a research methodology?
As a general plan, your methodology should include the following information:
In any dissertation, thesis, or academic journal, you will always find a chapter dedicated to explaining the research methodology of the person who carried out the study, also referred to as the methodology section of the work.
A good research methodology will explain what you are going to do and why, while a poor methodology will lead to a messy or disorganized approach.
You should also be able to justify in this section your reasoning for why you intend to carry out your research in a particular way, especially if it might be a particularly unique method.
Having a sound methodology in place can also help you with the following:
A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.
The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology.
There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research.
Generally, they can be grouped as follows:
These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take.
It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.
There are three different types of methodologies, and they are distinguished by whether they focus on words, numbers, or both.
Data type | What is it? | Methodology |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | This methodology focuses more on measuring and testing numerical data. What is the aim of quantitative research? | Surveys, tests, existing databases. |
Qualitative | Qualitative research is a process of collecting and analyzing both words and textual data. | Observations, interviews, focus groups. |
Mixed-method | A mixed-method approach combines both of the above approaches. | Where you can use a mixed method of research, this can produce some incredibly interesting results. This is due to testing in a way that provides data that is both proven to be exact while also being exploratory at the same time. |
➡️ Want to learn more about the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, and how to use both methods? Check out our guide for that!
If you've done your due diligence, you'll have an idea of which methodology approach is best suited to your research.
It’s likely that you will have carried out considerable reading and homework before you reach this point and you may have taken inspiration from other similar studies that have yielded good results.
Still, it is important to consider different options before setting your research in stone. Exploring different options available will help you to explain why the choice you ultimately make is preferable to other methods.
If proving your research problem requires you to gather large volumes of numerical data to test hypotheses, a quantitative research method is likely to provide you with the most usable results.
If instead you’re looking to try and learn more about people, and their perception of events, your methodology is more exploratory in nature and would therefore probably be better served using a qualitative research methodology.
It helps to always bring things back to the question: what do I want to achieve with my research?
Once you have conducted your research, you need to analyze it. Here are some helpful guides for qualitative data analysis:
➡️ How to do a content analysis
➡️ How to do a thematic analysis
➡️ How to do a rhetorical analysis
Research methodology refers to the techniques used to find and analyze information for a study, ensuring that the results are valid, reliable and that they address the research objective.
Data can typically be organized into four different categories or methods: observational, experimental, simulation, and derived.
Writing a methodology section is a process of introducing your methods and instruments, discussing your analysis, providing more background information, addressing your research limitations, and more.
Your research methodology section will need a clear research question and proposed research approach. You'll need to add a background, introduce your research question, write your methodology and add the works you cited during your data collecting phase.
The research methodology section of your study will indicate how valid your findings are and how well-informed your paper is. It also assists future researchers planning to use the same methodology, who want to cite your study or replicate it.
Last Updated: May 27, 2024 Approved
This article was co-authored by Alexander Ruiz, M.Ed. and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Alexander Ruiz is an Educational Consultant and the Educational Director of Link Educational Institute, a tutoring business based in Claremont, California that provides customizable educational plans, subject and test prep tutoring, and college application consulting. With over a decade and a half of experience in the education industry, Alexander coaches students to increase their self-awareness and emotional intelligence while achieving skills and the goal of achieving skills and higher education. He holds a BA in Psychology from Florida International University and an MA in Education from Georgia Southern University. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. In this case, several readers have written to tell us that this article was helpful to them, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 527,378 times.
The research methodology section of any academic research paper gives you the opportunity to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your field of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall approach – whether qualitative or quantitative – and adequately describes the methods you used. Justify why you chose those methods over others, then explain how those methods will provide answers to your research questions. [1] X Research source
To write a research methodology, start with a section that outlines the problems or questions you'll be studying, including your hypotheses or whatever it is you're setting out to prove. Then, briefly explain why you chose to use either a qualitative or quantitative approach for your study. Next, go over when and where you conducted your research and what parameters you used to ensure you were objective. Finally, cite any sources you used to decide on the methodology for your research. To learn how to justify your choice of methods in your research methodology, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
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Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
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Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.
The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.
A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.
Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3
Types of research methodology.
There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1
Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.
In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:
During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.
Qualitative research 5
Quantitative research 6
What are data analysis methods.
The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.
Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.
Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:
Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:
Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:
Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8
How to write a research methodology .
A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9
The methods section is a critical part of the research papers, allowing researchers to use this to understand your findings and replicate your work when pursuing their own research. However, it is usually also the most difficult section to write. This is where Paperpal can help you overcome the writer’s block and create the first draft in minutes with Paperpal Copilot, its secure generative AI feature suite.
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Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?
A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:
Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?
A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10
Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?
A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.
Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.
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Table of Contents
Choosing an optimal research methodology is crucial for the success of any research project. The methodology you select will determine the type of data you collect, how you collect it, and how you analyse it. Understanding the different types of research methods available along with their strengths and weaknesses, is thus imperative to make an informed decision.
There are several research methods available depending on the type of study you are conducting, i.e., whether it is laboratory-based, clinical, epidemiological, or survey based . Some common methodologies include qualitative research, quantitative research, experimental research, survey-based research, and action research. Each method can be opted for and modified, depending on the type of research hypotheses and objectives.
When deciding on a research methodology, one of the key factors to consider is whether your research will be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is used to understand people’s experiences, concepts, thoughts, or behaviours . Quantitative research, on the contrary, deals with numbers, graphs, and charts, and is used to test or confirm hypotheses, assumptions, and theories.
Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories and ideas. These methods are used to understand how language is used in real-world situations, identify common themes or overarching ideas, and describe and interpret various texts. Data analysis for qualitative research typically includes discourse analysis, thematic analysis, and textual analysis.
The goal of quantitative research is to test hypotheses, confirm assumptions and theories, and determine cause-and-effect relationships. Quantitative research methods include experiments, close-ended survey questions, and countable and numbered observations. Data analysis for quantitative research relies heavily on statistical methods.
The methods used for data analysis also differ for qualitative and quantitative research. As mentioned earlier, quantitative data is generally analysed using statistical methods and does not leave much room for speculation. It is more structured and follows a predetermined plan. In quantitative research, the researcher starts with a hypothesis and uses statistical methods to test it. Contrarily, methods used for qualitative data analysis can identify patterns and themes within the data, rather than provide statistical measures of the data. It is an iterative process, where the researcher goes back and forth trying to gauge the larger implications of the data through different perspectives and revising the analysis if required.
The choice between qualitative and quantitative research will depend on the gap that the research project aims to address, and specific objectives of the study. If the goal is to establish facts about a subject or topic, quantitative research is an appropriate choice. However, if the goal is to understand people’s experiences or perspectives, qualitative research may be more suitable.
In conclusion, an understanding of the different research methods available, their applicability, advantages, and disadvantages is essential for making an informed decision on the best methodology for your project. If you need any additional guidance on which research methodology to opt for, you can head over to Elsevier Author Services (EAS). EAS experts will guide you throughout the process and help you choose the perfect methodology for your research goals.
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The term “research methodology” most often echoes among students, research scholars, and faculty members. Though the application of research methodology is diverse, we shall focus on the content specific to academia and industry. This book would be most helpful to health science students and allow them to learn the process of research in a simple and step-by-step process. In my personal experience, I have found that students are very apprehensive when it comes to learning research methodology as a subject. They often encounter problems in understanding the research methodology as the process starts and throughout the course. At times, they may have completed their research but failed to understand the whole process of how scientifically it was conducted.
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College of Health Sciences, Gulf Medical University, Ajman, Ajman, United Arab Emirates
Animesh Hazari
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© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Hazari, A. (2023). Introduction to Research Methodology. In: Research Methodology for Allied Health Professionals. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8925-6_1
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Quantitative research methodologies, qualitative research methodologies, mixed method methodologies, selecting a methodology.
According to Dawson (2019),a research methodology is the primary principle that will guide your research. It becomes the general approach in conducting research on your topic and determines what research method you will use. A research methodology is different from a research method because research methods are the tools you use to gather your data (Dawson, 2019). You must consider several issues when it comes to selecting the most appropriate methodology for your topic. Issues might include research limitations and ethical dilemmas that might impact the quality of your research. Descriptions of each type of methodology are included below.
Quantitative research methodologies are meant to create numeric statistics by using survey research to gather data (Dawson, 2019). This approach tends to reach a larger amount of people in a shorter amount of time. According to Labaree (2020), there are three parts that make up a quantitative research methodology:
Once you decide on a methodology, you can consider the method to which you will apply your methodology.
Qualitative research methodologies examine the behaviors, opinions, and experiences of individuals through methods of examination (Dawson, 2019). This type of approach typically requires less participants, but more time with each participant. It gives research subjects the opportunity to provide their own opinion on a certain topic.
Examples of Qualitative Research Methodologies
A mixed methodology allows you to implement the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research methods. In some cases, you may find that your research project would benefit from this. This approach is beneficial because it allows each methodology to counteract the weaknesses of the other (Dawson, 2019). You should consider this option carefully, as it can make your research complicated if not planned correctly.
What should you do to decide on a research methodology? The most logical way to determine your methodology is to decide whether you plan on conducting qualitative or qualitative research. You also have the option to implement a mixed methods approach. Looking back on Dawson's (2019) five "W's" on the previous page , may help you with this process. You should also look for key words that indicate a specific type of research methodology in your hypothesis or proposal. Some words may lean more towards one methodology over another.
Quantitative Research Key Words
Qualitative Research Key Words
Qualitative vs quantitative vs mixed methods.
By: Derek Jansen (MBA). Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2021
Without a doubt, one of the most common questions we receive at Grad Coach is “ How do I choose the right methodology for my research? ”. It’s easy to see why – with so many options on the research design table, it’s easy to get intimidated, especially with all the complex lingo!
In this post, we’ll explain the three overarching types of research – qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods – and how you can go about choosing the best methodological approach for your research.
Understanding the options – Qualitative research – Quantitative research – Mixed methods-based research
Choosing a research methodology – Nature of the research – Research area norms – Practicalities
Before we jump into the question of how to choose a research methodology, it’s useful to take a step back to understand the three overarching types of research – qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods -based research. Each of these options takes a different methodological approach.
Qualitative research utilises data that is not numbers-based. In other words, qualitative research focuses on words , descriptions , concepts or ideas – while quantitative research makes use of numbers and statistics. Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe, while quantitative research focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them.
Importantly, qualitative research methods are typically used to explore and gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of a situation – to draw a rich picture . In contrast to this, quantitative methods are usually used to confirm or test hypotheses . In other words, they have distinctly different purposes. The table below highlights a few of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research – you can learn more about the differences here.
Mixed methods -based research, as you’d expect, attempts to bring these two types of research together, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data. Quite often, mixed methods-based studies will use qualitative research to explore a situation and develop a potential model of understanding (this is called a conceptual framework), and then go on to use quantitative methods to test that model empirically.
In other words, while qualitative and quantitative methods (and the philosophies that underpin them) are completely different, they are not at odds with each other. It’s not a competition of qualitative vs quantitative. On the contrary, they can be used together to develop a high-quality piece of research. Of course, this is easier said than done, so we usually recommend that first-time researchers stick to a single approach , unless the nature of their study truly warrants a mixed-methods approach.
The key takeaway here, and the reason we started by looking at the three options, is that it’s important to understand that each methodological approach has a different purpose – for example, to explore and understand situations (qualitative), to test and measure (quantitative) or to do both. They’re not simply alternative tools for the same job.
Right – now that we’ve got that out of the way, let’s look at how you can go about choosing the right methodology for your research.
To choose the right research methodology for your dissertation or thesis, you need to consider three important factors . Based on these three factors, you can decide on your overarching approach – qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. Once you’ve made that decision, you can flesh out the finer details of your methodology, such as the sampling , data collection methods and analysis techniques (we discuss these separately in other posts ).
The three factors you need to consider are:
Let’s take a look at each of these.
As I mentioned earlier, each type of research (and therefore, research methodology), whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed, has a different purpose and helps solve a different type of question. So, it’s logical that the key deciding factor in terms of which research methodology you adopt is the nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions .
But, what types of research exist?
Broadly speaking, research can fall into one of three categories:
As a rule of thumb, exploratory research tends to adopt a qualitative approach , whereas confirmatory research tends to use quantitative methods . This isn’t set in stone, but it’s a very useful heuristic. Naturally then, research that combines a mix of both, or is seeking to develop a theory from the ground up and then test that theory, would utilize a mixed-methods approach.
Let’s look at an example in action.
If your research aims were to understand the perspectives of war veterans regarding certain political matters, you’d likely adopt a qualitative methodology, making use of interviews to collect data and one or more qualitative data analysis methods to make sense of the data.
If, on the other hand, your research aims involved testing a set of hypotheses regarding the link between political leaning and income levels, you’d likely adopt a quantitative methodology, using numbers-based data from a survey to measure the links between variables and/or constructs .
So, the first (and most important thing) thing you need to consider when deciding which methodological approach to use for your research project is the nature of your research aims , objectives and research questions. Specifically, you need to assess whether your research leans in an exploratory or confirmatory direction or involves a mix of both.
The importance of achieving solid alignment between these three factors and your methodology can’t be overstated. If they’re misaligned, you’re going to be forcing a square peg into a round hole. In other words, you’ll be using the wrong tool for the job, and your research will become a disjointed mess.
If your research is a mix of both exploratory and confirmatory, but you have a tight word count limit, you may need to consider trimming down the scope a little and focusing on one or the other. One methodology executed well has a far better chance of earning marks than a poorly executed mixed methods approach. So, don’t try to be a hero, unless there is a very strong underpinning logic.
Choosing the right methodology for your research also involves looking at the approaches used by other researchers in the field, and studies with similar research aims and objectives to yours. Oftentimes, within a discipline, there is a common methodological approach (or set of approaches) used in studies. While this doesn’t mean you should follow the herd “just because”, you should at least consider these approaches and evaluate their merit within your context.
A major benefit of reviewing the research methodologies used by similar studies in your field is that you can often piggyback on the data collection techniques that other (more experienced) researchers have developed. For example, if you’re undertaking a quantitative study, you can often find tried and tested survey scales with high Cronbach’s alphas. These are usually included in the appendices of journal articles, so you don’t even have to contact the original authors. By using these, you’ll save a lot of time and ensure that your study stands on the proverbial “shoulders of giants” by using high-quality measurement instruments .
Of course, when reviewing existing literature, keep point #1 front of mind. In other words, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and questions. Don’t fall into the trap of adopting the methodological “norm” of other studies just because it’s popular. Only adopt that which is relevant to your research.
When choosing a research methodology, there will always be a tension between doing what’s theoretically best (i.e., the most scientifically rigorous research design ) and doing what’s practical , given your constraints . This is the nature of doing research and there are always trade-offs, as with anything else.
But what constraints, you ask?
When you’re evaluating your methodological options, you need to consider the following constraints:
Let’s look at each of these.
The first practical constraint you need to consider is your access to data . If you’re going to be undertaking primary research , you need to think critically about the sample of respondents you realistically have access to. For example, if you plan to use in-person interviews , you need to ask yourself how many people you’ll need to interview, whether they’ll be agreeable to being interviewed, where they’re located, and so on.
If you’re wanting to undertake a quantitative approach using surveys to collect data, you’ll need to consider how many responses you’ll require to achieve statistically significant results. For many statistical tests, a sample of a few hundred respondents is typically needed to develop convincing conclusions.
So, think carefully about what data you’ll need access to, how much data you’ll need and how you’ll collect it. The last thing you want is to spend a huge amount of time on your research only to find that you can’t get access to the required data.
The next constraint is time. If you’re undertaking research as part of a PhD, you may have a fairly open-ended time limit, but this is unlikely to be the case for undergrad and Masters-level projects. So, pay attention to your timeline, as the data collection and analysis components of different methodologies have a major impact on time requirements . Also, keep in mind that these stages of the research often take a lot longer than originally anticipated.
Another practical implication of time limits is that it will directly impact which time horizon you can use – i.e. longitudinal vs cross-sectional . For example, if you’ve got a 6-month limit for your entire research project, it’s quite unlikely that you’ll be able to adopt a longitudinal time horizon.
As with so many things, money is another important constraint you’ll need to consider when deciding on your research methodology. While some research designs will cost near zero to execute, others may require a substantial budget .
Some of the costs that may arise include:
These are just a handful of costs that can creep into your research budget. Like most projects, the actual costs tend to be higher than the estimates, so be sure to err on the conservative side and expect the unexpected. It’s critically important that you’re honest with yourself about these costs, or you could end up getting stuck midway through your project because you’ve run out of money.
Another practical consideration is the hardware and/or software you’ll need in order to undertake your research. Of course, this variable will depend on the type of data you’re collecting and analysing. For example, you may need lab equipment to analyse substances, or you may need specific analysis software to analyse statistical data. So, be sure to think about what hardware and/or software you’ll need for each potential methodological approach, and whether you have access to these.
The final practical constraint is a big one. Naturally, the research process involves a lot of learning and development along the way, so you will accrue knowledge and skills as you progress. However, when considering your methodological options, you should still consider your current position on the ladder.
Some of the questions you should ask yourself are:
Answering these questions honestly will provide you with another set of criteria against which you can evaluate the research methodology options you’ve shortlisted.
So, as you can see, there is a wide range of practicalities and constraints that you need to take into account when you’re deciding on a research methodology. These practicalities create a tension between the “ideal” methodology and the methodology that you can realistically pull off. This is perfectly normal, and it’s your job to find the option that presents the best set of trade-offs.
In this post, we’ve discussed how to go about choosing a research methodology. The three major deciding factors we looked at were:
If you have any questions, feel free to leave a comment below. If you’d like a helping hand with your research methodology, check out our 1-on-1 research coaching service , or book a free consultation with a friendly Grad Coach.
This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...
Very useful and informative especially for beginners
Nice article! I’m a beginner in the field of cybersecurity research. I am a Telecom and Network Engineer and Also aiming for PhD scholarship.
I find the article very informative especially for my decitation it has been helpful and an eye opener.
Hi I am Anna ,
I am a PHD candidate in the area of cyber security, maybe we can link up
The Examples shows by you, for sure they are really direct me and others to knows and practices the Research Design and prepration.
I found the post very informative and practical.
I struggle so much with designs of the research for sure!
I’m the process of constructing my research design and I want to know if the data analysis I plan to present in my thesis defense proposal possibly change especially after I gathered the data already.
Thank you so much this site is such a life saver. How I wish 1-1 coaching is available in our country but sadly it’s not.
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Health Research Policy and Systems volume 22 , Article number: 98 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
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Racial inequities in severe maternal morbidity (SMM) and mortality constitute a public health crisis in the United States. Doula care, defined as care from birth workers who provide culturally appropriate, non-clinical support during pregnancy and postpartum, has been proposed as an intervention to help disrupt obstetric racism as a driver of adverse pregnancy outcomes in Black and other birthing persons of colour. Many state Medicaid programs are implementing doula programs to address the continued increase in SMM and mortality. Medicaid programs are poised to play a major role in addressing the needs of these populations with the goal of closing the racial gaps in SMM and mortality. This study will investigate the most effective ways that Medicaid programs can implement doula care to improve racial health equity.
We describe the protocol for a mixed-methods study to understand how variation in implementation of doula programs in Medicaid may affect racial equity in pregnancy and postpartum health. Primary study outcomes include SMM, person-reported measures of respectful obstetric care, and receipt of evidence-based care for chronic conditions that are the primary causes of postpartum mortality (cardiovascular, mental health, and substance use conditions). Our research team includes doulas, university-based investigators, and Medicaid participants from six sites (Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania, South Carolina and Virginia) in the Medicaid Outcomes Distributed Research Network (MODRN). Study data will include policy analysis of doula program implementation, longitudinal data from a cohort of doulas, cross-sectional data from Medicaid beneficiaries, and Medicaid healthcare administrative data. Qualitative analysis will examine doula and beneficiary experiences with healthcare systems and Medicaid policies. Quantitative analyses (stratified by race groups) will use matching techniques to estimate the impact of using doula care on postpartum health outcomes, and will use time-series analyses to estimate the average treatment effect of doula programs on population postpartum health outcomes.
Findings will facilitate learning opportunities among Medicaid programs, doulas and Medicaid beneficiaries. Ultimately, we seek to understand the implementation and integration of doula care programs into Medicaid and how these processes may affect racial health equity.
Study registration The study is registered with the Open Science Foundation ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NXZUF ).
Peer Review reports
Racial inequities in severe maternal morbidity (SMM) and mortality continue to increase and constitute a national public health crisis [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Maternal mortality in the United States far exceeds that of comparable high-resource nations [ 4 ], and Black persons have approximately a threefold higher rate of pregnancy-related mortality compared to white persons. Rates of severe maternal morbidity (SMM), which encompasses life-threatening conditions during pregnancy and postpartum, have increased by nearly 200% in the past 20 years, [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 ] and significant racial inequities exist in SMM [ 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].
Medicaid programs pay for 42% of all pregnancy care in the United States, including 68% of pregnancy care among Black persons [ 10 ]. Social and structural factors drive racial inequities in SMM and mortality, including the policies and decisions that drive medical racism [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Therefore, Medicaid programs have great potential to implement structural interventions to advance racial equity in healthcare and health outcomes during pregnancy and postpartum [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Currently, state Medicaid programs take various approaches to implement doula care in terms of the generosity of the doula benefit and the centring of racial health equity as part of the doula policy [ 17 , 18 ]. Doulas who provide care in the pregnancy and postpartum periods can identify as community-based doulas or full-spectrum (i.e. provide care throughout all pregnancy-related services). A doula is a trained birth worker who provides non-clinical and culturally relevant supports to a person through a health-related experience such as pregnancy and childbirth [ 19 ]. This can include emotional, physical and informational support and companionship during pregnancy, delivery and postpartum. Past research has shown that doula services can improve healthcare experiences and health by serving as an advocate on how healthcare systems can best serve birthing persons in a way that works for them [ 20 , 21 ]. Doula care may disrupt the multiple forms of racism that people experience during pregnancy and postpartum, not only in the healthcare setting [ 17 ]. Their work is critical in ensuring evidence-based practice that typically centres white populations is coupled with equitable practices.
Research suggests that doula care programs improve delivery outcomes and birth experiences. A recent Cochrane systematic review of 26 trials in 17 countries found that doula support led to a 25% reduced risk of Caesarean-section delivery, and a 30% reduced risk of individuals reporting negative feelings about their birth experience [ 22 ]. Studies from the Minnesota, California and Florida Medicaid programs estimated a 41–53% reduced risk of Caesarean section among birthing persons who received doula services, relative to those who did not [ 23 , 24 ]. Caesarean section may serve as an important proxy for adverse outcomes because it contributes, via the risk of severe obstetric complications [ 25 ], to 37% of cases of SMM [ 26 ]. Further, an evaluation of a New York City program to connect Black and other persons of colour with doula services found that access to doula care significantly reduced the risk of preterm birth – from 12.4% to 6.3% [ 27 ]. Prior work suggests that Medicaid’s adoption of doula care programs could help improve pregnancy and postpartum health outcomes, particularly if Black, Indigenous and persons of colour (BlPOC) communities can access doula programs [ 28 , 29 , 30 ].
This project will support doula research for equitable advances in Medicaid pregnancy health (Project DREAM). Project DREAM will add to knowledge about the role of Medicaid doula benefits in addressing racial equity in pregnancy and postpartum outcomes by assessing variation in the implementation of doula programs in six diverse states and investigating the extent to which doula care programs improve SMM and other outcomes for BIPOC birthing populations.
We will conduct a non-randomized mixed-methods intervention evaluation study to support doula research for equitable advances in Medicaid pregnancy health (Project DREAM) by assessing the implementation and effectiveness of Medicaid doula care programs on racial equity in postpartum healthcare quality and health outcomes in six US states. The study aims to compare differences in beneficiary experiences, postpartum treatment for chronic conditions (cardiovascular and mental health and substance use disorders) and risk of SMM postpartum among Medicaid beneficiaries who receive doula services, relative to beneficiaries who receive standard care. We focus on Black and BIPOC populations and we will also assess differences in outcomes by race group. Our project draws on the infrastructure of the Medicaid Outcome Distributed Research Network (MODRN), which provides a process to develop consensus-based study designs across sites and to conduct standardized data collection and analyses [ 31 ].
WCG IRB approved this study, effective 6 November 2023. We registered the study with the Open Science Foundation ( https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NXZUF ).
We propose to study how Medicaid implementation of doula programs (including variation in how or whether Medicaid benefits are centring BIPOC populations) affects postpartum health. As part of this project, we recognize the range of expertise that is needed to address these research objectives. As such, our study includes community-based doula and university-based research partners. To additionally inform and contextualize research findings, our study’s advisory board includes Medicaid participants, doula organization partners, Medicaid clinical leaders and researchers.
Our analytical conceptual model draws on the integrated-Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (iPARIHS) Implementation Science Framework [ 32 ]. The iPARIHS framework conceptualizes the successful implementation of an intervention as the dynamic interaction of multiple actors within a system affected by their broader context and culture. Four key constructs measure the translation of knowledge to practice [ 33 , 34 ]. Innovation (i.e. adapting doula care interventions across different states), contributors (i.e. doulas, Medicaid administrators, beneficiaries), context (i.e. culture and baseline practices within a healthcare system or Medicaid program) and facilitation (i.e. the process by which doula care is implemented in practice) (See Fig. 1 ).
Conceptual framework for the study of doula care to advance racial equity in postpartum health. We hypothesize that upstream factors related to program implementation will affect experiences of care. These intermediate healthcare outcomes will subsequently impact our primary outcome of severe maternal morbidity
We will assess contributors’ perspectives (doulas, beneficiaries) regarding access to doula care and healthcare experiences during the postpartum period. We will examine the context in terms of state-level barriers and facilitators to doula care and person-reported experiences of discrimination and medical racism. Findings will facilitate cross-state learning opportunities among Medicaid programs, doulas and Medicaid beneficiaries about best practices in how to implement doula programs in a sustainable way. Ultimately, we seek to understand the implementation and integration of doula care programs into Medicaid and how these processes may affect racial equity in healthcare quality and outcomes.
We selected six state Medicaid programs in various stages of implementing doula care programs (Table 1 ). Within each state, we will collect data from doulas andMedicaid beneficiaries, and we will use administrative healthcare data from the Medicaid programs. Figure 2 provides an overview of the study timing, recruitment and retention of subjects and analysis of healthcare data.
Logic model of recruitment and retention of study subjects and analysis of Medicaid healthcare data. Doulas and Medicaid beneficiaries will be recruited into the study. Medicaid administrative healthcare data will be used to study the outcome of severe maternal morbidity
Doula organization research partners will assist with recruiting at least 10 doulas within each of the 6 states ( N = 60) to participate in qualitative focus groups and surveys to understand the experiences of doulas with Medicaid participation. Specific implementation domains covered in the interviews will include: adequacy of reimbursement, facilitators and barriers to participating in Medicaid managed care organization networks, integration with hospitals or healthcare systems, experiences working with Medicaid beneficiaries and perceptions of how doula services may affect BIPOC persons, specifically by disrupting obstetric racism. Baseline focus groups will occur in year 1, with follow-up in years 3 and 5 of the project to track changes over time. To advance diversity and inclusion in our study, we will purposively sample doulas from rural and urban areas, including BIPOC doulas and those who serve populations who primarily speak languages other than English. The goal of our focus groups among doulas is not to provide a representative sample, but to provide in-depth information on doulas’ experiences. The rigour of qualitative research is judged on the basis of transferability, not generalizability – that is, the extent to which our qualitative results transfer to or fit other similar communities and contexts.The focus group facilitators have expertise working cross-culturally to create communication models to ensure that participants can share meaningful insights that are communicated into research findings. The sample will be purposively designed with theoretical diversity to ensure the results are transferable to other doulas serving Medicaid community members.
We will recruit at least 50 Medicaid beneficiaries per state in each of years 2 and 4 (300 in each year for a total of 600 participants) who have had a delivery and received doula care in the 6 months prior to participating in surveys and focus groups. Medicaid participants will complete brief surveys including demographic questionnaires, instruments to measure medical autonomy and everyday discrimination scales. Focus groups will facilitate group discussion of their births and postpartum periods, the experiences of doula care, and perceptions about how doula services may have affected their experiences in medical care. We will collect cross-sectional data from two different samples of Medicaid beneficiaries in years 2 and 4 of the project. Consistent with our study’s goals of understanding how doula benefits may address obstetric racism, we will purposively sample Medicaid beneficiaries from a range of geographic areas and will oversample BIPOC Medicaid beneficiaries.
SMM occurs in an estimated 1–2% of delivery hospitalizations and requires a large population to detect clinically meaningful changes due to interventions. We will collect information on person-level clinical outcomes from Medicaid administrative healthcare data and will not recruit individuals for the healthcare-related component of this study. The Medicaid healthcare data will include an estimated 237 700 Black persons across all six states with a delivery, and an estimated 577 300 persons of other races with a delivery, between 2022 and 2025 inclusive. From this comprehensive dataset, we will study the subset of those who use doula services (anticipated N = 15 000 BIPOC and N = 25 000 not BIPOC) compared with a propensity-matched cohort of those who do not use doula services (anticipated N = 40 000). Each participating site has converted its Medicaid healthcare data files to a MODRN Common Data Model so the data have a consistent structure, list of variables and variable formats across states, including comparable variables on Medicaid eligibility categories. This facilitates efficient analyses and comparable results using state-specific data. The MODRN common data model includes a census of inpatient, outpatient, professional and pharmaceutical services billed to the Medicaid program for all enrolled individuals. A distributed research network (DRN) includes multiple organizations using a common data model to support centralized development of analytic plans with local execution of analyses [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ].
Table 2 includes details about primary and secondary outcomes measurement and related statistical power considerations.
Our primary outcomes include SMM, person-reported measures of respectful obstetric care and evidence-based postpartum care for chronic conditions. SMM will be defined on the basis of a modified version of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) algorithm, which includes 21 indicators of life-threatening adverse events or medical interventions related to such events [ 26 ]. We will measure non-fatal SMM (with and without blood transfusion) in inpatient records at delivery, from delivery through 42 days and through 365 days postpartum, including intensive care unit (ICU) admission in the definition of SMM. We will measure SMM with and without evidence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, as this disorder contributed to SMM and mortality during the study period [ 49 ]. We will assess wellbeing related to person-reported experiences in maternity care settings, using the validated Mothers Autonomy in Decision-Making scale [ 41 ] and Mothers On Respect index [ 42 ], which include items related to equitable, respectful care. These scales have been shown to be reliable and have been validated via community-engaged research processes. Importantly, both scales demonstrate the ability to measure person-driven priorities in the context of obstetric care. Third, we will assess healthcare utilization (outpatient visits and medication use) related to the management of chronic conditions during 7–365 days after delivery. Specifically, we will focus on the management of hypertension, mental health conditions and substance use disorders as these conditions represent primary causes of postpartum pregnancy-associated mortality [ 50 , 51 ].
Secondary outcomes include participant experiences of discrimination or medical racism and all-cause mortality. We will use the Everyday Discrimination Scale [ 52 ], which has been validated and in use for 20 years to date [ 53 , 54 ], to assess Medicaid beneficiaries’ experiences of racial or socioeconomic discrimination. The scale assesses the perception of and frequency of interpersonal discrimination. To investigate more qualitatively, we will also assess experiences of racism in the medical system via conducting qualitative focus groups with Medicaid beneficiaries. Finally, the number of maternal deaths per 100 000 births from delivery through 365 days postpartum, stratified by race and whether the decedent used doula services, will be assessed. We will not apply statistical analyses to this outcome, given the anticipated low number of cases of mortality.
To track implementation of specific elements of doula programs, we will collect documents that reflect implementation of Medicaid doula programs from state Medicaid agencies, other state regulatory bodies, Medicaid managed care plans, healthcare systems and doula and other healthcare provider organizations. At the end of each project year, we will prepare a report to share with partners for input and for them to check the accuracy of our implementation information. The final implementation matrix will quantify certain implementation domains (e.g. reimbursement amount is a quantitative variable), and it will also include qualitative data (e.g. anecdotes from partners pertaining to successful strategies to centre BIPOC populations).
For our focus group data, we will transcribe interview audio recordings verbatim and transcripts spot-checked against the audio recordings for accuracy. Then, we will delete audio files to protect participants’ confidentiality. We will analyse and report qualitative data using the Consolidated criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) Framework [ 55 ]. To analyse data, we will use template analysis, which combines features of deductive content analysis and inductive grounded theory, thereby allowing us to obtain specific information on participant perspectives while also capturing any new or unanticipated themes [ 56 ]. Two coders will separately code the first three interview transcripts, meet to compare codes, discuss inconsistencies in coding approaches and then alter or add codes. They will repeat this process for the next three items. After this, the coders will meet with the full study team to discuss the coding scheme and a coding rulebook that provides definitions, rules and examples for each code. We will repeat this iterative process until we fully develop the coding scheme. The coders will independently code all transcripts and resolve any coding discrepancies via discussion. Once coding is complete, synthesis of content will begin by organizing codes under broader domains (meta-codes) as well as sub-codes. Reported results will include descriptive statistics of the characteristics of participants, such as demographics. The primary analysis will be to convey qualitative data, including the use of illustrative quotes.
First, we will evaluate the extent to which doula care facilitates equity in the quality of postpartum care, postpartum treatment for chronic conditions (cardiovascular and mental health and substance use disorders) and experiences of postpartum care. We will generate propensity scores to match Medicaid beneficiaries who used doula services to those who did not [ 57 ]. We anticipate a sample of 15 000 BIPOC beneficiaries and 25 000 non-BIPOC beneficiaries who used doula services, and a matched cohort of 40 000 beneficiaries of all races who did not use doula services. Propensity score matching should allow us to achieve balance on the observed covariates (and unobserved covariates that are correlated with those observed) between beneficiaries who do and do not access doula services, ensuring comparable groups [ 58 , 59 , 60 ]. We will conduct analyses of baseline data to assess whether the matching technique achieves balance, and we can adjust to alternative techniques (e.g. weighting approaches) if needed. State-specific generalized regression models (we will base the choice of model on the distribution of the outcome) will incorporate matched data and will examine differences in outcomes between BIPOC beneficiaries who do and do not use doula services, and between BIPOC and white beneficiaries who use doula services. Because this matched analysis cannot rule out potential unmeasured confounding in cases where confounders are not associated with observable characteristics in administrative data, we will conduct sensitivity analyses for unmeasured confounding in meta-analyses [ 61 ].
Second, we will estimate the effects of state Medicaid doula care programs on racial equity in SMM. To estimate the effects of the Medicaid doula care programs, we will use a quasi-experimental approach that takes advantage of the variation in the timing of states’ adoption of doula programs, as well as variation in factors that facilitate doula access, such as reimbursement rates. We will use a comparative interrupted time series (ITS) analysis with the interventions of interest implemented at different times [ 62 ]. We will include Medicaid beneficiaries of all races who have a delivery in the six states of interest (anticipated N = 815 000 all beneficiaries; anticipated N = 237 700 BIPOC beneficiaries). On the basis of our implementation matrix, we will construct time-varying exposure measures of implementation of doula programs in Medicaid, including reimbursement rates, integration of doulas into healthcare systems and Medicaid beneficiaries’ levels of access to doulas. Using this measure, we will compare trends in outcomes in states with different implementation of doula programs over multiple time points to identify changes in outcomes over time. We will use log linear or Poisson regression models to test for significant effects of doula program implementation on changes in the SMM rate within each race/ethnic group, with number of births (population at risk) as an offset variable to account for the differences in the denominator of SMM rate across state and year [ 63 ]. We will extend the models to include an interaction term between the doula program implementation strength and the proportion of BIPOC Medicaid beneficiaries. The models will use autoregressive error to account for non-independence of repeated measures. We will use the quasi likelihood information criteria to assess goodness-of-fit of our regression models [ 64 ].
This research has limitations. First, we cannot randomly assign participants to receive doula care, and thus rely on an observational study design. Although random assignment to treatment has historically represented the gold standard for understanding causal effects, we will use rigorous longitudinal analyses for understanding the causal impacts of interventions in the real world [ 65 ]. Second, our study includes six states, whereas other state Medicaid programs outside of our study have also implemented doula programs. Results from our study, therefore, may not generalize to other states with different implementation strategies. Third, for the evaluation of SMM, which requires large population-level data, we rely on administrative healthcare data that were not designed for research but for Medicaid programmatic and payment purposes. To minimize potential measurement bias from these types of administrative data, our team will use validated measures to the greatest extent possible and will consider multiple sensitivity analyses for the measurement of SMM. Finally, our evaluation of doula services should be interpreted in the context of state development of the Medicaid benefit, with some states having more experience implementing doula care than other states.
This research will contribute evidence on how Medicaid doula care programs can improve racial equity in SMM among Medicaid populations by disrupting medical racism and facilitating evidence-based care and improved care experiences. Specifically, this research project will: (1) provide ongoing information on the landscape of how implementation of doula programs evolves in six state Medicaid programs; (2) elucidate the experiences of doulas and Medicaid beneficiaries in these states; (3) highlight perspectives of the experiences of BIPOC Medicaid beneficiaries; and (4) generate quantitative estimates from Medicaid healthcare data on doula programs’ effects on health equity.
A vast body of research describes the persistent inequities within the healthcare system’s delivery of quality obstetric care to Black persons and other persons of colour relative to white persons. Medicaid enrollees have reported difficulty in accessing obstetric care, difficulty in receiving requested help with their health and experience racial and socioeconomic biases in care [ 66 ]. Many Medicaid programs have implemented doula care programs to stem SMM and mortality trends that disproportionately affect Black and other persons of colour. However, due to the federalist structure, which offers states flexibility in Medicaid program operations, there are significant variations in state doula care models (e.g, centring of racial equity, access to care, reimbursement rates) with limited evidence on which model components and implementation approaches bare the greatest impact [ 17 , 67 , 68 ].
Therefore, by making three primary innovations in the field, our mixed methods research will address doula care program decisions and birthing persons’ decision-making on healthcare system navigation. Project DREAM represents one of the first multi-state studies of doula care interventions and racial equity in Medicaid populations, addressing the limitations in prior evidence largely restricted to white and middle-class populations. Second, it aims to capture community and lived-experience perspectives through community-engaged research by including both doula organizations, which have explicit goals of Black racial equity, and Medicaid enrollees who have used doula care as our research partners. Third, it incorporates the research infrastructure of MODRN, a well-established collaboration between university researchers and state Medicaid agencies, to facilitate the analysis of Medicaid healthcare data to identify postpartum treatment for chronic conditions commonly associated with SMM and mortality [ 31 ].
Findings from our research will directly inform best practices to implement doula care programs in Medicaid in ways that will ensure that such care is accessible and relevant to the populations who can benefit most. Multiple stakeholders can use these as well as whether these programs are poised to specially promote racial equity. These findings to build a supportive system for high-quality postpartum care, including Medicaid administrators actively engaged in initiatives aimed to address pregnancy health outcomes [ 10 ], doula birth providers who want to understand the best way to participate in Medicaid to serve BIPOC communities and pregnant persons who seek the best quality of care and a positive and supportive postpartum experience.
When study data collection is complete, de-identified data from focus groups and interviews will be available from the authors upon reasonable request. The Medicaid administrative healthcare data for the study will be used under data use agreements with individual state Medicaid agencies are therefore are not publicly available.
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Black, Indigenous and persons of colour
Medicaid Outcomes Distributed Research Network
Severe maternal morbidity
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We gratefully acknowledge research assistance from Sabnum Pudasainy, MS. This work was made possible by the establishment of the MODRN. The authors appreciate the contributions of the MODRN Founding Members, the Academy Health State University Partnership Learning Network, and the Medicaid Medical Directors Network.
This research is funded by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute under award #MMM-2022C2-28218. The funder had no role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, writing of this report or decision to publish it.
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Department of Health Policy and Management, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, 130 DeSoto St, A619, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, United States of America
Marian Jarlenski
Center for Innovative Research On Gender Health Equity, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
Marian Jarlenski & Elizabeth Mosley
AcademyHealth, Washington, DC, United States of America
Susan Kennedy, Annaliese Johnson, Caroline Hale & Zoe D’Angelo
Mamatoto Village, Washington, DC, United States of America
Aza Nedhari
Genesis Birth Services, Williamsport, PA, United States of America
Gerria Coffee
PA Doula Commission, Landsdowne, PA, United States of America
BirthMatters, Spartansburg, SC, United States of America
Molly Chappell-McPhail
Black Mothers’ Breastfeeding Association, Detroit, MI, United States of America
Kiddada Green
Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
Dara D. Méndez
Center for Health Equity, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
The Hilltop Institute, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
Leigh G. Goetschius
Institute for Families in Society, College of Social Work, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States of America
Sarah Gareau
College of Nursing, University of Kentucky, Lexington, United States of America
Kristin Ashford
Health Policy, School of Population Health, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States of America
Andrew J. Barnes
Public Health Program, Muskie School of Public Service, University of Southern Maine, Portland, ME, United States of America
Katherine A. Ahrens
Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States of America
Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
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Study conception and/or design: Jarlenski, Kennedy, Ahrens, Zivin, Clark, Barnes, Tang, Goetschius, Ashford and Gareau; acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data: Tang, Jarlenski, Mosley, Mendez and Kennedy; drafting or significantly revision of the manuscript: all authors; approval of the manuscript submission: all authors; and agreement to be personally responsibility for author’s own contributions: All authors.
Correspondence to Marian Jarlenski .
Ethics approval and consent to participate.
WCG IRB approved this study, effective 6 November 2023. We will obtain informed consent from all doula and Medicaid beneficiary participants.
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The authors declare no competing interests.
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Jarlenski, M., Kennedy, S., Johnson, A. et al. Study protocol: a mixed-methods study of the implementation of doula care to address racial health equity in six state Medicaid programs. Health Res Policy Sys 22 , 98 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-024-01185-9
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A research methodology provides a description of the process you will undertake to convert your idea into a study. Know more about the types, structure, importance, and tips for writing research methodology. ... Include information about the sample and sample space in the methodology section. The term "sample" refers to a smaller set of data ...
Methodology in research is defined as the systematic method to resolve a research problem through data gathering using various techniques, providing an interpretation of data gathered and drawing conclusions about the research data. Essentially, a research methodology is the blueprint of a research or study (Murthy & Bhojanna, 2009, p. 32).
As we mentioned, research methodology refers to the collection of practical decisions regarding what data you'll collect, from who, how you'll collect it and how you'll analyse it. Research design, on the other hand, is more about the overall strategy you'll adopt in your study. For example, whether you'll use an experimental design ...
As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research. Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save ...
Research methodology can be defined as the systematic framework that guides researchers in designing, conducting, and analyzing their investigations. It encompasses a structured set of processes, techniques, and tools employed to gather and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of the research findings.
Research methodology is the set of procedures and techniques used to collect, analyze, and interpret data to understand and solve a research problem. ... It could include surveys to quantitatively assess the frequency of social media usage and its correlation with grades, alongside focus groups or interviews to qualitatively explore students ...
Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research. It should include:
A research methodology encompasses the way in which you intend to carry out your research. This includes how you plan to tackle things like collection methods, statistical analysis, participant observations, and more. You can think of your research methodology as being a formula. One part will be how you plan on putting your research into ...
Restate your research problem. Begin your research methodology section by listing the problems or questions you intend to study. Include your hypotheses, if applicable, or what you are setting out to prove through your research. In your restatement, include any underlying assumptions that you're making or conditions that you're taking for granted.
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
Simply put, you should avoid thinking of your methodology chapter as a citation-less section in your dissertation. As with your literature review, your methods section must include citations for every decision you make, since you are building on prior research. You must show that you are making decisions based on methods that are proven to be ...
The methodology section of your paper describes how your research was conducted. This information allows readers to check whether your approach is accurate and dependable. A good methodology can help increase the reader's trust in your findings. First, we will define and differentiate quantitative and qualitative research.
Your Methods Section contextualizes the results of your study, giving editors, reviewers and readers alike the information they need to understand and interpret your work. Your methods are key to establishing the credibility of your study, along with your data and the results themselves. A complete methods section should provide enough detail ...
Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind. Section 1 - Introduction. As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims. As we've discussed many times on the blog ...
A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9. Research design—should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
Qualitative research methodology: Qualitative research is often used to examine issues that are not well understood, and to gather additional insights on these topics. Qualitative research methods include open-ended survey questions, observations of behaviours described through words, and reviews of literature that has explored similar theories ...
The research design is a fundamental aspect of research methodology, outlining the overall strategy and structure of the study. It includes decisions regarding the research type (e.g., descriptive, experimental), the selection of variables, and the determination of the study's scope and timeframe. We must carefully consider the design to ...
A research methodology is different from a research method because research methods are the tools you use to gather your data (Dawson, 2019). You must consider several issues when it comes to selecting the most appropriate methodology for your topic. Issues might include research limitations and ethical dilemmas that might impact the quality of ...
In other words, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and questions. Don't fall into the trap of adopting the methodological "norm" of other studies just because it's popular. Only adopt that which is relevant to your research. Factor #3: Practicalities.
Example of a methodology in a research paper The following example of a methodology in a research paper can provide additional insight into what to include and how to structure yours: This research paper explains the psychological and emotional effects of a support program for employees with mental illness. The program involved extended and individualized support for employment candidates ...
A research methodology gives research legitimacy and provides scientifically sound findings. It also provides a detailed plan that helps to keep researchers on track, making the process smooth, effective and manageable. A researcher's methodology allows the reader to understand the approach and methods used to reach conclusions.
Doulas. Doula organization research partners will assist with recruiting at least 10 doulas within each of the 6 states (N = 60) to participate in qualitative focus groups and surveys to understand the experiences of doulas with Medicaid participation.Specific implementation domains covered in the interviews will include: adequacy of reimbursement, facilitators and barriers to participating in ...