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Various Approaches to Problem Solving.

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In this article, we will Discuss the Various Approaches to Problem Solving.

Discuss the Various Approaches to Problem Solving.

The theoretical understandings of nature and process of problem solving from the traditional to the most recent viewpoints. Here we will be discussed three theoretical models in detail include Traditional Approaches, Gestalt Approaches, and Information Processing and Computer Simulation.

Traditional Approaches:

Traditional approaches explain problem solving in terms of principles of associative learning. It derived from the studies of classical and instrumental conditioning. According to some theorists, an individual enters a problem situation with an existing complex of stimulus-response associations as a result of previous experience. The problem is more likely to evoke some of these associations than others. Problem difficulty will depend on the strength of the correct association relative to the strength of other incorrect associations. In the course of problem solving, the associative complex gets rearranged as some tendencies are weakened through extinction (failure) and others strengthened through reinforcement (success). This viewpoint stresses the transfer of previous learning to the problem situation and to the learning which takes place during problem solving.

Explain the Key Issues in the Study of Cognitive Psychology.

Gestalt Approaches:

Gestalt psychologists proposed a different view of problem solving. They emphasised the importance of the structure of the problem situations and the formation of new combinations of old ideas. They were mainly interested in how people solve problems by rearrangement of objects. Kohler described a well-known example of the problem in his book, ‘The Mentality of Apes’. Kohler hung some fruits from the top of a cage to reach it. The cage contained some sticks and crates. The solution depended on finding a correct way to rearrange the objects. According to the Gestalt analysis, solving the problem required the reorganisation of the objects into a new structure. They argued that discovering the correct organisation generally occurred as a flash of insight. Insight is the sudden discovery of the correct solution following a period of incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error. Insightful solutions seem to happen in a flash.

Describe Waugh and Norman’s Model of Memory.

Gestalt psychologists (Wertheimer) distinguished between reproductive and productive thinking. Reproductive thinking requires the application of tried-and-true paths to a solution. By using rote memory, the thinker reproduces a series of steps that are known to produce a workable answer. On the other hand, productive thinking requires insight and creativity. According to the Gestalts view, the thinker must see a new way of organising the problem, a new way of structuring the elements of thought and perception.

A classic problem calling for productive insightful thinking is the nine-dot problem which is shown below:

The problem is to connect the nine dots with just four straight lines, without lifting your pencil from the paper in drawing the lines. To think productively in this problem situation, one must restructure the problem, to throw off the unnecessary assumption that the lines must lie within the visual boundaries.

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Discuss the Perceptual Blocks to Problem Solving.

Information Processing and Computer Simulation:

Several researchers have tried to program the computer to perform tasks that human beings do. Such computer simulation research has had a deep influence on the psychology of human cognitive processes. The method consists of programming a computer to work in a definite manner and comparing its performance to that of human subjects given the same tasks. Researchers using computer simulation have made major contributions to the development of the information processing view of problem solving.

A problem requires a person not only to register information from the environment but also to operate on, modify, or transform that information in some way to reach a solution.

The solving problem also requires the retrieval of both factual and procedural knowledge from long term memory. Specifically for longer problems, reaching a solution might involve repeated storage and retrieval of information generated early in the problem for use in later stages. Even this brief listing indicates that problem solving is not a single cognitive process but rather involves a number of activities that need to be accurately executed and organised to be successful.

Compare and Contrast the Behaviouristic and Innate Theory of Language Acquisition.

In the early 1980s, the most promising kind of theory involves computer simulation. In the last 20 years, several computer simulation theories of problem solving have emerged. Newell, Shaw and Simon developed the General Problem Solver (GPS) in 1958. It introduced a way of looking at problem solving which has influenced all problem solving theories virtually.

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IGNOU - MAPC Super-Notes for MPC001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory

Download the Super-Notes by Chapter

• Cognitive Psychology
• Information Processing in Learning and Memory
• Neuro-Psychological Basis of Learning and Memory
• Models of Information Processing
• Theories of Intelligence
• Theories of Multiple Intelligence
• Measurement of Intelligence
• Creativity and Problem Solving
• Language Acquisition
• Language Processing - Comprehension and Language Expression
• Multilingualism and Cognition
• Language and Speech Disorders
• Nature of Problem Solving
• Stages of Problem Solving
• Theoretical Approaches to Problem Solving
• Impediments to Problem Solving

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What is Problem – Solving Techniques

Problem-solving strategies are a set of strategies, methods, and equipment that persons use to clear up complicated problems. These methods assist humans to method troubles systematically, pick out the root reason of the problem, and enhance fantastic solutions.Effective problem-solving methods contain breaking down the trouble into smaller parts, inspecting every part, and then growing a format to clear up the problem. Additionally, these methods regularly contain brainstorming, collaboration, and essential questioning to strengthen a complete solution.

Steps for Problem-Solving:

Here are the steps you can take to solve problems: To solve a problem, follow these easy steps:

• Understand the problem: Learn all you can about the problem so you can describe it well.
• Analyze the problem: Break the problem into small parts and find out what’s causing it.
• Create a solution: Think of ways to solve the problem and choose the best one.
• Take action: Put the solution into action and keep track of how it’s working. If it’s not working, try something else.
• Check the solution: See if your solution worked. If it did, great! If it didn’t, go back to step 2 and try again.

Using Computer as a Problem-Solving Tool:

There are specific approaches to solve problems. Here are a number of them:

• Get information: Using laptop equipment, collect extra details about the hassle you are trying to remedy. This will assist you apprehend the hassle higher.
• Plan: Create laptop-primarily based plans to check out viable approaches to remedy the hassle before genuinely trying them in real life. This will assist you identify the handiest answer.
• Use era: Utilize pc equipment to make the hassle-solving manner quicker and easier. This ought to involve the usage of software program applications to automate certain obligations or simulations to test ability solutions.
• Work with others: Collaborate with other people the use of online gear to discuss and brainstorm potential answers. This will help you get a different perspective and provide you with more revolutionary answers.

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Explain Regionalism and What are the different theoretical approaches related to it?

Regionalism is a significant aspect of international relations that involves states coming together in regional groupings for various purposes, including economic cooperation, security, and political integration..

Several theoretical approaches provide insights into the dynamics and motivations behind regionalism. Let’s explore some of the major theoretical perspectives on regionalism:

Neorealism (Structural Realism):

Neorealism, often associated with scholars like Kenneth Waltz, emphasizes the role of power and the distribution of power in the international system. In the context of regionalism, neorealism posits that states form regional organizations to enhance their security and maximize their interests. These regional organizations serve as mechanisms for balancing against external threats. Neorealists argue that regional organizations may help states mitigate the inherent anarchy of the international system by providing a platform for negotiation and cooperation among states with common security concerns. For example, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is a regional security organization created during the Cold War to counterbalance the perceived threat of the Soviet Union.

Liberal Institutionalism:

This perspective, associated with scholars like Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, focuses on international institutions and cooperation. In the context of regionalism, liberal institutionalism suggests that states form regional organizations to achieve common goals, such as economic integration, environmental protection, or the promotion of human rights. These regional institutions provide a structured framework for cooperation and conflict resolution. A prime example is the European Union (EU), where member states pool their sovereignty in various policy areas to pursue collective objectives. Liberal institutionalists argue that regional organizations help states overcome collective action problems and enable more effective coordination.

Constructivism:

Constructivist theory, influenced by scholars like Alexander Wendt, looks at the role of ideas, norms, and identity in shaping regionalism. From a constructivist perspective, regional organizations are not just about material interests but also about shared identities and norms. States join regional groups because they identify with the values and norms promoted within the region. For instance, the African Union (AU) seeks to promote the values of democracy, human rights, and self-reliance in Africa. Constructivists argue that regionalism can foster cooperation and integration by shaping the beliefs and identities of participating states.

Complex Interdependence:

Complex interdependence, associated with the work of Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, highlights the multiple channels through which states interact in a globalized world. In regionalism, this perspective emphasizes the dense web of economic, political, and social connections that exist within regions. States join regional organizations because they recognize that they share interests and dependencies with their neighbors. For instance, trade agreements like NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) promote economic interdependence between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Complex interdependence suggests that regional organizations can help manage conflicts through non-military means.

Nationalism and Identity:

Some regionalism theories focus on the role of nationalism and regional identity. For example, Catalan nationalism in Spain or Scottish nationalism within the United Kingdom has driven regionalist movements. Regional identity and cultural factors play a significant role in motivating states or regions to seek greater autonomy or independence. In some cases, nationalist sentiments have led to the creation of new states or autonomous regions within larger countries.

Functionalism and Neo-Functionalism:

These theories, associated with scholars like David Mitrany and Ernst Haas, emphasize the functional benefits of regional integration. Functionalism argues that states start cooperating in specific areas, like trade or environmental protection, and this cooperation gradually leads to broader integration. Neo-functionalism extends this idea, suggesting that integration in one area can spill over into other policy areas. An example is the European Coal and Steel Community, which was a precursor to the European Economic Community and later the European Union. Functionalism and neo-functionalism highlight the role of practical problem-solving in driving regional cooperation and integration.

In summary, the various theoretical approaches to regionalism shed light on why states come together in regional organizations and what drives regional cooperation. While neorealism emphasizes security concerns, liberal institutionalism focuses on cooperation and institutions. Constructivism highlights the role of shared norms and identities, while complex interdependence underscores the interwoven nature of regional relationships. Nationalism and identity play a significant role in some regionalist movements, and functionalism and neo-functionalism emphasize practical problem-solving as a driver of regional integration. The choice of theoretical approach depends on the specific context and objectives of the regional organization in question.

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5 Effective Problem-Solving Strategies

Got a problem you’re trying to solve? Strategies like trial and error, gut instincts, and “working backward” can help. We look at some examples and how to use them.

We all face problems daily. Some are simple, like deciding what to eat for dinner. Others are more complex, like resolving a conflict with a loved one or figuring out how to overcome barriers to your goals.

No matter what problem you’re facing, these five problem-solving strategies can help you develop an effective solution.

What are problem-solving strategies?

To effectively solve a problem, you need a problem-solving strategy .

If you’ve had to make a hard decision before then you know that simply ruminating on the problem isn’t likely to get you anywhere. You need an effective strategy — or a plan of action — to find a solution.

In general, effective problem-solving strategies include the following steps:

• Define the problem.
• Come up with alternative solutions.
• Decide on a solution.
• Implement the solution.

Problem-solving strategies don’t guarantee a solution, but they do help guide you through the process of finding a resolution.

Using problem-solving strategies also has other benefits . For example, having a strategy you can turn to can help you overcome anxiety and distress when you’re first faced with a problem or difficult decision.

The key is to find a problem-solving strategy that works for your specific situation, as well as your personality. One strategy may work well for one type of problem but not another. In addition, some people may prefer certain strategies over others; for example, creative people may prefer to depend on their insights than use algorithms.

It’s important to be equipped with several problem-solving strategies so you use the one that’s most effective for your current situation.

1. Trial and error

One of the most common problem-solving strategies is trial and error. In other words, you try different solutions until you find one that works.

For example, say the problem is that your Wi-Fi isn’t working. You might try different things until it starts working again, like restarting your modem or your devices until you find or resolve the problem. When one solution isn’t successful, you try another until you find what works.

Trial and error can also work for interpersonal problems . For example, if your child always stays up past their bedtime, you might try different solutions — a visual clock to remind them of the time, a reward system, or gentle punishments — to find a solution that works.

2. Heuristics

Sometimes, it’s more effective to solve a problem based on a formula than to try different solutions blindly.

Heuristics are problem-solving strategies or frameworks people use to quickly find an approximate solution. It may not be the optimal solution, but it’s faster than finding the perfect resolution, and it’s “good enough.”

Algorithms or equations are examples of heuristics.

An algorithm is a step-by-step problem-solving strategy based on a formula guaranteed to give you positive results. For example, you might use an algorithm to determine how much food is needed to feed people at a large party.

However, many life problems have no formulaic solution; for example, you may not be able to come up with an algorithm to solve the problem of making amends with your spouse after a fight.

3. Gut instincts (insight problem-solving)

While algorithm-based problem-solving is formulaic, insight problem-solving is the opposite.

When we use insight as a problem-solving strategy we depend on our “gut instincts” or what we know and feel about a situation to come up with a solution. People might describe insight-based solutions to problems as an “aha moment.”

For example, you might face the problem of whether or not to stay in a relationship. The solution to this problem may come as a sudden insight that you need to leave. In insight problem-solving, the cognitive processes that help you solve a problem happen outside your conscious awareness.

4. Working backward

Working backward is a problem-solving approach often taught to help students solve problems in mathematics. However, it’s useful for real-world problems as well.

Working backward is when you start with the solution and “work backward” to figure out how you got to the solution. For example, if you know you need to be at a party by 8 p.m., you might work backward to problem-solve when you must leave the house, when you need to start getting ready, and so on.

5. Means-end analysis

Means-end analysis is a problem-solving strategy that, to put it simply, helps you get from “point A” to “point B” by examining and coming up with solutions to obstacles.

When using means-end analysis you define the current state or situation (where you are now) and the intended goal. Then, you come up with solutions to get from where you are now to where you need to be.

For example, a student might be faced with the problem of how to successfully get through finals season . They haven’t started studying, but their end goal is to pass all of their finals. Using means-end analysis, the student can examine the obstacles that stand between their current state and their end goal (passing their finals).

They could see, for example, that one obstacle is that they get distracted from studying by their friends. They could devise a solution to this obstacle by putting their phone on “do not disturb” mode while studying.

Let’s recap

Whether they’re simple or complex, we’re faced with problems every day. To successfully solve these problems we need an effective strategy. There are many different problem-solving strategies to choose from.

Although problem-solving strategies don’t guarantee a solution, they can help you feel less anxious about problems and make it more likely that you come up with an answer.

Last medically reviewed on November 1, 2022

8 sources collapsed

• Chu Y, et al. (2011). Human performance on insight problem-solving: A review. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1094&context=jps
• Dumper K, et al. (n.d.) Chapter 7.3: Problem-solving in introductory psychology. https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/7-4-problem-solving/
• Foulds LR. (2017). The heuristic problem-solving approach. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1057/jors.1983.205
• Gick ML. (1986). Problem-solving strategies. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00461520.1986.9653026
• Montgomery ME. (2015). Problem solving using means-end analysis. https://sites.psu.edu/psych256sp15/2015/04/19/problem-solving-using-means-end-analysis/
• Posamentier A, et al. (2015). Problem-solving strategies in mathematics. Chapter 3: Working backwards. https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9789814651646_0003
• Sarathy V. (2018). Real world problem-solving. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261/full
• Woods D. (2000). An evidence-based strategy for problem solving. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245332888_An_Evidence-Based_Strategy_for_Problem_Solving

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