how to quote an interview in an essay example

MLA Citation Guide (9th Edition): Interviews and Emails (Personal Communications)

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On This Page: Interviews and Emails (Personal Communications)

Interview (in person), citing elders, email interview, telephone interview, abbreviating months.

In your works cited list, abbreviate months as follows: 

January = Jan. February = Feb. March = Mar. April = Apr. May = May June = June July = July August = Aug. September = Sept. October = Oct. November = Nov. December = Dec.

Spell out months fully in the body of your paper. 

When is personal communication (in person, emails, and telephone) used in citation?

The category "Personal Communications" is used in situations where you are taking information from a source such as an email thread or an interview you conducted with someone else. In this case the work isn't published anywhere; someone else couldn't find and read the full interview or email on their own.

Sometimes you may find interviews with people in journals, magazines, newspapers, websites, etc. In those cases don't use the "Personal Communications" category. Instead, cite them according to where you found the information.

For example, an interview in a magazine would be cited like a magazine article. That way anyone reading your assignment could easily track down the interview for themselves by finding the same magazine article.

Note : For your Works Cited list, all citations should be double spaced and have a hanging indent.

A "hanging indent" means that each subsequent line after the first line of your citation should be indented by 0.5 inches.

Last Name of Person Who Was Interviewed, First Name. Interview. By Interviewer First Name Last Name, Day Month Year of interview. 

Last name, First names, Elder, Nation/Community.  Topic/subject of communication if applicable . Personal communication, Date Month Year. Territorial Acknowledgement of where the information was shared/collected.

This citation template was developed by Norquest College  in the spirit of wahkôhtowin and reconciliation. It was expanded upon by Kwantlen Polytechnic University Library and the KPU the Elder in Residence, Lekeyten. 

Last Name of Person Who Was Interviewed, First Name. "Subject Line of Email." Received by Name of Person Who Received Email, Day Month Year of Email. Email Interview.

Learn more: See  MLA Handbook , p. 124 for citing emails, p. 211 for descriptions at the end of citations.

Last Name of Person Who Was Interviewed, First Name. Interview. Day Month Year of interview. By Interviewer First Name Last Name. Telephone Interview.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to Cite an Interview in MLA

How to Cite an Interview in MLA

Here’s a quick overview of how to cite an interview in MLA style 9th edition.

Interview – Published in a magazine, newspaper, website, or on TV/radio.

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

Citing an interview in print

Citing a personal interview, interview in-text citations, troubleshooting, interview citation structure:.

Interviewee Last, First M. “Interview Title.” Interview by First M. Last. Magazine Name, Date Month Year, pp. page number(s).

Interview Citation Example:

Obama, Michelle. “Oprah Talks to Michelle Obama.” Interview by Oprah Winfrey. O, The Oprah Magazine, Apr. 2009, pp. 116-125.

Personal Interview Citation Structure:

Last Name of Interviewee, First Name M. Type of Interview (Personal Interview, Phone Interview, Skype Interview, etc.). Date.

Personal Interview Citation Example:

Cloyd, Allison. Personal interview. 24 July 2014.

Interview In-text Citation Structure:

(Interviewee Last Name Page #)

Interview In-text Citation Example:

(Obama 118)

Solution #1: How to create citations for different types of interviews

Interviews include interactions in both writing a speaking.

Written interviews include published and unpublished renditions of in-person interviews and email interviews, which all follow slightly different formats.

Published interview in print

To write a published interview citation:

• Write the author’s name in last name, first name format.
• Write the interview title in quotation marks.
• Write “Interview by” followed by the full first name and last name of the interviewer.
• List the title of the periodical or journal in italics followed by a comma.
• After the comma, write the date the source was published followed by another comma.
• Lastly, write the page span abbreviated as “pp.” followed a period.

Works cited entry example:

Johnson, Crystal. “Crystal’s Everyday Life.” Interview by Elizabeth Miller. The Hypothetical Interviewers’ Column, May 2020, pp. 19-20.

Published interview found online

To write a published interview citation found online:

• Type the URL followed by a period.
• Lastly, type “accessed” and list the date that the source was found.

Johnson, Crystal. “Crystal’s Everyday Life.” Interview by Elizabeth Miller. The Hypothetical Interviewers’ Column , May 2020, http://hypothetical_interviewers_com_CJohnson. Accessed 1 May 2021.

Note: If the interview you’re trying to cite is formatted as a video posted on YouTube, this guide on citing a YouTube video in MLA  can help!

Interview via email

To write an email citation:

• Write the interviewee’s name in last name, first name format.
• Write a brief description of the interview title in quotation marks.
• Type “Received by” followed by the full name of the interviewer and a comma.
• After the comma, write the date of the interaction followed by a period.
• Lastly, write “Email interview” followed by a period.

Adams, Tyler. “Re: Job Application for the Writing Center.” Received by Howard Smith, 21 November 2021. Email Interview.

Spoken, in-person interview

Spoken interviews include in-person interviews, online interviews, and telephone interviews, which all follow similar guidelines.

• Write the name of the interviewee in first name, last name format with a period.
• Write the type of interview conducted with a period.
• Follow this information with the date and a period.

Example of an in-person interview works cited example:

Johnson, Crystal. Personal Interview. 20 May 2021.

Example of an online interview works cited example:

Johnson, Crystal. Facebook Video Interview. 20 May 2021.

Example of a telephone interview works cited example:

Johnson, Crystal. Telephone Interview. 20 May 2021.

Solution #2: Referencing interviews with missing information

Interview missing an author

If the source is missing an author, skip this information and write the title in quotation marks with a period. Follow this information with the name of the journal or periodical in italics and a period. List the date of the publication followed by a comma and the page span of the material.

“The Daily Life of Crystal.” The Hypothetical Interviewers’ Column , May 2020, pp. 19-20.

Interview without a title

When an interview is missing a title, rename it with a brief description of the interview.

Johnson, Crystal. “Crystal Discusses her Routine.” Interview by Elizabeth Miller. The      Hypothetical Interviewers’ Column , May 2020, pp. 19-20.

Interview without a date

If an interview found online is missing a date, skip this information and continue writing the URL and access date.

Johnson, Crystal. “The Daily Life of Crystal.” Interview by Elizabeth Miller. The Hypothetical    Interviewers’ Column, http://hypothetical_interviewers_com_CJohnson. Accessed 2 May 2020.

Interview without pages

If a reference is missing pages, simply do not list them. Instead, follow the date with a period.

Johnson, Crystal. “The Daily Life of Crystal.” Interview by Elizabeth Miller. The Hypothetical Interviewers’ Column , May 2020.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To cite an interview with two or more people in MLA style, you need to have the name of the interviewees, title of the interview, and year. The templates for an in-text citation and works-cited-list entry of an interview with two or more people, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Cite the names of the interviewees in the same way as you would cite multiple authors. The below example is for three interviewees.

(Interviewee’s Surname et al.)

(Sethusankar et al.)

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

Interviewee Surname, First Name, et al. Interview. Conducted by Interviewer’s Name, Publisher, Publication Date.

Sethusankar, Krishnan, et al. Interview with College Professors . Conducted by Kirubakaran, Ajantha Publishers, 2021.

To cite an interview on television, radio, or podcast in MLA format, you need to have the name of the interviewee, title of the interview, name of the host, name of the TV channel, radio, or podcast, and year. The templates for an in-text citation and works-cited-list entry of an interview on television, radio, or podcast along with examples are given below:

(Interviewee’s Surname)

Interviewee Surname, First Name, “Title of the Interview.” Title of the show , hosted by Interviewer’s Name, TV Channel, Day Month Year.

Singh, Amarinder. “Hammers ‘Incapable’ Sidhu.” Captain Speaks to Arnab , hosted by Arnab Goswami, Republic World, 18 Sept. 2021.

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APA Interview Citation

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Website Book Journal Interview

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How to Reference an Interview in APA

Use the following template to cite an interview using the APA citation format. We also provide style guides for the MLA and Chicago styles. To have your bibliography or works cited list automatically made for you, check out our free APA citation maker .

Once you’re finished with your citations, we can also help you with creating an APA title page .

Important Note on Personal Interviews:

• A personal interview should NOT be included in a reference list in APA. They are not considered recoverable data (they cannot be found by a researcher). You should reference personal interviews as in-text citations instead.
• Example: (J. Doe, personal communication, December 12, 2004)

That being said, there is a general structure if you want to cite a personal interview as part of your APA works cited list:

Author, A. (Year, Month Date). Interview type.

APA format example:

Marino, B. (2014, October 18). Personal Interview.

For more information on how to cite in APA, check out the APA Style Guide .

←Back to APA Citation Guide

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As per Sections 8.7 and 8.9 of the APA Publication Manual , 7 th edition, personal interviews are treated as personal communication. Since personal communication cannot be recovered by readers, APA recommends using personal communication only when a recoverable source of communication is not available.

And since personal communications cannot be recovered by readers, they are also not included in the reference list. Instead, the in-text citation for personal communication, including personal interviews, is much more detailed than other APA in-text citations.

When citing a personal interview in an in-text citation, include the first initial and surname of the person interviewed, “personal communication,” and the full date of the interview, rather than just the year.

The following templates and examples show how to cite a personal interview in an in-text citation in APA style.

Narrative citation: Interviewee’s First Initial Surname (personal communication, Month Day Year)

Parenthetical citation: (Interviewee’s First Initial Surname, personal communication, Month Day Year)

Narrative citation: A.J. Forrester (personal communication, May 9, 2014)

Parenthetical citation: (A.J. Forrester, personal communication, May 9, 2014)

Personal interviews should be treated the same way as personal communications, since neither can be recovered by readers. Since these sources cannot be retrieved, there is no need to provide an entry for them in the reference list. A personal interview should just have an in-text citation and NOT an accompanying reference list entry.

APA Citation Style, 7th edition: Interview

• General Style Guidelines
• One Author or Editor
• Two Authors or Editors
• Three to Five Authors or Editors
• Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
• Article in a Reference Book
• Edition other than the First
• Translation
• Government Publication
• Journal Article with 1 Author
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• Electronic Image
• Twitter/Instagram
• Lecture/PPT
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• Citation Support
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Formatting Your Paper

Helpful Tip!

NOTE: If you recorded the interview or Skype meeting and posted it online (i.e. YouTube, web site) you can then include the reference and direct the reader to the audio or video file that captured the interview. See: APA S tyle: Personal Communications  OR Quotations from Research Participants . 

An Interview

Important Note: Personal interviews are not included in the reference list because they do not provide recoverable data . Cite them IN TEXT ONLY.

Personal Communication Includes letters, phone calls, email messages, and interviews.

General Format

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Interviewee First Initial. Second Initial. Surname, personal communication, Month Day, Year)

In-Text Citation (Quotation):

References:

Not included

(J. Brown, personal communication, April 27, 2010)

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How to Cite an Interview in MLA Format

Last Updated: December 23, 2022 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Rachel Scoggins, PhD . Rachel Scoggins is a Visiting Assistant Professor of English at Lander University. Rachel's work has been presented at the South Atlantic Modern Language Association and the Georgia International Conference on Information Literacy. She received her PhD in Literary Studies from Georgia State University in 2016. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,369,758 times.

A thoroughly researched paper often supplements written sources with interviews. Interviews generally fall into two categories: published print or broadcast interviews and unpublished personal interviews. [1] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source Citing an interview may seem confusing if you're used to just citing books and articles, but just like with any MLA citation, follow the simple rules to complete a polished citation.

Citing Interviews With In-Text Citations

• Periods go after the parentheses. Think about the parenthetical citation as being part of the sentence. The period goes at the end of the whole sentence, so it goes after the parentheses.
• The superintendent stated that there would be money in the budget for new computers (Jones).
• Emily said, "Training for the Olympics was the most challenging thing I have ever done" (Walker).

• Jones stated that there would be money in the budget for new computers.
• Walker said, "Training for the Olympics was the most challenging thing I have ever done."
• The difference between the examples in step 1 and step 2 is the way the last name is presented. In step 1, the last name is in the parenthetical citation because it does not appear in the sentence. In step 2, the last name appears in the sentence, so it does not need to be repeated in a parenthetical citation.
• The reason why the last name must appear in either the sentence or the parenthetical citation is because the last name corresponds to the entry on the works cited page. Every citation must link directly to the works cited page.

• Emily trained so hard that she bruised her foot and had to take a break (Walker 45).
• Walker explained that she had to take a break from training after bruising her foot (45).
• Remember, MLA does not put a comma between the last name and the page number in a parenthetical citation.

• If a quotation ends with an exclamation point or a question mark, place it inside the quotation marks.
• Dr. James Hill said, "The virus starts by affecting the brain" (56).
• Dr. James Hill asked, "If we can't find a cure, how will we save the human race?" (57).

• Start your block quote like this: In an interview from 2002, Peter Jackson stated:
• Punctuate the end of your block quote like this: Jackson said he will always keep making movies. (34-35)

Citing Interviews on a Works Cited Page

• Dates should be formatted with the numerical value for the day, followed by the three letter abbreviation for the date followed by a period, and then the numerical value for the year. Most months just use the first three letters of their name. May has no period after the three letters. June and July both stay the same with no period afterwards. September is abbreviated using 4 letters: Sept.
• For type of interview, state if it is a personal, telephone, or e-mail interview.
• Example: Gambill, Mike. Telephone interview. 1 Apr. 2003.

• For an interview published in a print source, start with the interviewee's last name, followed by a comma and then the first name. Add a period. Place the name of the interview in quotation marks, with a period inside the quotation marks. Next, list the name of the larger book or journal where the interview was published in italics. Add a period. Next, give the author or editor of the book by stating "By First Name Last Name" or "Ed. First Name Last Name." Add a period. Then finish the citation with information required by the medium.
• Amis, Kingsley. “Mimic and Moralist.” Interviews with Britain's Angry Young Men . By Dale Salwak. San Bernardino: Borgo, 1984. 34-47. Print. [8] X Research source
• Blanchett, Cate. "In Character with Cate Blanchett." Notes on a Scandal . Dir. Richard Eyre. Fox Searchlight, 2006. DVD.
• If the interview has no name, just type the word "Interview" without any quotation marks or italics.
• Jolie, Angelina. Interview. 60 Minutes. CBS. WCBS, New York: 3 Feb. 2009. Television. [9] X Research source

• If no publisher is given, insert the abbreviation n.p. If there is no publication date, use n.d.
• If the interview does not feature a title, add the descriptor "Interview" after the interviewee's name with no italics or quotation marks.
• Obama, Michelle. Interview by Caren Zucker. ABC News . ABC, 2009. Web. 19 Apr. 2009.
• Antin, David. "The Way I See It." Dalkey Archive Press. Dalkey Archive P, n.d. Web. 21 Aug 2007.

Sample MLA Citation

Community Q&A

• Be sure to include the full listing of proper sourcing to avoid plagiarism. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Remember, works cited pages use hanging indents. The first line is lined up with your left margin, while every subsequent line is indented. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Always start your MLA citation entries with last names. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_other_common_sources.html
• ↑ https://columbiacollege-ca.libguides.com/MLA9/interviews
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_quotations.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.unr.edu/mlacitation/personalcommunication
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/747/
• ↑ http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide/MLA/interview
• ↑ https://utica.libguides.com/c.php?g=703243&p=4991681

About This Article

To cite an interview in MLA format, include the interviewee’s last name in parentheses after quoting it, making sure to put any punctuation outside of the parentheses. However, if you state the person’s last name in the sentence, you don’t need to include a citation in parentheses. If you’re citing a printed interview, add the page number after the name in the citation. Finally, include the citation on your “Works Cited” page by listing the interviewee’s last name, the type of interview, and the date of the interview, each separated by a period. To learn how to format a longer quote from an interview, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Harvard Style Guide: Interviews

• Introduction
• Harvard Tutorial
• In-text citations
• Book with one author
• Book with two or three authors
• Book with four or more authors
• Book with a corporate author
• Book with editor
• Chapter in an edited book
• Translated book
• Translated ancient texts
• Print journal article, one author
• Print journal article, two or three authors
• Print journal article, four or more authors
• eJournal article
• Journal article ePublication (ahead of print)
• Secondary sources
• Generative AI
• Images or photographs
• Lectures/ presentations
• Film/ television
• YouTube Film or Talk
• Music/ audio
• Encyclopaedia and dictionaries
• Email communication
• Conferences
• Official publications
• Book reviews
• Case studies
• Group or individual assignments
• Legal Cases (Law Reports)
• No date of publication
• Personal communications
• Repository item
• Citing same author, multiple works, same year

Back to Academic Integrity guide

Interviews (television)

Reference : Last name, Initials of person interviewed. (Year of interview) ‘Title of the interview (if any)’. Interview by/with Interviewer’s First name Last name, Title of publication , Day Month of Publication, page numbers if present.

Example : Kenny, E. (2013) ‘Ireland’s lost generation’. Interviewed by Miriam O’Callaghan,  Prime Time , RTE One Television, 15 March.

In-Text-Citation :

• Interviewee(s) Last name (Year)
• (Interviewee(s) Last name, Year)
• Kenny (2010) claimed in an interview….
• In an interview on RTE (Kenny, 2010)….

Still unsure what in-text citation and referencing mean? Check here . 

Still unsure why you need to reference all this information? Check here . 

Interviews (newspaper)

Reference : Last name, Initials of person interviewed. (Year of interview) ‘Title of the interview (if any)’. Interview by/with Interviewer’s First name Last name, Title of publication , Day Month of Publication, page numbers if present.  

Example : O’Brien, M. (2014) ‘Achieving success in parenting’. Interview by Siobhan Moynihan,  Irish News Weekly , 6 June, p. 56.

• O’Brien (2014) outlined honesty as key to parenting……
• Honesty is seen as key to parenting through the teenage years (O’Brien, 2014).

Interviews (in person or virtual)

Reference : Last name, Initials of person interviewed. (Year of interview) ‘Title of the interview (if any)’. Interview by Interviewer’s First name Last name [virtual medium if appropriate], Day Month of interview.  

Example : O'Nally, S.. (2020) ‘Working from home experiences’. Interview by Sorcha Mulryan [Skype], 6 June.

• O’Nally (2020) talked about the importance of a quiet space……
• Having a designated quiet space was very important to the interviewee (O'Nally, 2020).

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• Study and research support
• Referencing
• Leeds Harvard referencing examples

Leeds Harvard: Interview

Reference examples.

Family name, INITIAL(S) (of interviewee). Year. Interview with (name of interviewer). Date, location.

Thompson, D. 2016. Interview with J. Smith . 4 August, Leeds.

Interviews you conducted yourself

If you have carried out several interviews that you are using as primary research data for analysis in a research project, then it is not necessary to provide references for each of them in your reference list. You should check with your tutor about the most appropriate way to present the interviews in your work, for example including transcripts in appendices. You may also need to seek permission from the interviewee(s).

If you have interviewed someone and want to include a quote from this as evidence to support an argument you are making in an essay (i.e. not as data for analysis in a research project), then you should reference this as shown in the example above.

Citation examples

Author and date.

When the author name is not mentioned in the text, the citation consists of the author’s name and the year of publication in brackets.

It was emphasised that citations in the text should be consistent (Jones, 2017).

If you have already named the author in the text, only the publication year needs to be mentioned in brackets.

Jones (2017) emphasised that citations in the text should be consistent.

Three or more authors

If a source has three or more authors, the name of the first author should be given, followed by the phrase "et al."

It was emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent (Jones et al., 2017).

Jones et al. (2017) emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent.

Leeds Harvard does not use ibid to refer to previously cited items. If you are citing the same item twice in a row (i.e. you do not cite any other items in the text between the two citations) you must write the full citation again. As usual, if you are directly quoting or paraphrasing specific ideas, you should include a page number (if there is one). 

Jones et al. (2017, p.24) emphasised that citations in a text should be consistent and argued that referencing is a key part of academic integrity (2017, p.27). Furthermore, having a broad range of references in a text is an indicator of the breadth of a scholar's reading and research (Jones et al., 2017, p.14).

Common issues

When you're referencing with Leeds Harvard you may come across issues with missing details, multiple authors, edited books, references to another author's work or online items, to name a few. Here are some tips on how to deal with some common issues when using Leeds Harvard.

Skip straight to the issue that affects you:

• Online items
• URL web addresses
• Multiple authors
• Corporate author(s) or organisation(s)
• Multiple publisher details
• Editions and reprints
• Missing details
• Multiple sources with different authors
• Sources written by the same author in the same year
• Sources with the same author in different years
• Two authors with the same surname in the same year
• The work of one author referred to by another
• Anonymising sources for confidentiality
• Identifying the authors’ family name (surname)

• How it works

How to Cite an Interview in Harvard Style?

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 15th, 2021 , Revised On August 23, 2023

1. How to Citing interviews you conducted at Harvard

Quoting your research participants.

In Harvard referencing, the basics of in-text citation for personal communications are:

Author (communicator).

Format description.

Example: The Vice Chancellor’s statement was confirmed during an interview (P Dawkins 2011, personal communication, 11 October). OR, During an interview conducted on 11 October 2011, Prof Peter Dawkins stated that …

Example: One participant, David, stated in an interview (surname, David Year, personal communication, Date and Year) that he found the experience “very challenging” (full interview transcripts are presented in Appendix A). OR During an interview conducted on Date and Year, one participant, David, stated that he found the experience “very challenging” (full interview transcripts are presented in Appendix A)

Citing Personal Interviews

Example: An email (L. Singh 2020, personal communication, April 24) with one of the researchers involved in the project clarified that it was “still ongoing”.

2. Citing published interviews

Citing a newspaper interview.

The United States aims to return its space program to its former glory. Bridenstine (2018) stated that “A big objective is to once again launch American astronauts on American rockets from American soil”.

Note: Under this section on the APA website given, the second example doesn’t hold true in Harvard. The above format is the one main one followed in Harvard referencing, where the name of the interviewee is mentioned, followed by the year of the interview in ().

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Citing a podcast interview

Citing an interview from YouTube

Frequently Asked Questions

Do you have to cite an interview you conducted harvard.

Yes, when following Harvard citation style, you must cite an interview you conducted. Include interviewee’s name, date, method, and context. Citing maintains academic integrity and allows readers to verify your sources.

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Citing Journals may vary slightly in style, depending on the style used by the journal.

Podcasts have become a common source for research. We have prepared this article on how to cite a podcast in Harvard referencing.

Referencing the dissertation is not a problem when you follow our super easy guide. Firstly you need to collect some common information

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Using an interview in a research paper

Consultant contributor: Viviane Ugalde

Using an interview can be an effective primary source for some papers and research projects. Finding an expert in the field or some other person who has knowledge of your topic can allow for you to gather unique information not available elsewhere.

There are four steps to using an interview as a source for your research.

• Know where and how to start.
• Know how to write a good question.
• Know how to conduct an interview.
• Know how to incorporate the interview into your document or project.

Step one: Where to start

First, you should determine your goals and ask yourself these questions:

• Who are the local experts on topic?
• How can I contact these people?
• Does anyone know them to help me setup the interviews?
• Are their phone numbers in the phone book or can I find them on the Internet?

Once you answer these questions and pick your interviewee, get their basic information such as their name, title, and other general details. If you reach out and your interview does not participate, don’t be discouraged. Keep looking for other interview contacts.

Step two: How to write a good question

When you have confirmed an interview, it is not time to come up with questions.

• Learning as much as you can about the person before the interview can help you create questions specific to your interview subject.
• Doing research about your interviewee’s past experience in your topic, or any texts that they have written would be great background research.

When you start to think of questions, write down more questions than you think you’ll need, and prioritize them as you go. Any good questions will answer the 5W and H questions. Asking Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How questions that you need answered for your paper, will help you form a question to ask your interviewee.

When writing a good question, try thinking of something that will help your argument.

• Is your interviewee an advocate for you position?
• Are they in any programs that are related to your research?
• How much experience do they have?

From broad questions like these, you can begin to narrow down to more specific and open-ended questions.

Step three: The interview

If at all possible, arrange to conduct the interview at the subject’s workplace. It will make them more comfortable, and you can write about their surroundings.

• Begin the interview with some small talk in order to give both of you the chance to get comfortable with one another
• Develop rapport that will make the interview easier for both of you.
• Ask open-ended questions
• Keep the conversation moving
• Stay on topic
• The more silence in the room, the more honest the answer.
• If an interesting subject comes up that is related to your research, ask a follow-up or an additional question about it.
• Ask if you can stay in contact with your interview subject in case there are any additional questions you have.

Step four: Incorporating the interview

When picking the material out of your interview, remember that people rarely speak perfectly. There will be many slang words and pauses that you can take out, as long as it does not change the meaning of the material you are using.

As you introduce your interview in the paper, start with a transition such as “according to” or other attributions. You should also be specific to the type of interview you are working with. This way, you will build a stronger ethos in your paper .

The body of your essay should clearly set up the quote or paraphrase you use from the interview responses,. Be careful not to stick a quote from the interview into the body of your essay because it sounds good. When deciding what to quote in your paper, think about what dialogue from the interview would add the most color to your interview. Quotes that illustrate what your interviewer sounded like, or what their personality is are always the best quotes to choose from.

Once you have done that, proofread your essay. Make sure the quotes you used don’t make up the majority of your paper. The interview quotes are supposed to support your argument; you are not supposed to support the interview.

For example, let’s say that you are arguing that free education is better than not. For your argument, you interview a local politician who is on your side of the argument. Rather than using a large quote that explains the stance of both sides, and why the politician chose this side, your quote is there to support the information you’ve already given. Whatever the politician says should prove what you argue, and not give new information.

Step five: Examples of citing your interviews 

Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 19 May 2018.

(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2018).

Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2018).

Reference list

Daly, C. & Leighton W. (2017). Interviewing a Source: Tips. Journalists Resource.

Driscoll, D. (2018 ). Interviewing. Purdue University

Hayden, K. (2012). How to Conduct an Interview to Write a Paper . Bright Hub Education, Bright Hub Inc.

Hose, C. (2017). How to Incorporate Interviews into Essays. Leaf Group Education.

Magnesi, J. (2017). How to Interview Someone for an Article or Research Paper. Career Trend, Leaf group Media.

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Suggested Ways to Introduce Quotations

When you quote another writer's words, it's best to introduce or contextualize the quote. 

How To Quote In An Essay?

To introduce a quote in an essay, don't forget to include author's last name and page number (MLA) or author, date, and page number (APA) in your citation. Shown below are some possible ways to introduce quotations. The examples use MLA format.

Use A Full Sentence Followed by A Colon To Introduce A Quotation

• The setting emphasizes deception: "Nothing is as it appears" (Smith 1).
• Piercy ends the poem on an ironic note: "To every woman a happy ending" (25).

Begin A Sentence with Your Own Words, Then Complete It with Quoted Words

Note that in the second example below, a slash with a space on either side ( / ) marks a line break in the original poem.

• Hamlet's task is to avenge a "foul and most unnatural murder" (Shakespeare 925).
• The speaker is mystified by her sleeping baby, whose "moth-breath / flickers among the flat pink roses" (Plath 17).

Use An Introductory Phrase Naming The Source, Followed By A Comma to Quote A Critic or Researcher

Note that the first letter after the quotation marks should be upper case. According to MLA guidelines, if you change the case of a letter from the original, you must indicate this with brackets. APA format doesn't require brackets.

• According to Smith, "[W]riting is fun" (215).
• In Smith's words, " . . .
• In Smith's view, " . . .

Use A Descriptive Verb, Followed by A Comma To Introduce A Critic's Words

Avoid using says unless the words were originally spoken aloud, for instance, during an interview.

• Smith states, "This book is terrific" (102).
• Smith remarks, " . . .
• Smith writes, " . . .
• Smith notes, " . . .
• Smith comments, " . . .
• Smith observes, " . . .
• Smith concludes, " . . .
• Smith reports, " . . .
• Smith maintains, " . . .
• Smith adds, " . . .

Don't Follow It with A Comma If Your Lead into The Quotation Ends in That or As

The first letter of the quotation should be lower case.

• Smith points out that "millions of students would like to burn this book" (53).
• Smith emphasizes that " . . .
• Smith interprets the hand washing in MacBeth as "an attempt at absolution" (106).
• Smith describes the novel as "a celebration of human experience" (233).

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Interview Questions

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8 Examples of How to Answer “Tell Me About Yourself”

By Biron Clark

Published: November 16, 2023

In this article, I’m going to walk you through steps and examples of how to answer the “Tell me about yourself” interview question to impress employers and get more job offers . We’ll also cover the  costly mistakes you NEED to avoid if you want to pass this question. 

Here’s exactly what you’re going to get:

• The most-recommended method of how to answer “tell me about yourself”
• 8 examples of good answers to “tell me about yourself” for various industries
• A shorter, newer method for experienced candidates
• How to practice your answer to make sure you’re 100% ready for the interview

Let’s get started…

Why Do Interviewers Ask “Tell Me About Yourself”

“Can you tell me about yourself ?” is a common interview question that’s generally delivered as an icebreaker or pathfinder question, right at the start of an interview. It can catch you off your guard because it may seem vague, broad, and somewhat tricky. Honestly though, understanding a bit more about why interviewers ask this question (which is often framed as a command) will give you a clear insight into how to answer.

Interviewers ask this question to ease you out of those introductory jitters (that you both feel) and into the nitty-gritty of why you’re there. It’s their way of establishing a direction for the interview because it shows them how you summarize your experience and show its relevance to the job you’re applying for, which in turn tells them what to ask next. Trust me though, your answer needs to be relevant, the interviewer is likely not asking whether you’re a dog or a cat person but rather what background, skills, qualifications and experiences brought you to this interview today. 

Watch: How to Answer “Tell Me About Yourself?”

Different ways of asking the same question.

I mentioned how this question can sometimes be framed as a command, i.e: “tell me about yourself,” and so on. There are numerous ways this question might be framed, but all express the same intention on the part of the interviewer, so they should all be answered the same way. Common variants include:

• “Take me through your resume.”
• “Tell me about your background”
• “Describe yourself.”
•   “Can you tell me more about why you’re here?”
• “What brings you here today?”

When it comes to describing yourself, you may wonder where to start, how personal to be, and how far to get into it. “Describe yourself” certainly feels a little more personal than the rest. For insight into how to answer that variant, Read This Article .

How to Answer “Tell Me About Yourself” in an Interview:

1. choose the right starting point for your story (important).

Your goal when answering, “tell me about yourself,” is to give a brief, concise walkthrough of your career story that will show off relevant pieces of experience. You want to start at a point in the past (like how you began working in this field), and end up in your current situation. So the first thing to decide is where you’ll begin the story… If you’re a recent graduate: Start with the fact that you just graduated, and explain why you chose this career path or field of area of study.  

For example, you might start your answer like this:

“I graduated with my degree in Economics two months ago. I chose that field of study because I’ve always been interested in finance and money, and a couple of family members told me it leads to great career options, too.”

If you have 1-8 years of experience, start with the moment you graduated and walk them through your employment experience since then.

Here’s an example of how you’d start your interview answer in this situation:

“I graduated with my degree in Industrial Engineering six years ago and immediately went to work for a small design firm in Chicago. Since then, I’ve…”

And if you have 8-20+ years of experience, you can start with a mid-point in your career. This will keep your answer from getting too long.

For example, if you’re a manager, you could start with how you first became a manager. If you’ve been working for 25 years but have only been a sales professional for 12 years, you could begin with how you got started in sales.

Here is an example of how to begin your answer to “tell me about yourself” as a very experienced candidate:

“I first started managing people twelve years ago, when I was promoted from Customer Service Associate to Customer Service Supervisor. Since then, I’ve…”

2. Highlight Impressive Experience and Accomplishments

As you tell your career story, explain key accomplishments you’ve achieved, work you’ve done, skills you’ve learned, and key career moves you’ve made.

• Were you promoted? That’s always a great sign and worth mentioning.
• Did you accomplish something significant like solving a big problem for your last employer?  That’s great to mention, too.
• Did you build new skills or overcome challenges? Get specific! Tell details.

But random impressive facts aren’t enough. You should be thinking about how this ties in with the company you’re talking to.

• You should always research the company before going into the interview . Study their job description in particular so you know what skills THEY care most about.
• What does this particular job involve? Is there a lot of leadership? Talk about your experiences leading (no matter how small!), how it went, and what you learned.
• Does the job involve a high level of technical skill? Talk about how you learned and advanced in that area through each step of your career!
• You need to “tailor” your answer for, “tell me about yourself,” for their job description and their needs. Try to talk about experiences and qualifications that are relevant to this job you’ve applied for.

3. Conclude by Explaining Your Current Situation

Finally, the best way to finish your story is to bring them up to speed on your current situation. Why you wanted to apply for their job , what you’re looking to do next, etc.

For example you might end your answer by saying:

“…and that’s why I wanted to interview with your firm. This position seems like a great opportunity to advance those skills I just talked about, and continue building my career and challenging myself”.

4. Keep Your Answer Work-Related

When employers ask, “tell me about yourself,” in an interview, they usually want to hear about you as a professional. So the safest approach is to keep your answer work-related and share your career story, rather than personal details. You can show more personality as the interview goes on, but it’s risky to share too much personal info when answering, “tell me about yourself.” It could lead to your answer getting too long, or it could cause you to leave out important professional information that the interviewer was looking to know!

5. Be Concise When Answering (2 Minutes or Less!)

When they say “tell me about yourself,” it’s going to be tempting to give a long-winded answer. It’s such an open-ended question. And we covered a lot above, but there’s something just as important as any of that. You need to be concise.  Your communication and ability to stay on track with your answer are two things they are watching closely. The interviewer wants to see that you can tell your story from Point A (the beginning) to Point B (the end) without getting sidetracked, distracted, or scattered. Because it tells them how you’ll communicate as an employee… when there’s a problem, when there’s a disagreement, or when you simply need to share your knowledge or opinion. If you take this answer beyond 2 minutes you are shooting yourself in the foot. In fact, below 90 seconds is ideal. Practice at home with a timer! That’s why I recommend choosing a starting point based on your experience (Step 1 above)… because if you have 25 years of experience and you start at the moment you graduated from college, your answer will be too long.

“Tell Me About Yourself” Example Answers:

Now that we’ve covered the key steps to answering, “tell me about yourself,” let’s look at some full answer examples to this interview question .

Example Answer for Experienced Candidates:

“I graduated with a Business degree in 2010, and was offered an account management position at a telecommunications company I had interned with. I loved working with customers and managing and growing my accounts, but the industry we were in just wasn’t very appealing to me. After that, I stayed a full year and learned a ton about how to build and manage accounts successfully and  I ended up becoming a top performer in my group before leaving. I left at the 1-year-mark to pursue a very similar position within an industry I’m much more excited about- healthcare. I’ve been at this healthcare startup space for 2 years with this company and I feel ready to take my career to the next level so that’s why I’m currently looking for a new opportunity.”

That first example showed you how to answer “tell me about yourself” for experienced job seekers (at least a few years of experience). Now let’s look at an example for entry-level job seekers and job seekers with no experience .

Example Answer With No Experience:

“I graduated with a degree in Engineering two months ago. I chose that field of study because I’ve always been interested in math and physics , and a couple of family members told me it leads to great career options. One of my key accomplishments during my academic career was speaking at a conference on the topic of energy-efficient window design, based on research I had done for one of my senior-level classes. This led to an internship that I just wrapped up, so I’m actively looking for a full-time position now.”

Stand Out by “Tailoring” Your Answer to the Company

The end of your interview answer is a big opportunity to customize your answer for the company and job you’re interviewing for. When you talk about what you’re looking to do next in your career, try to mention whatever you see this company providing for your career (leadership, technical challenges, exposure to new areas, etc.) That shows them why you’re excited about their job, which will help you get hired! (I explain more about why this is true here ). Before we move on to more tips and a HUGE mistake to avoid, here’s one more example interview answer for this question.

Shorter Method for How to Answer “Tell Me About Yourself” (For Experienced Candidates Only)

The method I gave you above is the standard way most recruiters recommend answering “tell me about yourself.”  It’s how I coached job seekers to answer this question for years. There’s another way you can answer, though… and it has some benefits. I’ll explain…Many experts have pointed out that if the interviewer wanted your career story, they could have looked at your resume or your LinkedIn , or asked a question like, “can you walk me through your background?” So there’s another approach for answering, “tell me about yourself,” that skips the career story and just cuts right to the chase: Why you’re awesome and why they should hire you !

Let’s look at 2 word-for-word templates that accomplish this.

After this, you’ll have two proven methods for answering, “tell me about yourself” in interviews, and in the next section, I’ll reveal how to decide which method is best for YOU.

Example answer if you’re job searching while employed:

“Well, I’m currently working at XYZ Company and I specialize in doing ___. The reason I applied for this job is I saw ___ on the job description and I think I would be able to help you ___ and ___. One of my key accomplishments in my current role was helping my employer do ___, and I’m confident I can help your team get similar results here.”

Example answer template if unemployed:

“In my most recent position at XYZ Company, I specialized in doing ___. The reason I applied for this job is I saw ___ on the job description and I think I would be able to help you ___ and ___. One of my key accomplishments in my last role for XYZ Company was helping them  ___, and I’m confident I can help your team get similar results here.”

Which Method Should You Use for Your Answer?

If you have work experience, both options we’ve covered are very good, and it really depends on what you feel most comfortable with. Choose the one you like best. They’re both excellent ways to answer the question, so don’t stress over it! However, if you are entry-level and have no work experience… or internships at the very least…  then I would go back to the top of this article and use the first, 5-step method for answering, “tell me about yourself.”

This second method we just covered is really best if you want to give a unique, concise answer and you have some relevant work experience to share in the interview!

“Tell Me About Yourself” Example Answers For Different Industries:

Healthcare:.

“After being licensed six years ago, I immediately entered a busy E.R. setting where I progressed to the point of triaging as many as 50 patients a shift. I’m skilled in patient record-keeping, stabilizing incoming patients, diagnosing injuries, administering meds, doing stitches, starting I.V.s, setting bones and offering emotional support to family members behind the scenes. I’ve adapted to the pressure but feel that, in the long term, I’d be better suited to a slower-paced environment with more focus on establishing lasting patient relationships. I’m ready to take on this post in your busy day clinic and believe that my advanced patient triage skills, along with my empathic nature, would be a great benefit to your team.”

This works because:   This answer outlines your qualifications and extensive background in incoming patient care, triage, diagnosing and record-keeping. Your honesty about long term goals is appreciated. The answer shows how your skills have progressed since you were licensed, and it inspires confidence in your ability to handle a hands-on post at a busy clinic.

Service Industry:

“Having spent eight years in the food and beverage industry, I progressed from head waiter to front of house manager four years ago. I’ve held so many posts in the industry, from runner to waiter to head waiter to manager, but my dedication to quality service has never changed. I believe in knowing my product and process inside and out, uplifting my team members and demonstrating focused positivity throughout. It’s easy to fall into the temper trap when things get busy, but I prefer to knuckle down, smile and get it done. I want my customers to come back for more!”

This works because: This answer makes an impact because of how your personality shines through. The service industry is incredibly stressful, but it’s refreshing to know that you have a proactive, positive attitude to stressful situations, backed up with strong product knowledge and professionalism.

“I’m an accredited software engineer and systems integrator with more than ten years of active development experience. I’m proficient in Ruby, Python, Java, C++ and a wide range of associated languages and frameworks. I’m a team player, and I love bouncing ideas off my colleagues and engaging with diverse perspectives. I like to stay abreast of the latest tech and I’m wildly competitive when it comes to troubleshooting. I’ve also got an eye for detail and clean design and I’m dedicated to delivering a seamless, streamlined experience to the end-user.”

This works because: From this answer, it’s clear that you’re accredited and boast a diversified programming portfolio with plenty of experience in the field. It’s noted that you’re a team player, as teamwork is essential when developing and managing systems for a busy tech enterprise. And your attitude to problem solving , as being competitive will help you find fast and effective solutions.

“I’ve been a retail cosmetic artist and sales assistant for six years and I’m passionate about making clients feel utterly gorgeous! I have a strong knowledge of retail processes, including stock-take, merchandising and sales targeting. If I have to describe my stand-out quality it’s that I love to build up the team, make my colleagues smile and get them motivated to break targets for our department. Above all though, the customer comes first and I’m dedicated to building brand and store loyalty in the customer.”

  This works because: From this answer, it’s obvious you know retail like the back of your hand and that you take pride in breaking targets and boosting the team morale. Your positivity shines through, and you highlight your passion for making clients feel special.

Practice Your Answer Before the Interview

As a final tip – make sure you go practice everything you plan on saying when the interviewer asks, “what can you tell me about yourself?” Nothing comes out perfect the first time, and you don’t want to appear nervous and stumble when they ask.  So I’d recommend grabbing a piece of paper and writing down the key points you want to talk about in your answer. I like to write them in bullet format. Then, use your smartphone’s voice recorder app to record a few practice answers and see how you sound. Don’t look at your notes as you give your answer. The idea is to try to remember what you want to talk about without reading off the paper. Then glance at the paper AFTER to make sure you covered everything. Keep practicing until you can give a smooth answer without forgetting anything important.

Note: If you’re having a phone interview , you can use notes/bullet points to help guide you through your answer. Nobody can see you on the phone, so take advantage!

About the Author

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Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
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• As a template for you assignment

The interviewee has been a supervisor in a hospital with a 300-bed capacity for 12 years. The location of the hospital was not indicated to protect the professional’s privacy. She works in the Infusion Department and oversees the performance review of all department workers. The concept of performance management guided the interview – it is a tool for managers to structure how employees’ work is evaluated (Schleicher et al., 2019). Performance reviews have to include specific goals and standards, and the concept provides methods to grade, appraise, and discuss performance quality with workers.

The interviewee’s description of the department’s management system reveals several approaches. The supervisor describes four ways of assessment, the first being self-evaluation. It is stated that all employees complete a survey about their performance annually, answering questions using an online platform. Self-assessment is the basis for additional training, skills review, quality of care, and more. The interviewee notes that supervisors do not always agree with the nurses’ answers but provide feedback based on the survey results. Self-reviews can be effective for developing professionals’ ability to appraise their own skills and reflect on their weaknesses and strengths (Schleicher et al., 2019). At the same time, the department’s managers provide a balanced response to surveys by appraising them and communicating with nurses (Schleicher et al., 2019). As a result, the system is practical for evaluating care quality and supporting an open dialogue between employees and supervisors.

Another step that increases effectiveness is including a peer review in the process. As a result, managers engage all professionals and enhance their communication and leadership strategies during the assessment. Additionally, peer reviews are used after a staff member goes through training to see whether the program was effective and has led to new skill acquisition. This initiative is particularly interesting as it may increase employees’ commitment to personal growth and develop a sense of group responsibility (Heinen et al., 2019). The interviewee talked about case-based training during nursing skills fairs, which happen four times per year. The fairs’ duration and content are not discussed, but the lack of regular programs lowers the system’s effectiveness in helping nurses grow professionally.

The focus on self and peer review is among the factors contributing to the chosen management approach’s strengths. The limited role of supervisors contributes to employees’ autonomy and supports their internal motivation to improve (Awan et al., 2020). Furthermore, it creates a culture where talking about issues and personal achievements is viewed positively, allowing workers to explore their performance on their own. At the same time, the interviewee notes that not all staff members are comfortable with peer review due to the fear of speaking up. Such anxiety may lead to inadequate feedback and unfair reviews (Awan et al., 2020). The supervisors may not be aware of problems that employees are hesitant to report, which can increase patient health and care quality risks.

The evaluation of the performance management system at the selected department reveals two issues that require addressing. The first is the lack of training for workers to work on their weaknesses, as identified during an evaluation. Nursing skills fairs take place too rarely to assist nurses in professional development adequately. The hospital should consider creating a program to help nurses complete online or offline training based on their performance reviews. More learning opportunities can teach nurses about communication, leadership, and professional skills (Kerr et al., 2020). Second, the issue of inadequate peer reviews can be solved by using a structured survey or questionnaire and allowing peers to provide feedback without the supervisor’s presence.

Awan, S. H., Habib, N., Shoaib Akhtar, C., & Naveed, S. (2020). Effectiveness of performance management system for employee performance through engagement . SAGE Open , 10 (4), 1-15. Web.

Heinen, M., van Oostveen, C., Peters, J., Vermeulen, H., & Huis, A. (2019). An integrative review of leadership competencies and attributes in advanced nursing practice . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 75 (11), 2378-2392. Web.

Kerr, D., Ostaszkiewicz, J., Dunning, T., & Martin, P. (2020). The effectiveness of training interventions on nurses’ communication skills: A systematic review . Nurse Education Today , 89 , 104405. Web.

Schleicher, D. J., Baumann, H. M., Sullivan, D. W., & Yim, J. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of performance management: A 30-year integrative conceptual review . Journal of Applied Psychology , 104 (7), 851-887. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2024, June 22). Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection. https://ivypanda.com/essays/interview-with-hospital-supervisor-reflection/

"Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection." IvyPanda , 22 June 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/interview-with-hospital-supervisor-reflection/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection'. 22 June.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection." June 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/interview-with-hospital-supervisor-reflection/.

1. IvyPanda . "Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection." June 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/interview-with-hospital-supervisor-reflection/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Interview with Hospital Supervisor: Reflection." June 22, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/interview-with-hospital-supervisor-reflection/.

Home — Essay Samples — Literature — Character — Gertrude’s Quotes in Shakespeare’s Hamlet

Gertrude's Quotes in Shakespeare's Hamlet

• Categories: Character

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Published: Jun 13, 2024

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Frequently asked questions

Do i need a citation when i quote or paraphrase an interview.

For a published interview (whether in video , audio, or print form ), you should always include a citation , just as you would for any other source.

For an interview you conducted yourself , formally or informally, you often don’t need a citation and can just refer to it in the text or in a footnote , since the reader won’t be able to look them up anyway. MLA , however, still recommends including citations for your own interviews.

Frequently asked questions: Citing sources

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

Most academics agree that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia as a source in your academic writing , and universities often have rules against doing so.

This is partly because of concerns about its reliability, and partly because it’s a tertiary source. Tertiary sources are things like encyclopedias and databases that collect information from other sources rather than presenting their own evidence or analysis. Usually, only primary and secondary sources are cited in academic papers.

A Wikipedia citation usually includes the title of the article, “Wikipedia” and/or “Wikimedia Foundation,” the date the article was last updated, and the URL.

In APA Style , you’ll give the URL of the current revision of the article so that you’re sure the reader accesses the same version as you.

There’s some disagreement about whether Wikipedia can be considered a reliable source . Because it can be edited by anyone, many people argue that it’s easy for misleading information to be added to an article without the reader knowing.

Others argue that because Wikipedia articles cite their sources , and because they are worked on by so many editors, misinformation is generally removed quickly.

However, most universities state that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia in your writing.

Hanging indents are used in reference lists in various citation styles to allow the reader to easily distinguish between entries.

You should apply a hanging indent to your reference entries in APA , MLA , and Chicago style.

A hanging indent is used to indent all lines of a paragraph except the first.

When you create a hanging indent, the first line of the paragraph starts at the border. Each subsequent line is indented 0.5 inches (1.27 cm).

APA and MLA style both use parenthetical in-text citations to cite sources and include a full list of references at the end, but they differ in other ways:

• APA in-text citations include the author name, date, and page number (Taylor, 2018, p. 23), while MLA in-text citations include only the author name and page number (Taylor 23).
• The APA reference list is titled “References,” while MLA’s version is called “ Works Cited .”
• The reference entries differ in terms of formatting and order of information.
• APA requires a title page , while MLA requires a header instead.

A parenthetical citation in Chicago author-date style includes the author’s last name, the publication date, and, if applicable, the relevant page number or page range in parentheses . Include a comma after the year, but not after the author’s name.

For example: (Swan 2003, 6)

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

APA Style distinguishes between parenthetical and narrative citations.

In parenthetical citations , you include all relevant source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence or clause: “Parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity (Levin, 2002).”

In narrative citations , you include the author’s name in the text itself, followed by the publication date in parentheses: “Levin (2002) argues that parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity.”

In a parenthetical citation in MLA style , include the author’s last name and the relevant page number or range in parentheses .

For example: (Eliot 21)

A parenthetical citation gives credit in parentheses to a source that you’re quoting or paraphrasing . It provides relevant information such as the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number(s) cited.

How you use parenthetical citations will depend on your chosen citation style . It will also depend on the type of source you are citing and the number of authors.

APA does not permit the use of ibid. This is because APA in-text citations are parenthetical and there’s no need to shorten them further.

Ibid. may be used in Chicago footnotes or endnotes .

Write “Ibid.” alone when you are citing the same page number and source as the previous citation.

When you are citing the same source, but a different page number, use ibid. followed by a comma and the relevant page number(s). For example:

• Ibid., 40–42.

Only use ibid . if you are directing the reader to a previous full citation of a source .

Ibid. only refers to the previous citation. Therefore, you should only use ibid. directly after a citation that you want to repeat.

Ibid. is an abbreviation of the Latin “ibidem,” meaning “in the same place.” Ibid. is used in citations to direct the reader to the previous source.

Signal phrases can be used in various ways and can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

To use signal phrases effectively, include:

• The name of the scholar(s) or study you’re referencing
• An attributive tag such as “according to” or “argues that”
• The quote or idea you want to include

Different citation styles require you to use specific verb tenses when using signal phrases.

• APA Style requires you to use the past or present perfect tense when using signal phrases.
• MLA and Chicago requires you to use the present tense when using signal phrases.

Signal phrases allow you to give credit for an idea or quote to its author or originator. This helps you to:

• Establish the credentials of your sources
• Display your depth of reading and understanding of the field
• Position your own work in relation to other scholars
• Avoid plagiarism

A signal phrase is a group of words that ascribes a quote or idea to an outside source.

Signal phrases distinguish the cited idea or argument from your own writing and introduce important information including the source of the material that you are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . For example:

“ Cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) insists that humans possess an innate faculty for comprehending grammar.”

If you’re quoting from a text that paraphrases or summarizes other sources and cites them in parentheses , APA and Chicago both recommend retaining the citations as part of the quote. However, MLA recommends omitting citations within a quote:

• APA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic (Jones, 2015; Sill, 2019; Paulson, 2020) shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).
• MLA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).

Footnote or endnote numbers that appear within quoted text should be omitted in all styles.

If you want to cite an indirect source (one you’ve only seen quoted in another source), either locate the original source or use the phrase “as cited in” in your citation.

In scientific subjects, the information itself is more important than how it was expressed, so quoting should generally be kept to a minimum. In the arts and humanities, however, well-chosen quotes are often essential to a good paper.

In social sciences, it varies. If your research is mainly quantitative , you won’t include many quotes, but if it’s more qualitative , you may need to quote from the data you collected .

As a general guideline, quotes should take up no more than 5–10% of your paper. If in doubt, check with your instructor or supervisor how much quoting is appropriate in your field.

To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

• Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
• You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
• You’re presenting a precise definition
• You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

• Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
• Combining information from multiple sentences into one
• Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
• Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

“ Et al. ” is an abbreviation of the Latin term “et alia,” which means “and others.” It’s used in source citations to save space when there are too many authors to name them all.

Guidelines for using “et al.” differ depending on the citation style you’re following:

To insert endnotes in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below:

• Click on the spot in the text where you want the endnote to show up.
• In the “References” tab at the top, select “Insert Endnote.”
• Type whatever text you want into the endnote.

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

• Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
• In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
• Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:

• Citations (e.g., in Chicago notes and bibliography )
• Additional information that would disrupt the flow of the main text

Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.

If you are reusing content or data you used in a previous assignment, make sure to cite yourself. You can cite yourself just as you would cite any other source: simply follow the directions for that source type in the citation style you are using.

Keep in mind that reusing your previous work can be considered self-plagiarism , so make sure you ask your professor or consult your university’s handbook before doing so.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Peer review is a process of evaluating submissions to an academic journal. Utilizing rigorous criteria, a panel of reviewers in the same subject area decide whether to accept each submission for publication. For this reason, academic journals are often considered among the most credible sources you can use in a research project– provided that the journal itself is trustworthy and well-regarded.

Academic dishonesty can be intentional or unintentional, ranging from something as simple as claiming to have read something you didn’t to copying your neighbor’s answers on an exam.

You can commit academic dishonesty with the best of intentions, such as helping a friend cheat on a paper. Severe academic dishonesty can include buying a pre-written essay or the answers to a multiple-choice test, or falsifying a medical emergency to avoid taking a final exam.

Academic dishonesty refers to deceitful or misleading behavior in an academic setting. Academic dishonesty can occur intentionally or unintentionally, and varies in severity.

It can encompass paying for a pre-written essay, cheating on an exam, or committing plagiarism . It can also include helping others cheat, copying a friend’s homework answers, or even pretending to be sick to miss an exam.

Academic dishonesty doesn’t just occur in a classroom setting, but also in research and other academic-adjacent fields.

To apply a hanging indent to your reference list or Works Cited list in Word or Google Docs, follow the steps below.

Microsoft Word:

• Highlight the whole list and right click to open the Paragraph options.
• Under Indentation > Special , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.
• Set the indent to 0.5 inches or 1.27cm.

Google Docs:

• Highlight the whole list and click on Format >  Align and indent >  Indentation options .
• Under  Special indent , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.

When the hanging indent is applied, for each reference, every line except the first is indented. This helps the reader see where one entry ends and the next begins.

The main elements included in a newspaper interview citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the names of the interviewer and interviewee, the interview title, the publication date, the name of the newspaper, and a URL (for online sources).

The information is presented differently in different citation styles. One key difference is that APA advises listing the interviewer in the author position, while MLA and Chicago advise listing the interviewee first.

The elements included in a newspaper article citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author name, the article title, the publication date, the newspaper name, and the URL if the article was accessed online .

In APA and MLA, the page numbers of the article appear in place of the URL if the article was accessed in print. No page numbers are used in Chicago newspaper citations.

Untitled sources (e.g. some images ) are usually cited using a short descriptive text in place of the title. In APA Style , this description appears in brackets: [Chair of stained oak]. In MLA and Chicago styles, no brackets are used: Chair of stained oak.

For social media posts, which are usually untitled, quote the initial words of the post in place of the title: the first 160 characters in Chicago , or the first 20 words in APA . E.g. Biden, J. [@JoeBiden]. “The American Rescue Plan means a $7,000 check for a single mom of four. It means more support to safely.”

MLA recommends quoting the full post for something short like a tweet, and just describing the post if it’s longer.

The main elements included in image citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the image’s creator, the image title, the year (or more precise date) of publication, and details of the container in which the image was found (e.g. a museum, book , website ).

In APA and Chicago style, it’s standard to also include a description of the image’s format (e.g. “Photograph” or “Oil on canvas”). This sort of information may be included in MLA too, but is not mandatory.

The main elements included in a lecture citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the speaker, the lecture title, the date it took place, the course or event it was part of, and the institution it took place at.

For transcripts or recordings of lectures/speeches, other details like the URL, the name of the book or website , and the length of the recording may be included instead of information about the event and institution.

The main elements included in a YouTube video citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the author/uploader, the title of the video, the publication date, and the URL.

The format in which this information appears is different for each style.

All styles also recommend using timestamps as a locator in the in-text citation or Chicago footnote .

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

The elements included in journal article citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article, the year of publication, the name of the journal, the volume and issue numbers, the page range of the article, and, when accessed online, the DOI or URL.

In MLA and Chicago style, you also include the specific month or season of publication alongside the year, when this information is available.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

The main elements included in all book citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the title, the year of publication, and the name of the publisher. A page number is also included in in-text citations to highlight the specific passage cited.

In Chicago style and in the 6th edition of APA Style , the location of the publisher is also included, e.g. London: Penguin.

A block quote is a long quote formatted as a separate “block” of text. Instead of using quotation marks , you place the quote on a new line, and indent the entire quote to mark it apart from your own words.

The rules for when to apply block quote formatting depend on the citation style:

• APA block quotes are 40 words or longer.
• MLA block quotes are more than 4 lines of prose or 3 lines of poetry.
• Chicago block quotes are longer than 100 words.

In academic writing , there are three main situations where quoting is the best choice:

• To analyze the author’s language (e.g., in a literary analysis essay )
• To give evidence from primary sources
• To accurately present a precise definition or argument

Don’t overuse quotes; your own voice should be dominant. If you just want to provide information from a source, it’s usually better to paraphrase or summarize .

Every time you quote a source , you must include a correctly formatted in-text citation . This looks slightly different depending on the citation style .

For example, a direct quote in APA is cited like this: “This is a quote” (Streefkerk, 2020, p. 5).

Every in-text citation should also correspond to a full reference at the end of your paper.

A quote is an exact copy of someone else’s words, usually enclosed in quotation marks and credited to the original author or speaker.

The DOI is usually clearly visible when you open a journal article on an academic database. It is often listed near the publication date, and includes “doi.org” or “DOI:”. If the database has a “cite this article” button, this should also produce a citation with the DOI included.

If you can’t find the DOI, you can search on Crossref using information like the author, the article title, and the journal name.

A DOI is a unique identifier for a digital document. DOIs are important in academic citation because they are more permanent than URLs, ensuring that your reader can reliably locate the source.

Journal articles and ebooks can often be found on multiple different websites and databases. The URL of the page where an article is hosted can be changed or removed over time, but a DOI is linked to the specific document and never changes.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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Preserving patient stories: bioethical and legal implications related to the shift from traditional to digital anamnesis.

1. Introduction

2. the traditional anamnesis: rationale and critical aspects.

• Family history: The current and past state of health of surviving relatives is investigated, as well as the causes of death of deceased relatives;
• Personal history: Its aim is to find out the patient’s general characteristics and lifestyle habits, namely weight and height, dietary regime, alcohol and drug consumption, smoking habits, sporting activity, sexual habits, drugs and supplements taken, any allergies or intolerances to drugs, foods or environmental substances, regularity of bowel and urinary function, current and previous employment, childbirth patterns, psychomotor development in childhood, compulsory military service (for males), any pregnancies (for females);
• Past history: The patient’s entire medical history is investigated, from birth to the time of the anamnesis. In particular, all illnesses, surgeries, and traumas suffered by the patient must be investigated;
• History of presenting symptoms: The reason why the patient came to the attention of the doctor is investigated specifically and in a high degree of detail. It is important at this stage to gather information about any similar incidents in the past and to have the patient explain how he or she managed the onset of symptoms before seeking medical attention, and with what results;
• Current status: The symptoms and signs presented by the patient at the time of the anamnestic investigation are thoroughly investigated.
• Psychiatric and mental health history: Information on stress, anxiety, depression, mood disorders, and other aspects of mental health;
• Sexual history: Questions related to sexual and reproductive health, safe sex practices, presence of STIs (sexually transmitted infections), etc.;
• In-depth family history: Specific information on inherited diseases, recurring conditions in the family, or causes of death of close relatives;
• Detailed social history: Questions about profession, working environment, substance use (alcohol, tobacco, recreational drugs), living conditions, and social support;
• Complete pharmacological history: Including the use of over-the-counter drugs, food supplements, herbal medicines, and the patient’s adherence to the prescribed regimen.

3. The Digital Anamnesis: History, Potential and Critical Issues

4. bioethical and medico-legal profiles, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Gibelli, F.; Bailo, P.; Pesel, G.; Ricci, G. Preserving Patient Stories: Bioethical and Legal Implications Related to the Shift from Traditional to Digital Anamnesis. Clin. Pract. 2024 , 14 , 1196-1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract14040095

Gibelli F, Bailo P, Pesel G, Ricci G. Preserving Patient Stories: Bioethical and Legal Implications Related to the Shift from Traditional to Digital Anamnesis. Clinics and Practice . 2024; 14(4):1196-1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract14040095

Gibelli, Filippo, Paolo Bailo, Giuliano Pesel, and Giovanna Ricci. 2024. "Preserving Patient Stories: Bioethical and Legal Implications Related to the Shift from Traditional to Digital Anamnesis" Clinics and Practice 14, no. 4: 1196-1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract14040095

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