developing critical thinking through student engagement technique

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A framework for increasing critical thinking, student engagement, and knowledge construction in online discussions.

By Laurie Berry July 15, 2022

Posted in: Faculty / Instructional Design / News / Teaching Online / Tips

July 15, 2022

Many faculty at UW Extended Campus use discussion strategies to engage their students and push them into higher levels of learning. From research, we know such strategies are necessary because most discussions do not naturally lead to higher levels of thinking (Darabi et al., 2011). Many instructors we have talked to have noticed this problem in their own courses—discussions can often feel like busywork or small talk. To achieve deeper discussions that show evidence of critical thinking and promote student engagement, research shows that your best bet is to provide the structure to make that happen (Brokensha & Greyling, 2015; Jarosewich et al., 2010). How do you create that structure? The Framework for Student Engagement and Critical Thinking can be used to provide the structure and support that will guide students into a deeper and more meaningful discussion and engage not only with the content but also with their peers. This five-component framework, developed out of research performed by Laurie Berry and Kristin Kowal (Berry & Kowal, 2022), can be used as a guide to help you add more dimension to your discussions.

Framework Component 1: Detailed Instructions and Clear Expectations

What is it.

Just like we can set up someone for success on a cross-country road trip with a good map, we can set up students for success with detailed instructions and clear expectations on how to approach the discussion. Research shows that when clear guidelines are in place, students can reach higher levels of learning (Gao et al., 2009). As instructional designers, we might see a discussion prompt where the instructions are clear enough so students will know what to do and where. However, the part worth pointing out is that the instructions and expectations can go further than one might think. For example, we can enhance a prompt that asks students to participate in the activity (post, reply, and how often) with information about why we are doing it (purpose statement) and specifics of how to be successful in the post. It’s not that most of the instructions are unclear to begin with, but that it’s useful to add a little more direction and detail to start off with since we’re in an asynchronous environment and have limited time. Back to the map metaphor, it’s the difference between a general map that would serve the purpose well for meandering or spontaneity, versus a map with identified tour stops pointed out for someone that has limited time or specific travel goals. The aim is to get students to show evidence that they are thinking more critically. Therefore, adding a purpose statement and criteria for success encourages students to push further and move beyond superficial discussion. An example of how you might include this is shown below.

Below is what clear and detailed instructions might look like in a course:

Framework Component 2: Share Thought Process

The next framework component invites students to share their thought processes in their posts. This is comparable to the think-aloud process, which you might already be using in your courses, or to showing your work, like when solving a math problem. Urging students to share their thought processes of how or why they might have arrived at the answer or conclusion can uncover more detail and depth, which, in turn, can create more opportunities for meaningful discussion. The following is an example of language you can include in your instructions: “Show evidence of critical thinking by sharing your thought process in doing the activity for all to see.” This framework component encourages students to share their thought process from the start.

An effective way to illustrate this would be to apply it to subject domains. For example, students discussing a programming problem on the discussion board would not only provide solutions, but also why they proposed their answer; students working on a case study in a management course would be prompted to share not only their opinions or solutions but how they arrived there. We are asking students to make their thinking visible, not just their solutions.

Framework Component 3: Prompt Discussion with Questions

The third framework component asks students to pose questions to invite more discussion with their peers. Asking students to probe deeper and include questions or share reflections in their posts can uncover areas that they may be struggling with or thinking about. Include language like the following in your instructions: “Ask questions of others in your post or reflect on something you may be struggling with or thinking about.”

By directing students to do this, you will invite others to easily join in the conversation and allow students to engage with both the content and each other. Using this technique, you may even notice the discussion includes elements of problem-solving and critical thinking, which are strong indicators of the students digging deeper into a topic. It can be rare to see students asking questions in their posts. However, when students post questions, it opens the door for others to easily join in the discussion.

Students discussing optimal health and wellbeing might pose questions such as, “How can I best design a wellness program to ensure others will have the time and energy to use it?,” “How does technology impact an individual’s health and wellness?,” or, “Why does the environment play a role in one’s overall wellbeing?” Prompting students to pose questions to their peers not only invites conversation but enables the opportunity to share solutions.

Framework Component 4: Weave Evidence into Post

You may have noticed this, but often when students are directed to use sources within a discussion, they merely post a link at the bottom of their post without referencing or citing it in the body of the discussion. This framework component instructs students to weave evidence or sources into the body of the discussion to allow you and others to quickly identify where or how they learned the information rather than assuming the information is tied to something they may have read. While you want to encourage students to form their own thoughts and opinions, you also want them to be able to support their thinking with evidence. To urge students to cite their source of information within their discussion itself, include language in your instructions such as: “Post an opinion or solution from your point of view and weave in your found evidence to support it.” or “Remember to reference the resources used to provide the evidence.”

Students discussing individuals whom they think portray leadership or powerful influencer characteristics would state their personal claims while weaving in trusted sources to support and justify their thinking. An example post might be, “Oprah Winfrey comes to mind when I think of powerful influencers because according to Evans (2016), she exhibits the following characteristics…” While we are asking students to share their personal thoughts and opinions, we are also asking them to identify and support their reasoning.

Framework Component 5: Reflection

It can be powerful to ask students to reflect on how they might have changed based on a learning experience. Adding a reflection component to your discussions can illuminate where construction of new knowledge has occurred. We recognize that including this component will take more time for students, but it is helpful for them to be able to synthesize not only their thoughts but also the thoughts and perspectives they gain from others. In a discussion post, you can include a reflection component with questions like these to uncover any kind of transformation that has happened during the activity: “Did you learn anything new? Did you change your mind about anything? How have you deepened or expanded your own thinking?”

Students discussing their personal sense of purpose and developing a strategy to help them achieve their goals might include statements such as: “I never thought of it this way, maybe I need to go in a different direction or involve myself in a new community.” or, “I never thought of myself being in this particular role, perhaps this is something I need to consider if I do want to pursue this in more depth.” Encouraging students to reflect on the activity could lead them to creating new connections to both the content and to themselves.

The process of digging deeper and constructing new knowledge commands a level of attention from students that signifies their engagement. Whenever students can interact with content in ways that allow them to construct new meaning, they form a deeper connection to the content itself and are able to interact more meaningfully with others (Brokensha & Greyling, 2015; Galikyan & Admiraal, 2019; Jarosewich et al., 2010; Wang & Chen, 2008).

Download a PDF handout of the Framework for Student Engagement and Critical Thinking to use as a resource.

Berry, L. A., & Kowal, K. B. (2022). Effect of role-play in online discussions on student engagement and critical thinking. Online Learning, 26 (3), 4-21.

Brokensha, S., & Greyling, W. (2015). Dispelling e-myths and pre-empting disappointment: Exploring incongruities between instructors’ intentions and reality in asynchronous online discussions. South African Journal of Higher Education, 29 (4), 50–76.

Darabi, A., Arrastia, M. C., Nelson, D. W., Cornille, T., & Liang, X. (2011). Cognitive presence in asynchronous online learning: A comparison of four discussion strategies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27, 216–227.

Galikyan, I., & Admiraal, W. (2019). Students’ engagement in asynchronous online discussion: The relationship between cognitive presence, learner prominence, and academic performance. The Internet and Higher Education, 43, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100692

Gao, F., Wang, C. X., & Sun, Y. (2009). A new model of productive online discussion and its implications for research and instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 21 (1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.18785/jetde.0201.05

Jarosewich, T., Vargo, L., Salzman, J., Lenhart, L., Krosnick, L., Vance, K., & Roskos, K. (2010). Say what? The quality of discussion board postings in online professional development. New Horizons in Education, 58 (3), 118–132.

Wang, Y.-m., & Chen, V. D.-T. (2008). Essential elements in designing online discussions to promote cognitive presence – A practical experience. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 12 (3-4), 157–177.

About Laurie Berry

Hello! I’m Laurie Berry and I am an instructional designer at UW Extended Campus. I enjoy collaborating with faculty across the UW System to design and develop course content to ensure that all students are able to access and engage in learning experiences.

Outside of work I enjoy hiking, biking, and traveling.

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How to Lead Students to Engage in Higher Order Thinking

Asking students a series of essential questions at the start of a course signals that deep engagement is a requirement.

I teach multigrade, theme-based courses like Spirituality in Literature and The Natural World in Literature to high school sophomores, juniors, and seniors. And like most English language arts teachers, I’ve taught courses built around the organizing principles of genre (Introduction to Drama), time period and geography (American Literature From 1950), and even assessment instrument (A.P. Literature).

No matter what conceptual framework guides the course I’m teaching, though, I begin and anchor it with what I call a thinking inventory.

Thinking Inventories and Essential Questions

Essential questions—a staple of project-based learning—call on students’ higher order thinking and connect their lived experience with important texts and ideas. A thinking inventory is a carefully curated set of about 10 essential questions of various types, and completing one the first thing I ask students to do in every course I teach.

Although a thinking inventory is made up of questions, it’s more than a questionnaire. When we say we’re “taking inventory”—whether we’re in a warehouse or a relationship—we mean we’re taking stock of where things stand at a given moment in time, with the understanding that those things are fluid and provisional. With a thinking inventory, we’re taking stock of students’ thinking, experiences, and sense-making at the beginning of the course.

A well-designed thinking inventory formalizes the essential questions of any course and serves as a touchpoint for both teacher and students throughout that course. For a teacher, writing a course’s thinking inventory can help separate the essential from the nonessential when planning. And starting your class with a thinking inventory signals to students that higher order thinking is both required and valued.

How to Design an Effective Thinking Inventory

I tell students the thinking inventory is a document we’ll be living with—revisiting and referring to often—and that they should spend time mulling their answers before writing them down. The inventory should include a variety of essential questions, including ones that invite students to share relevant experiences.

I may ask students about their current knowledge base or life experience (What’s the best example of empathy you’ve ever witnessed?). I may ask them to make predictions or imagine scenarios (How will an American Literature course in 100 years look different from today’s American Literature course?). Or I may ask perennial questions (To what extent is it possible for human beings to change fundamentally?).

Here are a few of the questions I asked students to address at the start of a course called The Outsider in Literature:

• Who is the most visionary person you know? How do you know they’re visionary? Is there anything about them you want to emulate? Anything about them that frightens you?
• What are the risks of rebelling? Of not rebelling?  Explain.
• What would happen if there were no outsiders? How would the world, and your world, be different?
• Do you think there are any ongoing conflicts between groups that are intractable—that will likely never be resolved? What is the root of the intractability? What would need to happen in order to resolve the conflict? Be specific.
• Who is the most deviant, threatening outsider you can think of? Tell us what makes them threatening.
• To what extent do you think that teenagers, as a group, are (by definition) outsiders?

How I Use Thinking Inventories

On the first day of class, I give students the inventory for homework. Because I expect well-thought-out answers and generative thinking, I assign it in chunks over two nights, and we spend at least the second and third class meetings discussing their answers.

Throughout the course, I use the inventory both implicitly and explicitly. I purposefully weave inventory questions into discussions and student writing prompts. More explicitly, I use inventory questions as a framework for pre- and post-reading activities, and as prompts for reading responses, formal writing, and journaling.

The inventory functions as a kind of time stamp that documents each student’s habits of mind, opinions, and ways of framing experience at the start of the year or semester. At the midpoint and at the end of the course, I have students return to their inventory, choose a question they’d now answer differently, and reflect on why and how their thinking has changed.

The Inventory as a Bridge Between Students and Content

By including a variety of essential questions (practical and experiential, conceptual and theoretical) and making a course’s aims explicit, the inventory invites all students into the conversation and the material from day one. It gives a deep thinker with slower processing speed or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, for example, time to orient themselves to the course’s core questions. Meanwhile, the inventory challenges students who see themselves as high achievers to respond authentically to thorny questions that have no right answers.

In addition, using a thinking inventory models how to ask good questions; gives introverts and anxious students an entry point because cold calling becomes warmer (I can ask, “What did you say on your inventory?”); and cultivates a community of learners connected by real, worthwhile inquiry and communal discourse.

Recently, a student reflecting on his inventory at the end of a course wrote that he was taken aback by how intolerant of “loser characters” he’d seemed just a few months prior on his inventory. He noted that he’d been through some upheaval since then. And he ended his paper with the observation that empathy—for people and characters—grows “when you know their backstory.”

• Faculty & Staff

Engaging students

Engaging students in the learning process increases their attention and focus and moves them to more critical thinking. Instructors who adopt a student-centered approach to instruction increase opportunities for student engagement, which then helps everyone more successfully achieve the course’s learning objectives.

Teaching the first day of class

A successful first day can set you down the path toward a successful quarter. Rather than just a time to review your syllabus, the first day is an opportunity to get to know your students, set the tone for the course, and establish expectations. Learn more about teaching the first day of class.

Helping students re-engage

The pandemic has atrophied many students’ engagement muscles. As a result, they may need a bit of “PT”  – not physical therapy, but pedagogical therapy to rebuild those muscles. Learn more about re-engaging students

Promoting engagement through active learning

Active learning is an instructional approach in which students actively participate in the learning process, as opposed to sitting quietly and listening. Common strategies include question-and-answer sessions, discussion, interactive lectures, quick writing assignments, and experiential learning. Learn more about active learning

Leading dynamic discussions

While “good” discussions can be a powerful tool for encouraging student learning, successful discussions rarely happen spontaneously. Preparing ahead of time will help you delineate a clear focus for the discussion and set well-defined parameters. Learn more about leading discussions

Responding to disruptions in the classroom

Passionate disagreement can become disrespectful. That’s when discussion sheds more heat than light, impairing the ability to make arguments based on fact or to listen past preconceptions. Learn more about responding to disruptions

ChatGPT and other AI-based tools

The strategies on this page can help instructors think about how to communicate with students, set expectations, and develop assignments that increase students’ motivation to develop their own skills and ideas. Learn more about ChatGPT and other AI-based tools.

Office hours

Office hours give students the opportunity to ask in-depth questions and to explore points of confusion or interest that cannot be fully addressed in class. We provide basic guidelines for planning, scheduling and holding office hours in-person and online. Learn more about holding office hours.

Particular types of engagement

While the above engagement strategies apply to all learning contexts, some types of engagement require particular strategies. These pages include engagement strategies for teaching problem-solving, leading quiz sections, and teaching in labs. Learn more about particular types of engagement

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25 Surefire Student Engagement Strategies To Boost Learning

Transform your learners from passive to passionate!

Tired of seeing students’ glazed-over eyes? Is it getting harder to motivate your students to complete classroom tasks? Well, I’m here to help get that excited light back into your students’ eyes and get them eager for that next lesson. These 25 student engagement strategies—which work across all subjects—will transform your classroom from textbook-bored to animated and electrically pulsed. Read and discover how to turn passive learners into interested readers, history buffs, math whizzes, and science enthusiasts!

General Student Engagement Strategies

Math student engagement strategies, ela student engagement strategies, science student engagement strategies, history and social studies student engagement strategies.

These strategies work well for all subjects.

1. Bring in the experts

Livestreaming can shake up the atmosphere of the classroom. Imagine a renowned scientist explaining a concept or an expert chronicler bringing history to life, all in real-time.

No matter if it’s a guest lecturer across town or an expert from another school, live video adds a dynamic layer to learning. Students get exposed to fresh perspectives, ask questions in real time, and experience a modern twist on the traditional lesson.

Just add your guest to your preferred platform, like Zoom or Microsoft Teams, and get ready for a class full of engaged and curious students.

2. Collaboration makes the dream work

Students crave connection. Why have them work alone when they can do that at home? Use class time as an opportunity for constructive social interaction. This shift from solo to social learning is what truly engages students—the chance to learn alongside their peers, building knowledge and relationships together.

And there are tons of tools to support this. Google Docs, Padlet , Flip , and MindMeister are just a few that allow students to work on projects together, refining ideas through shared experiences and communication.

Learn more:  Fun Ways To Help Your Students Collaborate in the Classroom

3. Use game-based learning

Inject some serious fun into your classroom. Game-based learning platforms make wonderful student engagement strategies. Research has shown the effectiveness of how challenging subjects can become exciting with these interactive tools. They promote interests, up the level of knowledge retention, and personalize students’ individual needs.

Platforms like Baamboozle , Quizizz , and Gametize up student engagement. There is also  Prodigy Education , which offers a winning combination for both students and teachers.

FYI, you don’t always need technology to incorporate learning games into your lesson. There are many game ideas out there that can be prepared in minutes.

Learn more: Improv Games for Any Content Area (Except Possibly Math)

4. Provide open-ended projects

When it’s project time, ignite students’ passion by offering a menu of open-ended options. It allows students to participate in their own learning process by giving them choices as well as alternative ways to express what they know about the subject. This caters to diverse learning styles and lets students showcase their knowledge in unique ways.

Imagine students:

• Designing eye-catching websites
• Crafting engaging e-books
• Expressing themselves through original artwork
• Composing catchy tunes
• Building multimedia masterpieces

The best part? Students can use readily available software on classroom devices, allowing you to dedicate class time to project work while empowering students with control over how they use technology.

Learn more:  How I Make Open-Ended Assignments Really Work in My Middle School Classroom

5. Connect the lesson to real-life examples

Learning shouldn’t exist in a bubble! Students need connections between what they learn and the world around them. Real-life examples are powerful tools for making subjects clearer, more relatable, and easier to grasp.

A few examples to use in class could be: Use a picture showing how streets on a map represent parallel lines and transversals in geometry. Analyze metaphors and similes in song lyrics, poems, or advertisements in students’ daily encounters with the written word. Science is connected to life when you discuss the force of gravity using falling apples or jumping activities. Give them a taste of history when you discuss food rationing during World War II by having students create a weekly food plan based on limited resources.

6. Be the subject’s superfan

Let’s face it, we all learn better from those who are fired up. It’s contagious when someone talks excitedly about a topic they love. The same goes for teachers.

Your enthusiasm is a magic ingredient for student engagement. The more energy and passion you show, the more students will be drawn in and interested in the material.

Of course, authenticity matters—students can spot a fake smile a mile away. The key is to find ways to convey your genuine interest. If you like it, they may understand why the topic is not as bad as they thought it was. Students may even find that they like aspects of the topic too.

Learn more:  Ways To Incorporate Your Own Interests and Passions Into Your Lessons

These ideas make math more engaging, but they can often be used in other subjects as well.

7. Encourage student feedback

Have key feedback that helps you fine-tune your lessons. By prioritizing student input, you create a learning environment where students feel heard. You’ll also gain crucial information to keep your lessons fresh, engaging, and perfectly aligned with students’ needs. So ditch the guesswork, listen to your students, and watch your lessons transform!

You can make it techy too. Create engaging surveys and polls using tools like Socrative , Google Forms , SurveyMonkey , or Poll Everywhere in minutes. 

Plus, having students create their own feedback forms might be a good idea for incorporating students’ interest in the class. Having students ask their fellow classmates about their opinions can develop social skills and class bonding.

Learn more:  Exit Ticket Ideas and Examples for Immediate Feedback

8. Add daily starters

One of the best student engagement strategies to start a math class is daily starters, aka warmers.

These quick brain-teasing activities are perfect for:

• Kicking off the day: Get students energized and focused for learning.
• Shifting gears: Transition smoothly between activities or topics.
• Warming up brains: Prepare students for math challenges with a quick mental workout that wakes up their prior knowledge and prepares them for the material to come.

Learn more:  These 15-Minute Learning Games Are Perfect Class Warm-Ups or “May Dos”

9. Get students up and moving

Try getting students out of their seats with “4 Corners.” This can be used with two to four areas of the classroom. Have each corner labeled odds and evens, for example, then shout out a mental calculation and watch them run to the right solution. Once they get the idea of the game, ignite more excitement by adding an elimination to each subsequent round where the last student(s) to arrive at the answer have to sit down. The last student standing gets a prize. 

10. Make a game out of checking their own work

This activity boosts independence by having students check their own work. It encourages finding errors with your team and sharpens addition skills.

How to set it up:

• Students work on three or four problems with a central target number.
• Students add all solutions to match the target number. If it doesn’t match, they work in teams to find and fix the mistakes. 

Learn more: Add ’Em Up and Count It All Joy

11. Graphs can be fun too

Let’s look back at the appeal of real-life examples. Realistically, graphs and tables are common in everyday life. Not only is learning about them practical for students’ lives, learning how to turn data into elements of math empowers students too. 

One great interactive graphing tool is Nearpod’s Draw It . This online assessment makes learning and analyzing graphs interactive and engaging, boosting student understanding and confidence. 

Boost your students’ interest in ELA with these ideas that can often be adapted for other subjects.

12. Show them two articles on one topic

Turn students into critical thinkers by analyzing two contrasting news articles on the same issue. This strategy sparks critical thinking through students actively comparing and contrasting the articles, dissecting persuasive techniques, and forming their own opinions.

They’re not just reading, they’re constructing their own understanding of the topic by weighing evidence and identifying bias. This can also work in pointing out the sometimes distorted information found in search engine results.

13. Encourage creativity with tech

Have students actively create something new rather than just consuming information. Get them thinking of topics with colors and images that will grab attention. Several tech tools can help, like PosterMyWall , Canva , or Picmaker .

Learn more: Inspire Your Kids’ Creativity With These Online Art Resources

14. Take note-taking to another level

Tired of traditional note-taking? Use Bounce to transform any web page into an interactive whiteboard. Students can directly annotate, comment, and edit the content, fostering collaboration and critical thinking. It’s perfect for one-to-one device classrooms or group activities. Compare edits and see who can best “improve” the page. This engaging approach takes note-taking strategies to the next level!

15. Explore the creative outlet of blogging

Motivate students to use their voices by integrating writing with technology. Platforms like WordPress offer free templates and privacy settings to create student blogs. Let them showcase their talents with:

• Poems and short essays
• Historical figure diaries
• Fictional character perspectives

Students can engage in online conversation by commenting on one another’s thoughts and perspectives.

16. Encourage student-guided discussion

Student engagement strategies like discussion-question contests are very effective critical-thinking activities. Move learners beyond memorization by making thought-provoking discussion questions that require analysis, justification, and even personal connections that foster debate and a deeper understanding of the reading task. 

To make this more effective, provide question starters and examples for students to create their own questions based on reading sections. Then, sit back and experience their delightful minds working.

These strategies work especially well for science, but you can try them in other subjects too.

17. Establish learning stations

Transforming your classroom with this engaging strategy delivers diverse content and caters to different learning styles. Students can rotate and collaborate at each station. The stations could be a build-up to a larger-outcome project or steps to understanding a complex problem.

Whether it is manipulatives, engaging media, or commuting formulas, learning stations empower students to take ownership of their learning—a win for everyone!

Learn more:  How Teachers Can Plan & Use Virtual “Stations” Online

18. Spark their passion with demonstrations

Seeing is believing! Hands-on demonstrations are a powerful way to spark student engagement. Focus on finding simple, effective demonstrations that illustrate key concepts. Become a classroom rock star with minimal materials.

Example demos:

• Stored energy
• Disappearing ink
• Saltwater conductivity
• Hanging compass
• Vanishing Styrofoam cups

19. Bring them the magic of cinema

I’m not suggesting watching a whole film to keep students’ attention—you can shorten it to a quick viewing through movie clips. They can be powerful student engagement strategies.

Use well-chosen clips to spark curiosity and reinforce science concepts during downtime or throughout lessons. Target specific concepts with engaging clips that ignite student interest and keep them science-focused.

Learn more: Great Movies for the Science Classroom

20. Give them a choice

Spark student excitement by offering choices in research and assignments. Let them own their learning by selecting topics or approaches that pique their curiosity. This sense of autonomy fuels engagement, transforming tasks from obligations to exciting opportunities for exploration.

Learn more:  The Big List of Science Fair Project Ideas, Resources, and More

Revive your students’ interest in history and social studies with these strategies that are adaptable to any topic.

21. Work technology into the team

Students don’t have to use technology alone. The “T” in teamwork can be for tech. Here are a couple of suggestions for using technology in history class:

• Huddle up for videos :  Gather students around a single device for clips, allowing them to pause, discuss, and rewind collaboratively. This fosters interaction and refines understanding.
• Project-based learning with tech: Empower students as “producers” of historical knowledge. Students can research, analyze media like movies and images, and present a Google Slideshow. Choices in topic and approach fuel engagement, transforming students from passive consumers to active learners eager to share their findings.

22. Make timelines interactive

Use interactive projects and technology to help students synthesize their historical knowledge through engaging projects.

• Interactive timelines: Students create personalized timelines, highlighting key events and sparking deeper understanding.
• Social media through history: Imagine students crafting mock social media posts or blogs from historical figures’ perspectives, bringing the past to life.
• Student-made documentaries: Take projects a step further with collaborative documentaries. Students gather research, visuals, and narration to tell stories that resonate with them.

These projects transform students from passive learners to active participants, fostering creativity and a personal connection to history. The results can be surprising—their creations will often exceed your expectations!

Learn more:  Activities & Websites To Teach Kids About Historical Timelines

23. Track the influence of technology

Our students are growing in a heavily tech-influenced world. Shouldn’t they know where the meat of it comes from? And how does it evolve in our world?

Challenge students to explore the historical impact of technology. Investigating how inventions influenced events in politics, society, or other areas can spark a deeper appreciation for the tech we use today. This could lead to great philosophical discussions on moral judgments in advancing technology. You can expand the discussion by exploring views seen in the works of sci-fi writers such as Isaac Asimov, Octavia Butler, and Anthony Burgess.

24. Transform lessons into stories

The power of storytelling is a great addition to student engagement strategies. Capture student attention by transforming history lessons into captivating stories.

Ditch the textbook grind! Embrace storytelling with visuals, audio, and emotional connections. Have President Lincoln address the class with his concerns for the Civil War before he gives his Emancipation Proclamation speech. Students will be mesmerized by a monologue from a person threatened by McCarthyism trials. With a touch of drama and background, historical figures become real people students can relate to, fostering engagement and deeper understanding.

25. Go on virtual field trips 

Limited by location? Take students on virtual adventures at minimal cost! You can transport students anywhere with virtual field trips.

• Google Cardboard (under $15) unlocks amazing experiences: Explore famous buildings, natural wonders, and more with immersive apps.
• Connect learning objectives: Simulate conversations in a foreign language at a landmark or study an area’s geography.
• Preview real-world trips with Google Earth: “Fly over” destinations beforehand, sparking excitement and helping students plan their visit.
• Supplement previews with online resources: Websites often offer videos and images to enhance pre-trip learning.

Virtual field trips add a captivating layer to your lessons, engaging students and igniting curiosity.

Learn more:  Amazing Educational Virtual Field Trips

Did you find these student engagement strategies useful? Be sure to  subscribe to our newsletters for more informative articles.

Plus, if you like these student engagement strategies, check out our essential math strategies..

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Classroom Q&A

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In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Integrating Critical Thinking Into the Classroom

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(This is the second post in a three-part series. You can see Part One here .)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

Part One ‘s guests were Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Today, Dr. Kulvarn Atwal, Elena Quagliarello, Dr. Donna Wilson, and Diane Dahl share their recommendations.

‘Learning Conversations’

Dr. Kulvarn Atwal is currently the executive head teacher of two large primary schools in the London borough of Redbridge. Dr. Atwal is the author of The Thinking School: Developing a Dynamic Learning Community , published by John Catt Educational. Follow him on Twitter @Thinkingschool2 :

In many classrooms I visit, students’ primary focus is on what they are expected to do and how it will be measured. It seems that we are becoming successful at producing students who are able to jump through hoops and pass tests. But are we producing children that are positive about teaching and learning and can think critically and creatively? Consider your classroom environment and the extent to which you employ strategies that develop students’ critical-thinking skills and their self-esteem as learners.

Development of self-esteem

One of the most significant factors that impacts students’ engagement and achievement in learning in your classroom is their self-esteem. In this context, self-esteem can be viewed to be the difference between how they perceive themselves as a learner (perceived self) and what they consider to be the ideal learner (ideal self). This ideal self may reflect the child that is associated or seen to be the smartest in the class. Your aim must be to raise students’ self-esteem. To do this, you have to demonstrate that effort, not ability, leads to success. Your language and interactions in the classroom, therefore, have to be aspirational—that if children persist with something, they will achieve.

Use of evaluative praise

Ensure that when you are praising students, you are making explicit links to a child’s critical thinking and/or development. This will enable them to build their understanding of what factors are supporting them in their learning. For example, often when we give feedback to students, we may simply say, “Well done” or “Good answer.” However, are the students actually aware of what they did well or what was good about their answer? Make sure you make explicit what the student has done well and where that links to prior learning. How do you value students’ critical thinking—do you praise their thinking and demonstrate how it helps them improve their learning?

Learning conversations to encourage deeper thinking

We often feel as teachers that we have to provide feedback to every students’ response, but this can limit children’s thinking. Encourage students in your class to engage in learning conversations with each other. Give as many opportunities as possible to students to build on the responses of others. Facilitate chains of dialogue by inviting students to give feedback to each other. The teacher’s role is, therefore, to facilitate this dialogue and select each individual student to give feedback to others. It may also mean that you do not always need to respond at all to a student’s answer.

Teacher modelling own thinking

We cannot expect students to develop critical-thinking skills if we aren’t modeling those thinking skills for them. Share your creativity, imagination, and thinking skills with the students and you will nurture creative, imaginative critical thinkers. Model the language you want students to learn and think about. Share what you feel about the learning activities your students are participating in as well as the thinking you are engaging in. Your own thinking and learning will add to the discussions in the classroom and encourage students to share their own thinking.

Metacognitive questioning

Consider the extent to which your questioning encourages students to think about their thinking, and therefore, learn about learning! Through asking metacognitive questions, you will enable your students to have a better understanding of the learning process, as well as their own self-reflections as learners. Example questions may include:

• Why did you choose to do it that way?
• When you find something tricky, what helps you?
• How do you know when you have really learned something?

‘Adventures of Discovery’

Elena Quagliarello is the senior editor of education for Scholastic News , a current events magazine for students in grades 3–6. She graduated from Rutgers University, where she studied English and earned her master’s degree in elementary education. She is a certified K–12 teacher and previously taught middle school English/language arts for five years:

Critical thinking blasts through the surface level of a topic. It reaches beyond the who and the what and launches students on a learning journey that ultimately unlocks a deeper level of understanding. Teaching students how to think critically helps them turn information into knowledge and knowledge into wisdom. In the classroom, critical thinking teaches students how to ask and answer the questions needed to read the world. Whether it’s a story, news article, photo, video, advertisement, or another form of media, students can use the following critical-thinking strategies to dig beyond the surface and uncover a wealth of knowledge.

A Layered Learning Approach

Begin by having students read a story, article, or analyze a piece of media. Then have them excavate and explore its various layers of meaning. First, ask students to think about the literal meaning of what they just read. For example, if students read an article about the desegregation of public schools during the 1950s, they should be able to answer questions such as: Who was involved? What happened? Where did it happen? Which details are important? This is the first layer of critical thinking: reading comprehension. Do students understand the passage at its most basic level?

Ask the Tough Questions

The next layer delves deeper and starts to uncover the author’s purpose and craft. Teach students to ask the tough questions: What information is included? What or who is left out? How does word choice influence the reader? What perspective is represented? What values or people are marginalized? These questions force students to critically analyze the choices behind the final product. In today’s age of fast-paced, easily accessible information, it is essential to teach students how to critically examine the information they consume. The goal is to equip students with the mindset to ask these questions on their own.

Strike Gold

The deepest layer of critical thinking comes from having students take a step back to think about the big picture. This level of thinking is no longer focused on the text itself but rather its real-world implications. Students explore questions such as: Why does this matter? What lesson have I learned? How can this lesson be applied to other situations? Students truly engage in critical thinking when they are able to reflect on their thinking and apply their knowledge to a new situation. This step has the power to transform knowledge into wisdom.

Adventures of Discovery

There are vast ways to spark critical thinking in the classroom. Here are a few other ideas:

• Critical Expressionism: In this expanded response to reading from a critical stance, students are encouraged to respond through forms of artistic interpretations, dramatizations, singing, sketching, designing projects, or other multimodal responses. For example, students might read an article and then create a podcast about it or read a story and then act it out.
• Transmediations: This activity requires students to take an article or story and transform it into something new. For example, they might turn a news article into a cartoon or turn a story into a poem. Alternatively, students may rewrite a story by changing some of its elements, such as the setting or time period.
• Words Into Action: In this type of activity, students are encouraged to take action and bring about change. Students might read an article about endangered orangutans and the effects of habitat loss caused by deforestation and be inspired to check the labels on products for palm oil. They might then write a letter asking companies how they make sure the palm oil they use doesn’t hurt rain forests.
• Socratic Seminars: In this student-led discussion strategy, students pose thought-provoking questions to each other about a topic. They listen closely to each other’s comments and think critically about different perspectives.
• Classroom Debates: Aside from sparking a lively conversation, classroom debates naturally embed critical-thinking skills by asking students to formulate and support their own opinions and consider and respond to opposing viewpoints.

Critical thinking has the power to launch students on unforgettable learning experiences while helping them develop new habits of thought, reflection, and inquiry. Developing these skills prepares students to examine issues of power and promote transformative change in the world around them.

‘Quote Analysis’

Dr. Donna Wilson is a psychologist and the author of 20 books, including Developing Growth Mindsets , Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , and Five Big Ideas for Effective Teaching (2 nd Edition). She is an international speaker who has worked in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Europe, Jamaica, and throughout the U.S. and Canada. Dr. Wilson can be reached at [email protected] ; visit her website at www.brainsmart.org .

Diane Dahl has been a teacher for 13 years, having taught grades 2-4 throughout her career. Mrs. Dahl currently teaches 3rd and 4th grade GT-ELAR/SS in Lovejoy ISD in Fairview, Texas. Follow her on Twitter at @DahlD, and visit her website at www.fortheloveofteaching.net :

A growing body of research over the past several decades indicates that teaching students how to be better thinkers is a great way to support them to be more successful at school and beyond. In the book, Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains , Dr. Wilson shares research and many motivational strategies, activities, and lesson ideas that assist students to think at higher levels. Five key strategies from the book are as follows:

• Facilitate conversation about why it is important to think critically at school and in other contexts of life. Ideally, every student will have a contribution to make to the discussion over time.
• Begin teaching thinking skills early in the school year and as a daily part of class.
• As this instruction begins, introduce students to the concept of brain plasticity and how their brilliant brains change during thinking and learning. This can be highly motivational for students who do not yet believe they are good thinkers!
• Explicitly teach students how to use the thinking skills.
• Facilitate student understanding of how the thinking skills they are learning relate to their lives at school and in other contexts.

Below are two lessons that support critical thinking, which can be defined as the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Mrs. Dahl prepares her 3rd and 4th grade classes for a year of critical thinking using quote analysis .

During Native American studies, her 4 th grade analyzes a Tuscarora quote: “Man has responsibility, not power.” Since students already know how the Native Americans’ land had been stolen, it doesn’t take much for them to make the logical leaps. Critical-thought prompts take their thinking even deeper, especially at the beginning of the year when many need scaffolding. Some prompts include:

• … from the point of view of the Native Americans?
• … from the point of view of the settlers?
• How do you think your life might change over time as a result?
• Can you relate this quote to anything else in history?

Analyzing a topic from occupational points of view is an incredibly powerful critical-thinking tool. After learning about the Mexican-American War, Mrs. Dahl’s students worked in groups to choose an occupation with which to analyze the war. The chosen occupations were: anthropologist, mathematician, historian, archaeologist, cartographer, and economist. Then each individual within each group chose a different critical-thinking skill to focus on. Finally, they worked together to decide how their occupation would view the war using each skill.

For example, here is what each student in the economist group wrote:

• When U.S.A. invaded Mexico for land and won, Mexico ended up losing income from the settlements of Jose de Escandon. The U.S.A. thought that they were gaining possible tradable land, while Mexico thought that they were losing precious land and resources.
• Whenever Texas joined the states, their GDP skyrocketed. Then they went to war and spent money on supplies. When the war was resolving, Texas sold some of their land to New Mexico for $10 million. This allowed Texas to pay off their debt to the U.S., improving their relationship.
• A detail that converged into the Mexican-American War was that Mexico and the U.S. disagreed on the Texas border. With the resulting treaty, Texas ended up gaining more land and economic resources.
• Texas gained land from Mexico since both countries disagreed on borders. Texas sold land to New Mexico, which made Texas more economically structured and allowed them to pay off their debt.

This was the first time that students had ever used the occupations technique. Mrs. Dahl was astonished at how many times the kids used these critical skills in other areas moving forward.

Thanks to Dr. Auwal, Elena, Dr. Wilson, and Diane for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Strategies to Increase Critical Thinking Skills in students

Matthew Joseph October 2, 2019 Blog , Engage Better , Lesson Plan Better , Personalize Student Learning Better

In This Post:

• The importance of helping students increase critical thinking skills.
• Ways to promote the essential skills needed to analyze and evaluate.
• Strategies to incorporate critical thinking into your instruction.

We ask our teachers to be “future-ready” or say that we are teaching “for jobs that don’t exist yet.” These are powerful statements. At the same time, they give teachers the impression that we have to drastically change what we are doing .

So how do we plan education for an unknown job market or unknown needs?

My answer: We can’t predict the jobs, but whatever they are, students will need to think critically to do them. So, our job is to teach our students HOW to think, not WHAT to think.

Helping Students Become Critical Thinkers

My answer is rooted in the call to empower our students to be critical thinkers. I believe that to be critical thinkers, educators need to provide students with the strategies they need. And we need to ask more than just surface-level questions.

Questions to students must motivate them to dig up background knowledge. They should inspire them to make connections to real-world scenarios. These make the learning more memorable and meaningful.

Critical thinking is a general term. I believe this term means that students effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate content or skills. In this process, they (the students) will discover and present convincing reasons in support of their answers or thinking.

You can look up critical thinking and get many definitions like this one from Wikipedia: “ Critical thinking consists of a mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. ”

Essential Skills for Critical Thinking

In my current role as director of curriculum and instruction, I work to promote the use of 21st-century tools and, more importantly, thinking skills. Some essential skills that are the basis for critical thinking are:

• Communication and Information skills
• Thinking and Problem-Solving skills
• Interpersonal and Self- Directional skills
• Collaboration skills

These four bullets are skills students are going to need in any field and in all levels of education. Hence my answer to the question. We need to teach our students to think critically and for themselves.

One of the goals of education is to prepare students to learn through discovery . Providing opportunities to practice being critical thinkers will assist students in analyzing others’ thinking and examining the logic of others.

Understanding others is an essential skill in collaboration and in everyday life. Critical thinking will allow students to do more than just memorize knowledge.

Ask Questions

So how do we do this? One recommendation is for educators to work in-depth questioning strategies into a lesson launch.

Ask thoughtful questions to allow for answers with sound reasoning. Then, word conversations and communication to shape students’ thinking. Quick answers often result in very few words and no eye contact, which are skills we don’t want to promote.

When you are asking students questions and they provide a solution, try some of these to promote further thinking:

• Could you elaborate further on that point?
• Will you express that point in another way?
• Can you give me an illustration?
• Would you give me an example?
• Will you you provide more details?
• Could you be more specific?
• Do we need to consider another point of view?
• Is there another way to look at this question?

Utilizing critical thinking skills could be seen as a change in the paradigm of teaching and learning. Engagement in education will enhance the collaboration among teachers and students. It will also provide a way for students to succeed even if the school system had to start over.

[scroll down to keep reading]

Promoting critical thinking into all aspects of instruction.

Engagement, application, and collaboration are skills that withstand the test of time. I also promote the integration of critical thinking into every aspect of instruction.

In my experience, I’ve found a few ways to make this happen.

Begin lessons/units with a probing question: It shouldn’t be a question you can answer with a ‘yes’ or a ‘no.’ These questions should inspire discovery learning and problem-solving.

Encourage Creativity: I have seen teachers prepare projects before they give it to their students many times. For example, designing snowmen or other “creative” projects. By doing the design work or by cutting all the circles out beforehand, it removes creativity options.

It may help the classroom run more smoothly if every child’s material is already cut out, but then every student’s project looks the same. Students don’t have to think on their own or problem solve.

Not having everything “glue ready” in advance is a good thing. Instead, give students all the supplies needed to create a snowman, and let them do it on their own.

Giving independence will allow students to become critical thinkers because they will have to create their own product with the supplies you give them. This might be an elementary example, but it’s one we can relate to any grade level or project.

Try not to jump to help too fast – let the students work through a productive struggle .

Build in opportunities for students to find connections in learning.  Encouraging students to make connections to a real-life situation and identify patterns is a great way to practice their critical thinking skills. The use of real-world scenarios will increase rigor, relevance, and critical thinking.

A few other techniques to encourage critical thinking are:

• Use analogies
• Promote interaction among students
• Ask open-ended questions
• Allow reflection time
• Use real-life problems
• Allow for thinking practice

Critical thinking prepares students to think for themselves for the rest of their lives. I also believe critical thinkers are less likely to go along with the crowd because they think for themselves.

About Matthew X. Joseph, Ed.D.

Dr. Matthew X. Joseph has been a school and district leader in many capacities in public education over his 25 years in the field. Experiences such as the Director of Digital Learning and Innovation in Milford Public Schools (MA), elementary school principal in Natick, MA and Attleboro, MA, classroom teacher, and district professional development specialist have provided Matt incredible insights on how to best support teaching and learning. This experience has led to nationally publishing articles and opportunities to speak at multiple state and national events. He is the author of Power of Us: Creating Collaborative Schools and co-author of Modern Mentoring , Reimagining Teacher Mentorship (Due out, fall 2019). His master’s degree is in special education and his Ed.D. in Educational Leadership from Boston College.

Visit Matthew’s Blog

Developing critical thinking skills for students

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Summarized from Ambrose, et al. How Learning Works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. John Wiley & Sons, 2010

Specific definitions of critical thinking vary, but broad characteristics may include aspects of questioning, analysis, consideration of context, and weighing options. General strategies can help make thinking and processes more visible and offer students opportunities to develop, apply, and receive feedback on disciplinary thinking and problem-solving.

Help students become more aware of their thinking

The term metacognition generally refers to thinking about thinking and applies to one’s own management of one’s learning. As applied to learning and developing critical thinking skills, students benefit from becoming more aware of their thinking, writing, and studying processes. They can learn to assess tasks and their ability to perform them, develop an approach, monitor progress, and effectiveness, and change their approach as needed. Learning to be aware of thinking processes and strategies might not be formal objectives within a single course, but developing these skills can be helpful to students beyond a single course and across multiple disciplines. Ambrose, et al. (2010) list the following steps in a cycle of metacognitive processes. is cycle engages students in monitoring and controlling their learning, helping them become more and more self-directed.

• Assess the task at hand, taking into consideration the task’s goals and constraints.
• Evaluate their own knowledge and skills, identifying strengths and weaknesses.
• Plan their approach in a way that accounts for the current situation.
• Apply various strategies to enact their plan, monitoring their progress along the way.
• Reflect on the degree to which their current approach is working so that they can adjust and restart the cycle as needed. In addition, students’ beliefs about intelligence and learning, such as the malleability of intelligence and the ease or difficulty of learning, can influence their process in the cycle. For example, students who believe that intelligence can be developed with practice and hard work may be more willing to put time and effort into learning and are more likely to have the resilience to adjust to difficulties.

Specific strategies exist to guide students through each step in the cycle, including:

Model your process

Show students how you would approach a problem. How would you approach how to complete a complex task, breaking it down into subtasks? One example is to use a problem similar to an assignment and talk through what you would think about and how you would choose what information to act on through the steps of the process. In addition, a model for students on how you would evaluate the resulting product. A variation or second stage could be to provide students with questions they could ask themselves at various stages throughout the assignment.

Scaffold students in their process

Scaffolding refers to the process of instructors providing, and slowly removing, cognitive support to students as they are learning. For example, rather than assigning a complex, multiphase problem to novice students, instructors can break down problems into steps so students work on discrete phases in isolation. Domain experts have learned content and developed efficiencies in thinking processes that they would apply to an assigned task. These same experts, however, may have a blind spot when it comes to envisioning the understanding and workflows of students. If you find it challenging to break down a task into steps, some ideas include:

• Talking through decomposing the task. What are the steps, and what content and application skills would a person need in order to do each step?
• Discussing the task with others outside of your discipline, or who are less familiar with your course. How would they envision proceeding, what would they need and why?
• Consider searching for general descriptions of thinking skills or analysis processes related to your domain. Breaking down a problem allows students to pay attention to each step in the process, and provides opportunities for practice and feedback on each skill before combining them into a complete process. If diagnostic assessments indicate specific areas of weakness, assign problems isolating the gaps. After working on skills in isolation, it is equally important to give students practice and feedback in combining and synthesizing skills.

Another example of scaffolding involves progressively increasing students’ level of autonomy in working through tasks. Instructors may provide novice students with a high level of structure and direction in their working process. As students advance, they take on more responsibility for directing and monitoring their own working processes. In addition to supporting students in developing skills by breaking down the steps of a complex task, other strategies are suggested to help students integrate individual skills into a process, and apply processes to new problems. These strategies include:

• Be explicit about skill integration, expectations, and performance criteria.
• Discuss the applicability of skills to new problems and different contexts.
• Give students opportunities to apply skills in multiple contexts.
• Help students identify general principles related to specific skills.

Provide opportunities for practice and feedback

Goal-directed practice and feedback can work together to help students progress in their skill development. Ideally, practice allows students to engage their skills while working toward specific goals at an appropriate level of challenge. Practice is most effective when coordinated with feedback that evaluates performance on targeted criteria related to the goals and provides guidance on how students can improve. Ideally, students have a chance to improve their performance on the criteria through multiple opportunities to practice and incorporate the feedback received. Selected strategies

• If you can predict common mistakes or areas where students are weaker, consider developing optional remediation materials and direct students to review them as needed.
• Set expectations of student performance through the use of a rubric, or by showing examples of student work that meet the expectations (or both). Showing a model example can be more powerful when it is accompanied by an explanation of the features that lead it to be an exemplar.
• Provide students with multiple opportunities to practice, and receive feedback, at tasks of short length or a small scope.
• Consider group-level feedback or peer feedback to help manage your workload.

Summarized from Ambrose, et al. How Learning Works: Seven Research-based Principles for Smart Teaching. John Wiley & Sons, 2010. 

Strategies for Promoting Student Engagement in the Classroom

Explore 12 strategies to boost student engagement, fostering a positive, inclusive learning environment for effective education outcomes.

Student engagement is key to promoting effective learning outcomes and fostering a positive classroom environment. When students are actively engaged, they are more motivated, attentive, and invested in their education. Let’s look at some of the important strategies educators can employ to promote student engagement in the classroom, creating an atmosphere that nurtures curiosity, critical thinking, and active participation.

Tips to Promote Student Engagement

1. create an inclusive learning environment.

An inclusive learning environment is essential for fostering student engagement. Establish a classroom culture that values diversity, respects differing opinions, and encourages collaboration. Create a safe space where students feel comfortable expressing their thoughts and ideas without fear of judgment or ridicule.

2. Set Clear Learning Objectives and Expectations

Clearly communicate learning objectives and expectations to students. When students understand the purpose of their learning and what is expected of them, they are more likely to engage actively. Use language that is accessible and meaningful, and involve students in setting their own learning goals to enhance their sense of ownership and motivation.

3. Make Use of Active Learning Strategies

Incorporate active learning strategies that encourage students to participate actively in the learning process. Instead of relying solely on lectures, incorporate group discussions, debates, hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and multimedia resources. These strategies promote student interaction, critical thinking, and application of knowledge, leading to higher levels of engagement.

4. Try Integrating Technology

Integrate technology into the classroom to enhance student engagement in the classroom. Use educational apps, interactive presentations, multimedia resources, and online collaboration tools. Technology can provide opportunities for students to explore topics independently, engage with interactive content, and collaborate with peers beyond the confines of the physical classroom.

5. Experiment With Different Teaching Methods

Employ a variety of teaching methods to cater to different learning styles and preferences. Some students may thrive in visual environments, while others may prefer auditory or kinesthetic approaches. Incorporate visual aids, videos, hands-on activities, and interactive discussions to accommodate diverse learning needs and engage students across different modalities.

6. Provide Opportunities for Student Voice and Choice

Empower students by providing opportunities for their voice and choice in the classroom. Allow them to make decisions about certain aspects of their learning, such as selecting topics for projects or choosing from different assignment options. Students with a sense of ownership and autonomy are more likely to be engaged and invested in their learning.

7. Make a Positive Teacher-Student Relationship

Develop positive and supportive relationships with your students. Show genuine interest in their learning, offer constructive feedback, and provide encouragement. Build rapport through open communication, active listening, and demonstrating respect. When students feel valued and supported, they are more likely to engage actively and take risks in their learning.

8. Make Explanations with Real-World Connections

Help students see the relevance and application of what they are learning in real-world contexts. Connect lessons to current events, personal experiences, or practical examples. By demonstrating the practicality and value of their learning, students are more likely to engage and see the significance of their education beyond the classroom.

9. Use Formative Assessment and Feedback

Implement formative assessment strategies to gauge student understanding and provide timely feedback. Regularly assess student progress through quizzes, class discussions, group work, and projects. Offer constructive feedback that highlights strengths and areas for improvement, guiding students towards deeper learning and self-reflection.

10. Encourage Collaboration and Group Projects

Promote collaboration and group projects in the classroom. Assign group projects, facilitate peer feedback sessions, and encourage students to learn from and support one another. Collaborative activities foster engagement by allowing students to exchange ideas, learn from different perspectives, and develop crucial interpersonal and communication skills.

11. Personalize Learning Experiences

Recognize that each student is unique and has different learning needs. Differentiate instruction by providing opportunities for individualized learning experiences. Offer choices in assignments, provide additional resources for further exploration and support students who may need additional guidance. Personalized learning experiences help to keep students engaged and invested in their education.

12. Reflect and Adapt

Regularly reflect on your teaching practices and seek feedback from students. Adapt your strategies based on student engagement levels and their evolving needs. Continuous improvement ensures that you are responsive to student interests and actively working towards enhancing their engagement and learning outcomes.

Promoting student engagement in the classroom is a vital aspect of effective teaching. By creating a positive and inclusive learning environment, setting clear expectations, incorporating active learning strategies, utilizing technology, and providing opportunities for student voice and choice, educators can foster an engaging classroom experience. By adopting these strategies and continuously reflecting and adapting, educators can empower students to become active participants in their learning journey, cultivating a lifelong love for learning and preparing them for success in the future.

1. Is it hard for teachers to engage students in the classroom?

Engaging students in the classroom might be challenging but not a hard thing to do. With the help of proper strategies and active learning techniques, you can promote student engagement.

2. What is the use of technology in engaging students in the classroom?

In the era of technology, everyone is attracted to visual learning. So instead of using a traditional book learning system, teachers incorporate technology and start teaching their students with visual learning tactics for better engagement.

3. What is the role of student choice and autonomy in student engagement?

Providing the student with choices and autonomy empowers the student to take ownership of their learning. It provides them the opportunity to make changes in their engagement in the classroom by understanding aspects of their education.

4. What is the best way teachers can promote student engagement in online learning environments?

Promoting student engagement in online platforms is quite simple. All you have to do is create an interactive and multimedia-rich content environment while teaching online.

5. What is the role of assessment in promoting student engagement?

Assessments are key in promoting student engagement because they allow teachers to provide feedback and measure student progress. Feedback is the best thing that helps students to understand their strengths and area of improvement.

Isaac Abernathy

Shaping the future with compelling content that inspires curiosity and lifelong learning.

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Cultivating critical thinking: techniques for students' analytical skills.

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Enhancing students' critical thinking is a cornerstone of effective education. By implementing proven techniques, teachers can nurture analytical skills essential for success.

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Enhancing student engagement through emerging technology integration in STEAM learning environments

• Open access
• Published: 24 May 2024

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• Mirjana Maričić   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8447-7735 1 &
• Zsolt Lavicza   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3701-5068 2  

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Emerging technologies can potentially transform education through student engagement. The aim of our study is threefold. Firstly, we aspired to examine the validity and reliability of Reeve and Tsengs’ 4-construct (emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and agentic) engagement scale (EBCA scale). Secondly, we aimed to examine whether and to what extent the integration of emerging technology through virtual simulations (VS) in STEAM activities can improve students’ perceived engagement. Thirdly, we strived to examine how the order of integration of VS in STEAM activities affects students’ perceived engagement. A cross-over research design was used. 84 primary school students (9–10 years old) were assigned to one of the following conditions: STA (science + technology + art); SA (science + art); STA + SA; and SA + STA. The results showed that the 4-factor EBCA scale model is aligned and fits the overall sample well. It was also observed that the longer students are involved in STEAM activities, the better their perceived engagement is, and the more they work on VS, the more they develop the values of attentive listening, directing attention, and investing effort in learning. The order of integration of VS affects perceived engagement, and students who learn with them first perceive engagement better. One of the implications of our study is to examine the metric characteristics of the EBCA scale on different samples as well. Other recommendations are stated in the discussion.

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1 Introduction

Emerging technologies could have the potential to transform the education system and are currently considered one of the most engaging ways for students to learn the content of various scientific disciplines (Anđić et al., 2024 ; Chen & Chu, 2024 ; Leavy et al., 2023 ; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2021 ). The role of emerging technologies within STEAM education is not fully understood due to the lack of quality theoretical frameworks, practitioner knowledge, and empirical evidence in educational research (Leavy et al., 2023 ). In particular, little is known about the potential of integrating certain emerging technologies, like virtual simulations (VS), into STEAM learning environments (Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017 ). A limited number of studies found on this topic dealt with determining the contribution of VS, mainly to the development of the following variables: student achievement, scientific inquiry, reasoning and scientific process skills, interest, goals toward STEM-related careers, STEM awareness, and students’ perceptions of STEM activities (D’Angelo et al., 2014 ; Sarı et al., 2020 ; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017 ). These studies, as well as the meta-analysis by the authors Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro ( 2018 ), which analyzed 44 studies on the topic of identifying the intention of STEAM approaches, singled out the promotion of student engagement as a basic feature of STEAM. Student engagement largely determines all other teaching and learning outcomes. However, this variable was not tested in the mentioned studies but was observed as an indirect construct without determining the method of its measurement. Through indirect observation, it was noticed that the development of student engagement is influenced by instructional practice, the structure of lectures, as well as the interactions of participants in the teaching process (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006 ; Wang et al., 2015 ). Given the limited amount of research on this topic and certain methodological ambiguities, it remains important that educators communicate their classroom teaching experiences regarding student engagement (Barlow & Brown, 2020 ). It is particularly recommended to consider factors relevant to the development of this variable (such as instructional practice and content delivery methods) as well as instruments that will directly measure student engagement within STEAM learning environments (Barlow & Brown, 2020 ). Identified research gaps (1. a limited number of studies as well as a lack of understanding of the role and potential of certain emerging technologies, like VS within STEAM education; 2. a lack of research on this topic within which student engagement was measured directly with an appropriate instrument) served as the basis for the implementation of our research. For these purposes, we selected primary school students and the emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and agentic EBCA scale for assessing student engagement as a 4-component construct developed by the authors Reeve and Tseng ( 2011 ). Given that this instrument is intended for students of higher education, we had to modify or adapt it to the needs of our study and check its metric characteristics. With this in mind, we have set a threefold aim. Firstly, we aspired to examine the validity and reliability of the EBCA engagement scale. Secondly, we aimed to examine whether and to what extent the integration of VS in STEAM activities can improve students’ perceived engagement. Thirdly, we strived to examine whether and how the order of integration of VS in STEAM activities affects students’ perceived engagement.

2 Emerging technology integration into STEAM environment

According to the latest reports (Leavy et al., 2023 ), emerging technologies are defined as tools or software that could have the potential to radically transform the current state of education and thus enable more creative and engaging ways of learning and teaching (Leavy et al., 2023 ; Sosa et al., 2017 ). According to this, the following technologies are currently considered “emerging” for education: artificial intelligence (AI), big data, learning analytics, immersive technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR), virtual labs and simulations (VS), serious games, robotics, the internet of things, hardware with sensors, wearable devices, and drones (Leavy et al., 2023 ). Integrating emerging technologies into STEAM activities is considered one of the most engaging ways for students to learn content from various scientific disciplines (Anđić et al., 2022, 2023 ; Janković et al., 2023 ; Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2021 ). The ‘T’ letter in the STEAM acronym is primarily used for solving various engineering challenges, programming, or designing computer graphics. These activities aim to research and design active, innovative, creative solutions and create artifacts (digital or otherwise) by balancing technical expertise with artistic vision and expressing knowledge and skills in the global world (Glancy, 2014 ; Jones, 2014 ). Its value, as well as the value of using technology, primarily has long-term aspirations. They are reflected in the transition from a consumer to a producer society, i.e., training the young generations to provide socio-technical contributions using simpler examples in the STEAM classroom and, in the future, complex and useful ones for society (Boy, 2013 ). Within the STEAM approach, the shift from knowledge consumption to production via emerging technology-enabled tools in a collaborative environment is a way for students to contribute to the closer community, learn from each other, and acquire skills in these areas that are necessary for the future (Boy, 2013 ).

In a recent meta-analysis, Leavy et al. ( 2023 ) reviewed and analyzed 43 qualitative empirical studies on the topic of identifying emerging technologies that are used to strengthen STEAM education. These papers are classified into the following categories: (1) AR/VR/MR; (2) Programming and Robotics; (3) Maker Movement; and (4) Other Technological Applications. The general importance of the integration of the mentioned emerging technologies into the STEAM approach is reflected in the development of 21st -century skills such as creativity, persistence, and problem solving, attitudes towards computing, creative thinking, and learning in this way through promoting engagement, collaborative problem solving, hands-on learning experiences, and providing strong motivation to promote equity (Leavy et al., 2023 ). However, the authors state that this meta-analysis is limited in providing insight into how emerging technologies can transform and influence learning due to the lack of quality theoretical frameworks, practitioner knowledge, and empirical evidence. Also, bearing in mind that this field is developing, there is a possibility that not all examples of good practice are included due to poor dissemination and recording of the results. Furthermore, we will list a few examples of papers that were not included in this meta-analysis.

In a study by Laut et al. ( 2015 ), STEM activities are empowered with robotics to develop and understand the connection between biology and engineering. The students were given the task of completing their biomimetic robotic fish through STEM and letting the finished product be verified at the New York Aquarium to observe the fish’s response in biology. The results of this study showed that robotics can strengthen STEM learning and contribute to students’ understanding of the connection between these two disciplines. In the study by Techakosit and Nilsook ( 2018 ), the contribution of the integration of AR within STEM activities to the development of STEM literacy was examined. The results showed that, for learning the STEM contents, imagination, design ability, finding information, and using STEM’s basic abilities to solve problems were very important skills that students develop while learning in this way. Further, Chen and Huang ( 2020 ) investigated the contribution of serious game-based learning to the strengthening of STEAM activities from the aspect of improving achievement and reducing the cognitive load when working with primary school students (13–14 years old). The results of this study showed that game-based learning can strengthen STEAM activities and contribute to the development of student achievements and the reduction of cognitive load. Emerging technologies have the potential to initiate inevitable and necessary changes in the educational system through redefining and reshaping teaching that is consistent with STEAM principles (Leavy et al., 2023 ). What is needed to utilize and maximize the opportunities of these technologies within the STEAM approach is a reconceptualization of school programs, teaching, learning, and assessment methods (Meletiou-Mavrotheris, 2019 ). We will further look at the potential of integrating certain emerging technologies into the STEAM approach, i.e., we will focus on the integration of VS in the STEAM learning environment.

3 Integration of virtual simulations into STEAM environment

Virtual simulations (VS) imply computer modeling of reality, i.e., computer-based representations of real or hypothesized scientific phenomena and processes, with which students, in an interactive way in a virtual environment, become familiar with the mental models of scientists and construct their own to understand and explain certain scientific phenomena (Falloon, 2019 ; Sanina et al., 2020 ; Zhang, 2014 ). They offer the possibility of observing scientific processes visible and invisible to the naked eye, as well as the possibility of visualizing abstract, less abstract, and non-abstract concepts (e.g., electrons, molecules, light rays) (Maričić et al., 2023 ; Olympiou et al., 2013 ). The basic intention of this visualization is reflected in the transformation of abstract phenomena, i.e., theoretical-conceptual constructions into perceptual representations, to build a bridge between the students’ understanding of those concepts in the natural environment and the mechanism of their actual functioning (Sanina et al., 2020 ). In addition, VS offers the possibility of simplifying the investigated phenomenon or process by highlighting the target elements being observed and removing complexity, or it can be modified to a simpler or shorter time frame to more easily interpret certain natural phenomena (de Jong et al., 2013 ; Maričić et al., 2023 ). VS appear in the form of computer-based animations such as models, simulations, and experiments (Falloon, 2019 ). All these forms offer students the opportunity to enter a micro-virtual world where they can manipulate virtual equipment, materials, and variables of interest and immediately access the obtained results (Scalise et al., 2011 ; Wen et al., 2020 ). Through virtual models, simulations, and experiments, students can observe and investigate those natural phenomena and processes that are not easy to observe and investigate in real-life circumstances (Zhang, 2014 ). In addition to the above, they can be more manageable, more flexible, safer, more profitable, and faster to implement than real hands-on activities (Wen et al., 2020 ).

When working on VS, students encounter two processes: transformation and regulation. In the process of transformation, students produce direct information by forming hypotheses, designing experiments, and concluding. Through the process of regulation, students connect the variables, conditions, and events presented in the problem, identify key variables, and visualize the conditions of the simulation (Lim, 2004 ; Sarı et al., 2020 ). As a result of these processes, we can notice that VS can play an active role in the STEAM learning environment in terms of supporting the research process and providing modeling opportunities (Sarı et al., 2020 ). These processes can then be carried out through real hands-on activities, which include the integration of other disciplines such as engineering, art, and mathematics. Within them, research support is strengthened through previous manipulation of the phenomenon or process in virtual conditions, visualization of the invisible, simplification of reality, regulation of the time frame, and manipulation of the variable of interest, while the modeling process can be performed more faithfully and creatively through the design of active, innovative, creative solutions using knowledge of engineering and mathematics and the creation of artifacts through balancing real material with artistic vision. Thus, VS can strengthen and support STEAM learning, and students can express their skills and knowledge through different disciplines.

Although VS are considered promising emerging technologies that can support STEAM learning, very little is known about their potential in research practice (Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017 ). In a meta-analysis by D’Angelo et al. ( 2014 ), which dealt with determining the contribution of VS within the STEM approach, 59 studies were reviewed. The results of this meta-analysis showed that VS can strengthen STEM activities in terms of student achievement, scientific inquiry, reasoning skills, and non-cognitive outcomes. Although this meta-analysis showed that VS can strengthen STEM learning, the authors state that it is necessary to carry out more research to gain insight into the benefits of VS within the STEM domain. The research by Thisgaard and Makransky ( 2017 ) examined the contribution of VS to students’ knowledge of evolution, interest, and whether simulations could catalyze STEM academic and career development. High school students (18 years old) were supposed to identify an unknown animal found on the beach through VS while investigating various aspects of natural selection and genetics through video displays of genetic links and 3D visualization of a population of a species on an island. The results of this study showed that VS can strengthen STEM learning in terms of developing student interest and goals toward STEM-related careers. Sarı et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed the contribution of VS within STEM activities to the development of students’ scientific process skills, STEM awareness, and views on activities. Second-year undergraduate students participated in the research. The results showed that VS can strengthen STEM learning from the perspective of these variables and that students believe that STEM activities provide numerous advantages, such as designing and developing engineering products, conducting experiments, and reducing errors.

The contribution of VS was examined within STEM learning, focusing mainly on the following variables: student achievement, scientific inquiry, reasoning and scientific process skills, interest, goals toward STEM-related careers, STEM awareness, and students’ perceptions of STEM activities (D’Angelo et al., 2014 ; Sarı et al., 2020 ; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017 ). These studies, as well as the meta-analysis by Perignat and Katz-Buonincontro ( 2018 ), which reviewed 44 studies on the topic of STEAM approaches (i.e., identifying the purpose of STEAM education, definitions of STEAM acronyms, and definitions of ‘A’ in STEAM), single out the engagement of students as the basic feature of STEAM education within these disciplines. However, student engagement was not tested in these studies but was observed as an indirect construct without determining the method of its measurement. In the next section, we will focus on this variable.

4 Involvment/engagement theory

The understanding of the concept of student engagement was contributed by Astin ( 1984 ), who studied student development for more than 20 years. Instead of the term engagement, Atkin uses the term involvement and focuses on college students. According to him, student involvement refers to the amount of physical and psychological energy that students devote to the academic experience (Astin, 1984 ). This determination is based on the following five postulates, shown in Fig.  1 .

Postulates of student involvment

Atkin’s definition was later expanded by the director of the National Survey of Student Engagement, George Kuh, who states that engagement, in addition to the investment of physical and mental energy of the participants in the educational process, also represents the effort of the institution that it invests in using an effective educational performance (Axelson & Flick, 2010 ). Later, the determinations of student engagement became more and more complex, taking into account different aspects of education, but what they all have in common is that an educational institution with an educational system is not only a place where acquired knowledge is transferred from individual to individual but also a place where different types of relationships develop. These relationships exist between the participants in the educational process (the social component) as well as between the participants and the learning object (the intellectual component), and they are characterized by a certain emotional flow. Bearing that in mind, according to modern understandings, engagement is defined as a state of emotional, social, and intellectual readiness for learning, which is characterized by curiosity, participation, and the drive to learn more (Abla & Fraumeni, 2019 ). These connections can be observable, like visible behavior, but also unobservable, like internal attitudes. With that in mind, the authors Fredricks et al. ( 2004 ) identified three different types of engagement: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive, while Reeve and Tseng ( 2011 ) described a fourth type: agentic engagement (see Fig.  2 ).

Engagement as a 4-component construct

Therefore, engagement can be defined as a multi-dimensional construct. Within STEAM education, it has been observed that this variable largely determines all other teaching and learning outcomes for students (Barlow & Brown, 2020 ; Hong et al., 2020 ; Khamhaengpol et al., 2021 ). As previously stated, student engagement in these studies was not directly measured but was observed as an indirect construct. Through indirect observation, it was noticed that the development of student engagement is primarily influenced by instructional practice, the structure of lectures (and exams), as well as the interactions of participants in the teaching process (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006 ; Wang et al., 2015 ). However, given the limited amount of research on this topic and certain methodological ambiguities within it, it remains important that instructors and educators consider and communicate their practical classroom teaching experiences regarding student engagement (Barlow & Brown, 2020 ). In doing so, it is particularly recommended to take into account factors important for the development of this variable, including the structure of lectures, content delivery methods, and student interactions, as well as instruments that will measure this variable in a direct way within the STEAM learning environments (Barlow & Brown, 2020 ).

5 Purpose of the study

Based on a detailed review of the literature, the following research gaps were identified: (1) a limited number of studies as well as a poor understanding of the role and potential of certain emerging technologies like VS within STEAM education; (2) a lack of research on this topic in which student engagement was directly measured with an appropriate instrument. To fulfill the mentioned research gaps, we decided to conduct this study. For these purposes, we selected primary school students and the scale for measuring emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and agentic engagement—the EBCA scale by Reeve and Tseng ( 2011 ). As the EBCA scale is intended for high school students, we had to modify it, adapt it to the needs of our research, and check its metric characteristics. With this in mind, we have set a threefold aim. Firstly, we aspired to examine the validity and reliability of the EBCA engagement scale. Secondly, we aimed to examine whether and to what extent the integration of VS in STEAM activities can improve students’ perceived engagement. Thirdly, we strived to examine whether and how the order of integration of VS in STEAM activities affects students’ perceived engagement. The following research questions arise from the stated three-fold aim:

Can the EBCA engagement scale be used validly and reliably in the primary school context?

Whether and to what extent the integration of VS in STEAM activities can improve students’ perceived engagement?

Whether and how the order of integration of VS in STEAM activities affects students’ perceived engagement?

6 Methodology

6.1 research design.

The research was carried out according to the cross-over research design (Crowder & Hand, 2017 ; Hughes et al., 2022 ), in which the students of the experimental groups undergo all STEAM (STA and SA) learning conditions but only in a different order. The research design is shown in Fig.  3 .

Research design

This Pre—Post—Post-Delayed engagement assessment design was used to collect measurement outcomes before, during and after the intervention (Craig et al., 2012 ). Such a design allowed us to gain insight into whether and to what extent the integration of VS into STEAM activities can improve students’ perceived engagement, as well as how the order of VS integration in STEAM activities affects students’ perceived engagement.

For this research, schools from the district were recruited, and classes of 3rd -grade students that were available to the researcher were selected. A convenience sampling method was applied. The students in the selected classes were given a pre-engagement scale (PES1) to determine the level of their previous perceived engagement in science classes. Those classes of students who showed an approximate perception of previous engagement in the classes were retained in the research. PES1 was used as one of the criteria for equalizing the groups (and as a covariate in the analysis of the results). Selected classes of students were then randomly assigned to one of the STEAM conditions: STA (science, technology, and art) or SA (science and art). Through the combination of these STEAM conditions and the usage of cross-over design, four groups were formed: two control (C1 and C2) and two experimental (E1 and E2): C1 - STA + STA, C2 - SA + SA, E1 - STA + SA, and E2 - SA + STA. After the formation of the groups, the first lesson was held in C1 and E1 (STA lesson), and C2 and E2 (SA lesson). Then the students were given a post-engagement scale (PES2) to determine the level of their perceived engagement after participating in the first part of the intervention. Next week, the second lesson was held in C1 and E2 (STA lesson) and C2 and E1 (SA lesson). After the end of the second lesson, the students were given a delayed post-engagement scale (PES3) to establish their level of perceived engagement after participating in the second part of the intervention.

6.2 Intervention

For the implementation of STEAM activities, the science content Magnetism was selected. The first lesson included the following concepts: what is a magnet, the shapes of a magnet, the poles of a magnet, the lines of force of a magnetic field, attraction and repulsion, and action through different environments. The second lesson included the following concepts: magnetization, magnetic field strength, natural and artificial magnets (make an artificial magnet), and the effect of magnets in different environments (make a boat). These scientific contents are strengthened and integrated with the contents of art: landscape and abstract art (in the first lesson, abstract art , and the second lesson, landscape ). In addition to the concepts of abstract art and landscape, elements of visual art are also integrated into the lessons to introduce a science concept. These elements included the following: observing works of art, painting examples of abstract art and landscapes, and creating original works of art that also present scientific concepts about magnetism. Through the integration of the content of the sciences and arts with technology, the STA condition was formed. Technology integration referred to the introduction of VS (from the JavaLab series) on magnetism to strengthen the understanding of the scientific concepts of these contents. VS offers the possibility of visualizing those abstract concepts that students cannot see with the naked eye, such as the lines of force of the magnetic field and their behavior during the approaching of the same and different poles of the magnet, the concept of magnetization, the formation of domains within metals, and their orientation. By integrating the content of the sciences and arts (without technology), the SA condition was formed. Basic STEAM conditions are shown in Fig.  3 .

By combining the STA and SA conditions through a cross-over design, two more conditions were formed - STA + SA and SA + STA. STEAM activities will be briefly described below.

6.2.1 STA and SA conditions

All students were introduced to the intervention in the same way. They were told the story of the shepherd Magnus - how the ore magnetite was discovered and how the term magnetism came about. During this conversation, students were shown an example of this ore.

STA condition : Lesson 1 – The students were then shown paintings from the series Magnetic North: Imagining Canada in paintings by seven famous Canadian painters (abstract). Through a conversation with the researcher about the paintings, the displayed techniques, and the fascinating name of the entire collection of these works, they came up with the term magnetism. This term is then connected to the term from the story of the shepherd Magnus. Then, through hands-on activities, the students went over the following concepts: what is a magnet, the shapes of a magnet, the poles of a magnet, the lines of force of a magnetic field, attraction and repulsion, and the action of a magnet in different environments. Through VS from the JavaLab series about magnets, students strengthened their knowledge about magnetism, magnetic fields, magnet poles, and magnetic field lines of force. After this part, students were introduced to the concept abstract art. They were shown paintings by famous abstract artists, such as Clyfford Still. The students discussed the paintings and communicated what impressed them, i.e., what was magnetic about them. After that, with the usage of different art materials and media, the students were placed in a position to create their magnetic abstract work. Then, through the main activity, students had to create an original 2D artwork that integrates elements of science and art. The students painted their abstract work of art with magnets through the property of magnets acting through different environments .

Lesson 2 - The students were shown paintings from the series Magnetic North: Imagining Canada in paintings by Canadian artists, but this time the landscape ones. The researcher introduced the students to the concept of magnetism through a conversation about the paintings, the techniques shown, and the fascinating name of the collection of these works. This concept is connected with the concept from the story of the shepherd Magnus. The students then went through the following concepts through hands-on activities: magnetization, magnetic field strength, natural and artificial magnets (make an artificial magnet), and the effect of magnets in different environments (make a boat). Through VS, students strengthened their knowledge of magnetism and magnetization, magnetic fields, and natural and artificial magnets. After this, students were introduced to the concept of landscape. They were shown paintings by famous landscape painters from the Barbizon School. The students discussed the paintings and communicated what impressed them, i.e., what was magnetic about them. After that, with the usage of different art materials and media, the students were placed in a position to create their own magnetic landscape. Then the main activity was introduced, in which the students had to create an original 3D artwork that integrates elements of science and art. The idea was to create an original 3D interactive landscape—an image of a landscape in which a part of the artwork is integrated, which can be moved by a magnet and make it interactive.

SA condition : This condition included the integration of science and art in both lessons, but without technology, i.e. all those elements (in the same order) from the STA condition were represented here, only without the usage of VS.

STA + SA condition : Within this condition, the first lesson was performed under the STA condition, while the second was carried out under the SA condition (without technology).

SA + STA condition : This condition implied that the first lesson was performed according to the SA condition, while the second was carried out according to the STA condition.

6.3 Sampling

84 3rd -grade students (9–10 years old, M  = 9.643, SD  = 0.482) from two primary schools in Eastern Europe participated in the research. The classes were recruited from schools attended by students with a diverse body: students from national minorities and different ethnic backgrounds, as well as students who learn according to the IEP. In the research, those classes of students that showed an approximate perception of previous engagement on PES1 and those students within those classes who filled out all three PESs were retained. For this research, four classes of 3rd -grade students were recruited and randomly assigned to one of the STEAM conditions. The random distribution in our research was performed so that already-formed classes were randomly assigned to one of the four STEAM conditions (in each of 21 students). Teacher bias was excluded by introducing a trained researcher into the intervention. Including all students in both STA and SA conditions allowed us to monitor the impact of the order of VS integration on students’ perceived engagement.

6.4 Data collection

Data in this research were collected using a previously created instrument, the EBCA scale, for assessing students’ perceived emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and agentic engagement by Reeve and Tseng ( 2011 ). Given that this scale is intended to measure the perceived engagement of high school students, we had to adapt it to the needs of our study to successfully assess the perceived engagement of primary school students. These adaptations were also reflected in the slight modification of the items, which resulted in the creation of three scales: PES1, PES2, and PES3 (for example, on PES1, the items are directed to the state before the implementation of the intervention, on PES2, the items are directed to the state immediately after the first part of the intervention, and on PES3, the items are directed to the state after the implementation of the intervention). Before conducting the research, permission was requested from the author to adapt the scale. Adaptation resulted in several rounds of revision in which some items were excluded. During this process, experts in the field of methodology were consulted, as well as teachers with work experience spanning over 10 years, as the first assessors of the validity of the scale. The revised scale was adapted for 84 primary school students, and for the second round of checking construct validity and reliability, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed. The scale consists of four blocks, of which the emotional block has four items, the behavioral block has five items, the cognitive block has five items (the original has eight, i.e., three items from this block were excluded), and the agentic block has five items. These items are intended to assess four different types of students’ perceived engagement. Within emotional engagement, the following values were monitored: enjoyment, fun, interest, and curiosity. As part of the behavioral engagement, the following values are followed: careful listening, paying attention, trying hard, careful listening about new topics, and trying hard when starting something new. Within cognitive engagement, the following values were monitored: relating to prior knowledge, relating to personal experience, connecting different ideas into a meaningful whole, creating own examples to understand the concepts, and reviewing what was done. Within agentic engagement, these values are followed: asking questions to make the class active and lively; informing the teacher about personal interests; informing the teacher about the need to improve achievement; informing the teacher about preferences; and suggesting ideas for class improvement. The obtained results for each type of engagement, as well as the discussion about them, will be shown in the next two sections, but in such a way that these data follow each part of our threefold aim.

7.1 First part: Construct validity and reliability of the EBCA scale

The skewness and kurtosis values for PES1, PES2 and PES3 are between -2 and + 2 which shows that the data is normally distributed (Byrne, 2010 ; Hair et al., 2010 ). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity tests were used to determine the suitability of the data for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The KMO and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity values for PES1, PES2 and PES3 were found to be statistically significant ( p  < .000). It was ensured that the sample size was sufficient for data analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007 ) (see Table  1 ).

The obtained values were accepted as an indication that CFA could be performed. IBM SPSS AMOS program was used for CFA. In the upcoming paragraphs, we will present the CFA results for each scale.

Within CFA results, we monitored the values of various fit indices, which are primarily used to assess the fit of the model to the data. As a result of the analysis conducted on 19 items, the RMSEA values for PES1, PES2 and PES3 were found to be within acceptable range. Fit indices for PES1 show that this scale fits the overall sample well (χ 2 (140, N  = 84) = 183.437, p  = .008; CFI = 0.977, TLI = 0.972, RMSEA = 0.061, SRMR = 0.076). Covariance of error terms based on modification indices (MI > 20) was created for six pairs which improved the model. The final model is shown in Fig.  4 .

STA and SA conditions

Convergent validity and composite reliability (CR) of PES1 are also good. All factor loadings have a value above 0.60 (Fig.  4 ). Average variance extracted (AVE) values are above 0.05, and CR values are above 0.70 for all constructs (Hair et al., 2017 ). Cronbach alpha (CA) values are also above 0.70. Discriminative validity of the scale is good - the square root of AVE values (bold values) are higher than inter-variable values (below bold values) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ) (Table  2 ).

Fit indices for PES2 show that this scale fits the overall sample also well (χ 2 (146, N  = 84) = 197.611, p  = .003, CFI = 0.939, TLI = 0.929, RMSEA = 0.065, SRMR = 0.065) (Fig.  5 ).

Measurement model of PES1

Convergent validity and composite reliability (CR) of PES2 are also good. Factor loadings are above 0.60 (Fig.  5 ), AVE values are above 0.05, CR and CA values are above 0.70 for all constructs. The discriminative validity of the scale is good - the square root of AVE values is higher than inter-variable values (Table  3 ).

Fit indices for PES3 show that this scale fits the overall sample well (χ 2 (145, N  = 84) = 189.682, p  = .007, CFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.939, RMSEA = 0.061, SRMR = 0.064). Covariance of error terms based on modification indices (for one pair - MI > 20) was created for one pair which improved the model. The final model is shown in Fig.  6 .

Measurement model of PES2

Convergent validity and composite reliability (CR) of PES3 are also good. Factor loadings are above 0.60 (Fig.  6 ), AVE values are above 0.05, CR and CA values are above 0.70 for all constructs. The discriminative validity of the scale is good - the square root of AVE values is higher than inter-variable values (Table  4 ).

Since the data showed a normal distribution, parametric tests were used for further analysis. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine the difference in student-perceived engagement between the three different time points. The ANOVA and ANCOVA analysis where used to determine whether there was a difference in the students’ perceived engagement between different STEAM conditions at PES1, PES2 and PES3. An independent t-test was used to determine whether there was a difference in the order of VS integration. These analyzes cover the second and third parts of the aim Fig.  7 .

Measurement model of PES3

7.2 Second part - contribution of the VS in STEAM activities

One-factor ANOVA analysis of repeated measures compared the difference in students’ perceived engagement between three different time points - PES1, PES2 and PES3. The results of this analysis for all groups indicate a significant influence of time for all types of engagement, i.e. that the level of perceived emotional, behavioral, cognitive and agentic engagement changed significantly during these three-time points (Table  5 ).

These differences were further processed, to establish between which time points within each type of engagement there was a significant difference. These results are shown in (Table  6 ).

Based on these results, it can be observed that there are significant differences between PES1 and PES2, as well as PES1 and PES3 within each type of engagement, while significant differences between PES2 and PES3 exist within behavioral, cognitive and agentic engagement.

Further analyses considered the differences between the groups. ANOVA analysis found that there was no significant difference in PES1 in terms of perceived engagement ( F (3, 80) = 0.484, p  = .695, C1 M  = 3.386, SD  = 0.299; C2 M  = 3.429, SD  = 0.375; E1 M  = 3.470, SD  = 0.405; E2 M  = 3.512, SD  = 0.320). PES1 scores served as a covariate for ANCOVA analysis.

ANCOVA analysis found that there was a significant difference on PES2 regarding perceived engagement ( F (3, 79) = 6.980, p  = .000, ηp 2  = 0.210, covariate under control F (3, 79) = 27.407, p  = .000, ηp 2  = 0.258). Through further analysis, we tried to determine within which type of engagement and between which groups this difference exists. The results showed that there was a difference in behavioral engagement ( F (3, 79) = 3.835, p  = .013, ηp 2  = 0.127, covariate controlled F (3, 79) = 94.359, p  = .000, ηp 2 =. 544) between the STA and SA condition ( p  = .024) and the STA and SA + STA condition ( p  = .034), where the students of the C1 group ( M  = 4.324, SD  = 0.171) showed significantly better results compared to the students of C2 ( M  = 4.076, SD  = 0.462) and E2 groups ( M  = 4.124, SD  = 0.449).

ANCOVA analysis found that there was a significant difference in PES3 regarding perceived engagement ( F (3, 79) = 7.977, p  = .000, ηp 2  = 0.233, controlled covariate F (3, 79) = 19.732, p  = .000, ηp 2  = 0.200). Through further analysis, we tried to determine within which type of engagement and between which groups this difference exists. The results showed that there was a difference in terms of behavioral engagement ( F (3, 79) = 5.031, p  = .003, ηp 2  = 0.160, covariate under control F (3, 79) = 82.300, p  = .000, ηp 2 =. 510) between the STA and SA conditions ( p  = .003), where the students of the C1 group ( M  = 4.419, SD  = 0.374) showed significantly better results compared to the C2 students ( M  = 4.124, SD  = 0.403).

7.3 Third part - contribution of the VS integration order

The results of independent t-test showed that the p -value is close to the significance threshold t (40) = 1.753, p  = .087, but does not exceed it. The students of the E1 group ( M  = 4.279, SD  = 0.170) showed better results compared to the students of the E2 group ( M  = 4.183, SD  = 0.184), which indicates that the VS integration in the first part of STEAM intervention contributes to a greater extent to the development of student perceived engagement compared to integration of VS in the second part of STEAM intervention.

8 Discussion

8.1 first part: construct validity and reliability of the ebca scale.

The results of our research show that the 4-factor engagement scale model is aligned, i.e., it fits the overall sample well. It should be noted that for the PES1 and PES3 scales, the covariance of the error term was created based on the modification indices for some pairs, which further improved their model fit. In view of this, it is suggested to check the fitness of the model on another sample and, if necessary, make modifications or remove certain items from the scale. Similar results were found in the research of Ritoša et al. ( 2020 ), in which the model fit of three constructs of engagement was checked: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive (the construct of emotional disaffection was added to the scale) on a sample of students from preschool (ages 6–7). After the modifications based on the modification indices, this scale showed a good fit. The engagement scale with all four constructs was tested in the research of Maričić et al. ( 2023 ) on a sample of primary school students (10–11 years old) and in the research by Zainuddin et al. ( 2020 ) on a sample of students from secondary school (16 years old), but regardless of the modifications that were made by the needs of the research, the model fit was not checked. The model fit of the original scale was checked by authors Reeve and Tseng ( 2011 ) on a sample of students from high school (over 16 years old). The 4-factor model proved to be adequate. Regarding the convergent validity, reliability, and discriminative validity of the engagement scales (PES1, PES2, and PES3), good results were obtained in our study, and this shows that the engagement scale in this form can be validly and reliably used in an educational context when working with primary school students (ages 9–10). Similar results were observed in the research of Ritoša et al. ( 2020 ). It is important to indicate that our results are limited in terms of generalization because the model fit was checked on a smaller sample of students aged 9–10 from Eastern Europe. The modified EBCA scale should be tested in work with students of different grade levels and from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds, which will improve the generalization of the results and affect their applicability on a more global level.

8.2 Second part - contribution of the VS in STEAM activities

The results further show that the level of perceived emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and agentic engagement changes significantly over time, i.e., the longer students are involved in STEAM activities, the better their perceived engagement is. As noticed in previous studies through indirect observation, the STEAM approach can enhance student engagement (Hong et al., 2020 ; Khamhaengpol et al., 2021 ). Our study deepens these observations as it provides results generated as a product of direct measurement of this variable. Observed differences are greatest within agentic, then emotional, behavioral, and finally cognitive engagement between all three time points. These observations are consistent with observations from previous studies indicating that agentic engagement offers great potential in terms of enhancing learning (Reeve & Tseng, 2011 ). Students of all groups perceived this type of engagement the best over time because, during the intervention, an atmosphere was created in which they were free to ask questions, express their opinions, follow their interests, and make suggestions. Agentic engagement is proactive, intentional, and purposeful; it offers opportunities to enrich the learning process by making it more personal, interesting, challenging, and valuable for students; and it develops a constructive contribution to the planning and flow of teaching activities in which students have a say. In order to develop this type of engagement, teachers should provide students with autonomy support, i.e., they need to create classroom conditions in which students feel free to express opinions, pursue interests, and ask questions (Maričić et al., 2023 ; Reeve & Tseng, 2011 ). STEAM activities offer that possibility and leave enough space for an optimal level of personalization of the learning process by students, which is very important for improving their perceptions of learning. Our results indicate that the longer the students were engaged in STEAM activities, the more they developed the values of actively asking questions, communicating their interests, the need to improve achievement as well as suggestions for improving learning, the feeling of enjoyment, fun, interest, curiosity, and finally the values of careful listening, focus, and investing effort. In previous research, it was shown that teachers who work with students from higher schools to a significantly greater extent (disproportionately) activate the components of cognitive engagement, while teachers who work with students of lower school age to a significantly greater extent (disproportionately) activate the components of behavioral engagement (Greene et al., 2004 ; Reeve & Tseng, 2011 ). The results of our study are not in line with the aforementioned because it was shown that our STEAM activities in students over time activate the components of all four types of engagement so that none of them is disproportionate to the others. Also, when we compare them, we notice that the agentic, behavioral, and emotional components are only slightly more activated over time than the cognitive ones. A similar pattern was observed in the research of Ritoša et al. ( 2020 ), where preschool children showed a higher level of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement, but in approximate proportions. This is most likely related to the nature of the STEAM activities and the first student participation in them, where the other three types of engagement slightly prevailed. This problem should be further and more deeply examined in future studies.

In addition to the above, the results of our research show that the integration of VS into STEAM activities over time significantly contributes to the development of students’ perceived engagement compared to STEAM activities without technology (SA condition). Similar results were observed in the meta-analysis by Leavy et al. ( 2023 ), in which it was stated that emerging technologies have the potential to increase student engagement, as well as in the study by Katyara et al. ( 2023 ), in which it was shown that the integration of different technologies into learning activities can enrich this process and significantly increase different types of student engagement. Over time, in our study, emerging technology primarily encouraged the development of agentic, behavioral, emotional, and finally cognitive engagement. This shows us that the implementation of VS develops the values of personalization, enrichment of content, and learning conditions, then the values of participation in activities, attention to tasks, investment of effort, perseverance, and absence of behavioral problems, and finally the feeling of joy, fun, interest, and curiosity in the students. Kahu et al. ( 2015 ) found that positive emotions associated with the topic, such as interest, fun, and enthusiasm, come from learning that is integrated with life experience, as well as the intersection between learning materials and students’ work and experience. STEAM’s technology-enhanced approach offers it all. Considering that the research on this topic is limited, it is recommended to investigate this issue more deeply and further through a longitudinal study, which can provide significant insights into the contribution of emerging technologies to the development of different types of student engagement over a longer period of time. These data would indicate the potential of emerging technologies in maintaining student engagement as well as in the development of different types of student engagement, considering the time frame and acquired experience in STEAM activities.

If we consider the results obtained by comparing all four different conditions and groups (while eliminating the time factor), we can also see that STEAM activities enhanced by VS contribute to the development of student-perceived engagement to a greater extent. These differences are significant in terms of behavioral engagement, where it was shown that the constant integration of VS (through both lessons, STA) within STEAM activities significantly contributes to the development of this type of engagement compared to the STEAM condition without VS integration (SA) and the STEAM condition with partial VS integration (only within the second lesson, SA + STA). A similar observation was made in the research by Garcia-Martinez et al. ( 2021 ), in which it was shown that the integration of technology into teaching not only changes the way students learn but also changes their learning behaviors and performance in the long run. Similar results were also observed in the research by Katyara et al. ( 2023 ), where it was noticed that the integration of technology in learning activities contributes to the greatest extent to the development of behavioral engagement. These facts are explained from the perspective of various opportunities and benefits that technologies provide to the development of this type of engagement, such as the following: they make the learners more actively involved in the learning process and encourage them to invest more efforts; reduce the dominance of the teacher; enable students to independently participate in more self-regulating learning activities; therefore, help them to develop self-reliance, persistence, and attention (Katyara et al., 2023 ; Maričić et al., 2023 ; Zinan & Sai, 2017 ). This indicates that students who learn content with STEAM-embedded technology tools develop the values of active involvement, attentive listening, persistence, focus, and investing effort to a much greater extent. These facts can be justified by the benefits that VS offer in terms of learning. While the students were learning through them, they were able to visualize abstract concepts - those that they failed to see through real hands-on experiments such as the lines of force of a magnetic field, their behavior during the approach of the same and different poles of a magnet, the concept of magnetization, the formation of domains within metals, and their orientation, which encouraged them to listen carefully, direct their attention, and put in extra effort when working on VS. Thus, students were significantly more actively involved in STEAM learning activities, which had the greatest impact on the development of behavioral engagement. Such results should be discussed in future research from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory perspective, which would indicate the extent to which students (and teachers) accept this type of technology as well as their future intentions regarding the usage of VS in teaching. In addition to the above, it is suggested that different types of engagement should be correlated with other variables, such as student achievement and motivation, to see their connection and consider other important components of the teaching process.

8.3 Third part - contribution of the VS integration order

Our results also reveal that the integration of VS at the beginning (in the first STEAM lesson) contributes to a greater extent to the development of students’ perceived engagement compared to the integration of VS at the end (within the second STEAM lesson). Similar results were observed in the research of Hughes et al. ( 2022 ), which examined the order of arts integration within STEAM activities. The results showed that students who studied life and physical science contents first with the integration of art in STEAM activities showed better results compared to those students who studied those contents in a different order. The order of technology integration can be seen as a significant predictor of student engagement in STEAM activities. Students who first learned with STEAM activities in which VS was integrated showed better results in agentic, behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement after the first lesson. These data show us that after the first lesson, the students were significantly more enterprising, behaviorally and effectively active, and invested more mental effort in the learning process, which prepared and encouraged them to continue learning about these contents. Also, the integration of another discipline within STEAM activities at the very beginning of the intervention significantly expands the students’ horizons, which leads to multimodal representation of contents, the generation of new ideas, and a more creative approach to learning (Hughes et al., 2022 ). Students learned scientific concepts about magnetism through demonstration, performing real hands-on experiments, and creating original works of art (that present scientific concepts), but also through VS, i.e., through different modalities. This leads us to the potential conclusion that the integration of VS within the first STEAM lesson prepared the students for the initial conceptualization and visualization of abstract concepts, which gave them a valid basis and later facilitated the continuation of learning the same content. These activities particularly influenced the development of agentic and behavioral engagement, i.e., they strengthened the student’s optimal personalization and enrichment of the learning process through participation, attention, effort, and persistence. Given that within the groups, approximate mean values were observed in terms of all types of student engagement, we can note that multimodal representation of contents greatly influenced the development of emotional and cognitive engagement as well, i.e., it stimulated the development of a positive emotional state and cognitive functions in students. This has been demonstrated by several STEAM studies, which confirmed that this approach prepares students for learning and reduces cognitive load (expands the working memory space) because abstract concepts become much more accessible through multiple modalities of representation, which also affects the regulation of conceptual inconsistency (Campbell et al., 2018 ; Maričić et al., 2022a , b ; Wahyuningsih et al., 2020 ). VS offer exactly that possibility - through visualization. Such results should be discussed in future research from the perspective of cognitive load theory, which can shed more light on the contribution of VS to students’ cognitive potentials and their connection with different types of engagement.

9 Conculsion, contribution, implications and limitations

9.1 conclusions.

Based on the analysis of our results, we can conclude that the 4-factor EBCA scale model is aligned and fits the overall sample well, i.e., the engagement scale in this form can be validly and reliably used in an educational context when working with primary school students. STEAM activities can support student-perceived engagement, and the longer students are involved in STEAM activities, the better their perceived engagement is. Over time, this type of learning has the greatest impact on the development of agentic engagement (but not disproportionately compared to other types of engagement). VS emerging technology has the potential to significantly enhance students’ perceived engagement, and the more they work on VS, the more they develop the values of attentive listening, directing attention, and investing effort in learning. When we eliminate the time factor and only compare different STEAM conditions, we can also conclude that STEAM technology-enhanced activities can contribute to the development of student-perceived engagement to a greater extent compared to non-technology ones. This contribution is significant in terms of behavioral engagement, which was achieved through VS integration within STEAM lessons. The order of integration of VS also improves perceived engagement, and students who learn with them first perceive all types of engagement better.

9.2 Contribution

Assessment of student engagement in education is of exceptional importance, especially for educators and practitioners, because it has been shown through various observations that it greatly affects all other teaching and learning outcomes of students, and that aspect can improve teaching performance and make it more personal and interesting to them. The modified EBCA scale can be used as a valid and reliable instrument for these purposes in working with primary school students;

Based on the assessment of student engagement with the use of the modified EBCA scale, teachers can adjust, dose, and adapt their teaching style, motivational support, and instructional guidance to the needs of students and thereby improve learning. In our study, it was shown that autonomy support, i.e., classroom conditions in which students feel free to express opinions, pursue interests, and ask questions, greatly influences the development of both agentic and all other types of engagement, which has the potential to transform and strengthen learning and bring it closer to students;

In addition to the above, the use of this scale in the assessment of student engagement can show teachers how students emotionally, behaviorally, cognitively, and agentically experience teaching activities, i.e., how they react, how they behave, how they learn, and what they undertake within the teaching process, which can direct them and help them in further adequately designing STEAM lessons according to the needs and interests of the children. Our study offers clear insights into this, as well as an example of a STEAM activity that can support teaching practice from this aspect;

In previous studies, it was confirmed that teachers who work with students of lower school age focus more on activating the behavioral components of engagement, while teachers who work with higher school students focus more on activating the cognitive components of engagement (Birch & Ladd, 1997 ; Greene et al., 2004 ; Reeve & Tseng, 2011 ), which did not prove to be the best in teaching practice. Assessment of student engagement using the EBCA scale can help teachers focus on redesigning teaching activities, i.e., on balancing and equally activating all types of student engagement, because in this way all components important for the learning process and students themselves can be ensured. The results of our study confirm that.

9.3 Implicationas for future studies and limitations

Given that our study is limited in terms of the generalization of the results because the model fit of the engagement scale was checked on a smaller sample of students aged 9–10 from Eastern Europe, the modified EBCA scale could be used for the same purposes in work with students of different primary grade levels and from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds, which will improve the generalization of the results and affect their applicability on a more global level;

Within our study, only one variable was tested: student engagement and it is recommended that its number be expanded (for example, variables achievement and motivation could be tested) and correlated with student engagement. In this sense, the modified EBCA scale can be used to assess whether and to what extent different types of engagement can predict student achievement and their motivation to learn. In this way, it is possible to discover which type of engagement predicts to the greatest extent student achievements and motivation, which is essential for teaching practice;

Given that in our study only VS was tested within STEAM activities, it is suggested to integrate and test other emerging technologies as well, from the perspective of student engagement. It is also recommended to investigate this issue more deeply through a longitudinal study, which would indicate the potential of emerging technologies in maintaining student engagement as well as in the development of different types of engagement considering the time frame and acquired experience in STEAM activities. Also, it is desirable to connect and discuss the results obtained in those studies from the perspectives of cognitive load theory and TAM theory and address the changes in education that STEAM enhanced with different emerging technologies can bring.

Code availability

(software application or custom code): Not applicable.

Data availability

(data transparency): All data and materials as well as software applications or custom code support published claims and comply with field standards. The data generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank to the Project that supported the realization of this research, as well as the students who participated in the research.

This research was supported by; by the TransEET Project, funded by the European Union HORIZON-WIDERA − 2021- ACCESS − 03 − 01. Project, licensed under [grant number 101078875], and by the Quality of the education system of Serbia in the European perspective Project, licensed under [grant number: 179010].

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Maričić, M., Lavicza, Z. Enhancing student engagement through emerging technology integration in STEAM learning environments. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12710-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12710-2

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