problem solving abilities can be facilitated by ctet

Compititive exams CTET, State TET, KVS, DSSSB, CUCET

problem solving abilities can be facilitated by ctet

Child development and pedagogy important MCQs (40)

Child development and pedagogy mcqs.

CTET and any Tet exam preparation: In this article we are covering most important multiple choice questions of child development and pedagogy for paper I and II .

CTET and TET exam important MCQs on child development and pedagogy

1. Question:- Sequence of development among children from birth to adolescence is

A. Concrete abstract sensory

B. Abstract century concrete

C. Sensory concrete abstract

D. Abstract concrete Sensory

2. Question:- Problem solving abilities can be facilitated by

A. Focusing on drill and practice

B. Encouraging use of analogies

C. Generating fear among children

D. Encouraging fixed process of solving the problems

3. Question:- During a task, a girl is talking to herself about ways she can proceed on the task. According to lev vygotsky’s ideas on language and thought; this kind of private speech is sign of

A. Psychological disorder

B. Self regulation

C. Cognitive immaturity

D. Ego centricism

4. Question. After getting hurt during a play activity a boy started crying. Seeing this his father responded. Don’t behave like girls boys don’t cry this statement by the father

A. Reflects gender stereotype

B. Reduce gender bias

C. Promote gender equality

D. Challenges gender stereotype

5. Question:- Individual differences in a progressive classroom should be treated as

A. Criteria for making ability based groups

B. A failure on the part of teacher

C. Important for planning of teaching learning process

D. A hindrance of the process of learning

6. Question:- In order to address the needs of students who are facing learning difficulties, a teacher should not

A. Do individualised educational planning

B. Use multiple audio visual aids

C. Practice rigid structure for pedagogy and assessment

D. Use constructive pedagogical approaches

7. Question:- ________ is the primary identifying feature of creativity.

A. Hyperactivity

B. Low comprehension

C. Inattentiveness

D. Divergent thinking

8. Question:- Shame_______ .

A. Has no relation to cognitive

B. Is very effective to motivate the children to learn

C. Should be generated frequently in teaching learning process.

D. Can have negative impact on cognition .

9. Question:- Motivation to learn can be sustained by

A. Giving very easy task to children

B. Focusing on mastery orientated goals

C. Punishing the child

D. Focusing on rote memorization

10. Question:- Theory of multiple intelligence emphasized that

A. There are several forms of intelligence

B. Intelligence quotient (IQ) can be measured only by objective test

C. There are no individual differences in intelligence

D. Intelligence in one domain ensures intelligence in all other domains

11. Question:- Pre-oprational stage in Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development chracterizes

A. Development of extract thinking

B. Hypothetico deductive thinking

C. Centration in thought

D. Ability to conserve and seriate objects

12. Question:- In a progressive classroom

A. Ample opportunities should be provided for construction of knowledge

B. Students should be labelled on the basis of their academic scores

C. A teacher should follow fixed curriculum

D. The emphasize should be on compitition among children

13. Question:- In the theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget explain cognitive structure in terms of

A. Zone of proximal development

B. Stimulus response association

D. Psychological tools

14. Question:- Individual differences in development of children can be attributed to

A. Heredity only

B. Niether heredity nor environment

C. Interplay of heredity and environment

D. Environment only

15. Question:- In order to address learners from diverse backgrounds, a teacher should

A. Draw examples from diverse setting

B. Use statements that strengthen nagetive stereotype

C. Avoid talking about aspects related to diversity

D. Use standardized assessment for all

Explore more content:-

CTET social science previous year MCQs solution

Social studies solved question paper CTET paper II

16. Question:- According to Lawrence kohlberg’s theory, “performing an act and doing something because others aproved it”. Represents_______ stage of morality.

A. Formal conventional

B. Pre- conventional

C. Conventional

D. Post conventional

17. Question:- It is difficult for children to learn when

A. Content is represented through multiple ways

B. Learning is socially contextualised

C. Information is presented in disconnected chunks

D. They are intrinsically motivated

18. Question:- after observing that students are struggling to proceed further on an ongoing activity, a teacher decides to provide cues and hints in form of what, why, how. According to Lev Vygotsky’s this strategy of teacher will

A. Cause withdrawal tendency among students

B. Be meaningless in learning process

C. At as a scaffold for learning

D. Demotivate the children to Learn

19. Question:- Constructivist view of learning suggests that children ________ construction of their own knowledge.

A. are solely dependent on adult for

B. play an active role in

C. are solely dependent on textbooks in

D. have no role to play in

20. Question:- In an inclusive classroom emphasize should be on

A. Undifferentiated instruction

B. Performance orientated goals

C. Providing opportunities aiming at maximizing potential of individual children

D. Segregation of students based on their social identity

21. Question :- Lev Vygotsky’s social, cultural perspective of learning emphasize importance of________ in the learning process.

A. Cultural tools

B. Motivation

C. Equilibration

D. Attribution

22. Question:- Which of the following statement is correct in context of development ?

A. Development occurs only through learning that takes place in school

B. Development occurs only during the period of childhood

C. Development has the same rate of growth across cultures for everyone

D. Development is multidimensional

23. Question:- According to right of person with disabilities act 2016. Which of the term is appropriate to use?

A. Students with crippled body

B. Students with physical disabilities

C. Handicapped students

D. Retarded students

24. Question:- Conceptual understanding among students is likely to improve in the settings which emphasize on

A. Competitions

B. Inquiry and dialogues

C. Textbook centric pedagogy

D. Frequent examination

25. Question:- Evaluation practices should aim at

A. Identification of high achievers for prize distribution

B. Segregation of students for ability based groups

C. Identifying students needs and requirements

D. Labelling of students

26. Question:- A teacher should analyse the various errors made by students on a given task because

A. Learning is solely based on correction of errors

B. She can decide degree of punishment accordingly

C. Understanding of errors are meaningful in the teaching- learning process

D. She can segregate those who made more errors in comparison to others

27. Question:- Best state of Learning is

A. Moderate arousal, no fear

B. No arousal, no fear

C. Low arousal, high fear

D. High arousal, high fear

28. Question:- Which of the following is most effective mode of teaching learning process?

A. Rote memorization of content

B. Exploration of relationship between concepts

C. Limitations and repetations

D. Observation without analysis

29. Question:- Which of the following is correct in context of socialization of children?

A. Peers are primary socialization agents and family is a secondary socialization agents

B. School is a secondary socialization agent and family is primary socialization agent

C. School is primary socialization agent and peers are secondary socialization agent

D. Family and mass media both are secondary socialization agent

30. Question:- Which of the following is not related to Child -centred teaching learning process ?

A. Emphasize on experiential learning

B. Emphasize on holistic development

C. Emphasize on Self-Learning

D. Emphasize on classroom learning

Question 31: What is the primary focus of the constructivist theory in child development?

a) Memorization of facts

b) Teacher-centered instruction

c) Active participation and hands-on learning

d) Strict behavior management

Answer: c) Active participation and hands-on learning

Question 32: Which stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory is associated with the development of object permanence?

a) Sensorimotor

b) Preoperational

c) Concrete operational

d) Formal operational

Answer: a) Sensorimotor

Question 33: In the context of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, what is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

a) Activities a child can do independently

b) Tasks that are too difficult for a child

c) The range of tasks a child can do with the help of a more knowledgeable person

d) The stage of cognitive development reached by a child

Answer: c) The range of tasks a child can do with the help of a more knowledgeable person

Question 34: Which of the following is a key principle of behaviorism in pedagogy?

a) Emphasizing self-directed learning

b) Reward and punishment influencing behavior

c) Promoting critical thinking skills

d) Fostering creativity in students

Answer: b) Reward and punishment influencing behavior

Question 35: What is the importance of scaffolding in the context of teaching and learning?

a) Providing physical support to students

b) Gradually reducing support as students become more competent

c) Encouraging competition among students

d) Ignoring individual learning needs

Answer: b) Gradually reducing support as students become more competent

Question 36: According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which stage occurs during early childhood and involves developing a sense of autonomy versus shame and doubt?

a) Initiative vs. Guilt

b) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

c) Trust vs. Mistrust

d) Industry vs. inferiority

Answer: b) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Question 37: What does Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences propose?

a) Intelligence is a single, general ability.

b) There are different types of intelligence, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial.

c) Intelligence is determined solely by genetics.

d) Emotional intelligence is the only significant form of intelligence.

Answer: b) There are different types of intelligence, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical and spatial.

Question 38: According to Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which level is characterized by making decisions based on social norms and laws?

a)Preconventional

b) Conventional

c) Postconventional

d) Autonomous

Answer: b) Conventional

Question 39: What is the primary goal of inclusion in education?

a) Segregating students based on ability

b) Excluding students with special needs

c) Providing equal opportunities for all students, including those with disabilities

d) Focusing only on academic achievements

Answer: c) Providing equal opportunities for all students, including those with disabilities

Question 40: According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what must be satisfied first before a student can focus on academic achievement?

a) Esteem needs

b) Self-actualization needs

c) Safety needs

d) Belongingness and love needs

Answer: c) Safety needs

7 Problem-Solving Skills That Can Help You Be a More Successful Manager

Discover what problem-solving is, and why it's important for managers. Understand the steps of the process and learn about seven problem-solving skills.

[Featured Image]: A manager wearing a black suit is talking to a team member, handling an issue utilizing the process of problem-solving

1Managers oversee the day-to-day operations of a particular department, and sometimes a whole company, using their problem-solving skills regularly. Managers with good problem-solving skills can help ensure companies run smoothly and prosper.

If you're a current manager or are striving to become one, read this guide to discover what problem-solving skills are and why it's important for managers to have them. Learn the steps of the problem-solving process, and explore seven skills that can help make problem-solving easier and more effective.

What is problem-solving?

Problem-solving is both an ability and a process. As an ability, problem-solving can aid in resolving issues faced in different environments like home, school, abroad, and social situations, among others. As a process, problem-solving involves a series of steps for finding solutions to questions or concerns that arise throughout life.

The importance of problem-solving for managers

Managers deal with problems regularly, whether supervising a staff of two or 100. When people solve problems quickly and effectively, workplaces can benefit in a number of ways. These include:

Greater creativity

Higher productivity

Increased job fulfillment

Satisfied clients or customers

Better cooperation and cohesion

Improved environments for employees and customers

7 skills that make problem-solving easier

Companies depend on managers who can solve problems adeptly. Although problem-solving is a skill in its own right, a subset of seven skills can help make the process of problem-solving easier. These include analysis, communication, emotional intelligence, resilience, creativity, adaptability, and teamwork.

1. Analysis

As a manager , you'll solve each problem by assessing the situation first. Then, you’ll use analytical skills to distinguish between ineffective and effective solutions.

2. Communication

Effective communication plays a significant role in problem-solving, particularly when others are involved. Some skills that can help enhance communication at work include active listening, speaking with an even tone and volume, and supporting verbal information with written communication.

3. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize and manage emotions in any situation. People with emotional intelligence usually solve problems calmly and systematically, which often yields better results.

4. Resilience

Emotional intelligence and resilience are closely related traits. Resiliency is the ability to cope with and bounce back quickly from difficult situations. Those who possess resilience are often capable of accurately interpreting people and situations, which can be incredibly advantageous when difficulties arise.

5. Creativity

When brainstorming solutions to problems, creativity can help you to think outside the box. Problem-solving strategies can be enhanced with the application of creative techniques. You can use creativity to:

Approach problems from different angles

Improve your problem-solving process

Spark creativity in your employees and peers

6. Adaptability

Adaptability is the capacity to adjust to change. When a particular solution to an issue doesn't work, an adaptable person can revisit the concern to think up another one without getting frustrated.

7. Teamwork

Finding a solution to a problem regularly involves working in a team. Good teamwork requires being comfortable working with others and collaborating with them, which can result in better problem-solving overall.

Steps of the problem-solving process

Effective problem-solving involves five essential steps. One way to remember them is through the IDEAL model created in 1984 by psychology professors John D. Bransford and Barry S. Stein [ 1 ]. The steps to solving problems in this model include: identifying that there is a problem, defining the goals you hope to achieve, exploring potential solutions, choosing a solution and acting on it, and looking at (or evaluating) the outcome.

1. Identify that there is a problem and root out its cause.

To solve a problem, you must first admit that one exists to then find its root cause. Finding the cause of the problem may involve asking questions like:

Can the problem be solved?

How big of a problem is it?

Why do I think the problem is occurring?

What are some things I know about the situation?

What are some things I don't know about the situation?

Are there any people who contributed to the problem?

Are there materials or processes that contributed to the problem?

Are there any patterns I can identify?

2. Define the goals you hope to achieve.

Every problem is different. The goals you hope to achieve when problem-solving depend on the scope of the problem. Some examples of goals you might set include:

Gather as much factual information as possible.

Brainstorm many different strategies to come up with the best one.

Be flexible when considering other viewpoints.

Articulate clearly and encourage questions, so everyone involved is on the same page.

Be open to other strategies if the chosen strategy doesn't work.

Stay positive throughout the process.

3. Explore potential solutions.

Once you've defined the goals you hope to achieve when problem-solving , it's time to start the process. This involves steps that often include fact-finding, brainstorming, prioritizing solutions, and assessing the cost of top solutions in terms of time, labor, and money.

4. Choose a solution and act on it.

Evaluate the pros and cons of each potential solution, and choose the one most likely to solve the problem within your given budget, abilities, and resources. Once you choose a solution, it's important to make a commitment and see it through. Draw up a plan of action for implementation, and share it with all involved parties clearly and effectively, both verbally and in writing. Make sure everyone understands their role for a successful conclusion.

5. Look at (or evaluate) the outcome.

Evaluation offers insights into your current situation and future problem-solving. When evaluating the outcome, ask yourself questions like:

Did the solution work?

Will this solution work for other problems?

Were there any changes you would have made?

Would another solution have worked better?

As a current or future manager looking to build your problem-solving skills, it is often helpful to take a professional course. Consider Improving Communication Skills offered by the University of Pennsylvania on Coursera. You'll learn how to boost your ability to persuade, ask questions, negotiate, apologize, and more.

You might also consider taking Emotional Intelligence: Cultivating Immensely Human Interactions , offered by the University of Michigan on Coursera. You'll explore the interpersonal and intrapersonal skills common to people with emotional intelligence, and you'll learn how emotional intelligence is connected to team success and leadership.

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Article sources

Tennessee Tech. “ The Ideal Problem Solver (2nd ed.) , https://www.tntech.edu/cat/pdf/useful_links/idealproblemsolver.pdf.” Accessed December 6, 2022.

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Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

How to improve your problem solving skills and build effective problem solving strategies

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What is a problem solving process?

What are the problem solving steps I need to follow?

Problem solving strategies

What skills do i need to be an effective problem solver, how can i improve my problem solving skills.

Solving problems is like baking a cake. You can go straight into the kitchen without a recipe or the right ingredients and do your best, but the end result is unlikely to be very tasty!

Using a process to bake a cake allows you to use the best ingredients without waste, collect the right tools, account for allergies, decide whether it is a birthday or wedding cake, and then bake efficiently and on time. The result is a better cake that is fit for purpose, tastes better and has created less mess in the kitchen. Also, it should have chocolate sprinkles. Having a step by step process to solve organizational problems allows you to go through each stage methodically and ensure you are trying to solve the right problems and select the most appropriate, effective solutions.

What are the problem solving steps I need to follow?

All problem solving processes go through a number of steps in order to move from identifying a problem to resolving it.

Depending on your problem solving model and who you ask, there can be anything between four and nine problem solving steps you should follow in order to find the right solution. Whatever framework you and your group use, there are some key items that should be addressed in order to have an effective process.

We’ve looked at problem solving processes from sources such as the American Society for Quality and their four step approach , and Mediate ‘s six step process. By reflecting on those and our own problem solving processes, we’ve come up with a sequence of seven problem solving steps we feel best covers everything you need in order to effectively solve problems.

1. Problem identification

The first stage of any problem solving process is to identify the problem or problems you might want to solve. Effective problem solving strategies always begin by allowing a group scope to articulate what they believe the problem to be and then coming to some consensus over which problem they approach first. Problem solving activities used at this stage often have a focus on creating frank, open discussion so that potential problems can be brought to the surface.

2. Problem analysis

Though this step is not a million miles from problem identification, problem analysis deserves to be considered separately. It can often be an overlooked part of the process and is instrumental when it comes to developing effective solutions.

The process of problem analysis means ensuring that the problem you are seeking to solve is the right problem . As part of this stage, you may look deeper and try to find the root cause of a specific problem at a team or organizational level.

Remember that problem solving strategies should not only be focused on putting out fires in the short term but developing long term solutions that deal with the root cause of organizational challenges.

Whatever your approach, analyzing a problem is crucial in being able to select an appropriate solution and the problem solving skills deployed in this stage are beneficial for the rest of the process and ensuring the solutions you create are fit for purpose.

3. Solution generation

Once your group has nailed down the particulars of the problem you wish to solve, you want to encourage a free flow of ideas connecting to solving that problem. This can take the form of problem solving games that encourage creative thinking or problem solving activities designed to produce working prototypes of possible solutions.

The key to ensuring the success of this stage of the problem solving process is to encourage quick, creative thinking and create an open space where all ideas are considered. The best solutions can come from unlikely places and by using problem solving techniques that celebrate invention, you might come up with solution gold.

4. Solution development

No solution is likely to be perfect right out of the gate. It’s important to discuss and develop the solutions your group has come up with over the course of following the previous problem solving steps in order to arrive at the best possible solution. Problem solving games used in this stage involve lots of critical thinking, measuring potential effort and impact, and looking at possible solutions analytically.

During this stage, you will often ask your team to iterate and improve upon your frontrunning solutions and develop them further. Remember that problem solving strategies always benefit from a multitude of voices and opinions, and not to let ego get involved when it comes to choosing which solutions to develop and take further.

Finding the best solution is the goal of all problem solving workshops and here is the place to ensure that your solution is well thought out, sufficiently robust and fit for purpose.

5. Decision making

Nearly there! Once your group has reached consensus and selected a solution that applies to the problem at hand you have some decisions to make. You will want to work on allocating ownership of the project, figure out who will do what, how the success of the solution will be measured and decide the next course of action.

The decision making stage is a part of the problem solving process that can get missed or taken as for granted. Fail to properly allocate roles and plan out how a solution will actually be implemented and it less likely to be successful in solving the problem.

Have clear accountabilities, actions, timeframes, and follow-ups. Make these decisions and set clear next-steps in the problem solving workshop so that everyone is aligned and you can move forward effectively as a group.

Ensuring that you plan for the roll-out of a solution is one of the most important problem solving steps. Without adequate planning or oversight, it can prove impossible to measure success or iterate further if the problem was not solved.

6. Solution implementation

This is what we were waiting for! All problem solving strategies have the end goal of implementing a solution and solving a problem in mind.

Remember that in order for any solution to be successful, you need to help your group through all of the previous problem solving steps thoughtfully. Only then can you ensure that you are solving the right problem but also that you have developed the correct solution and can then successfully implement and measure the impact of that solution.

Project management and communication skills are key here – your solution may need to adjust when out in the wild or you might discover new challenges along the way.

7. Solution evaluation

So you and your team developed a great solution to a problem and have a gut feeling its been solved. Work done, right? Wrong. All problem solving strategies benefit from evaluation, consideration, and feedback. You might find that the solution does not work for everyone, might create new problems, or is potentially so successful that you will want to roll it out to larger teams or as part of other initiatives.

None of that is possible without taking the time to evaluate the success of the solution you developed in your problem solving model and adjust if necessary.

Remember that the problem solving process is often iterative and it can be common to not solve complex issues on the first try. Even when this is the case, you and your team will have generated learning that will be important for future problem solving workshops or in other parts of the organization.

It’s worth underlining how important record keeping is throughout the problem solving process. If a solution didn’t work, you need to have the data and records to see why that was the case. If you go back to the drawing board, notes from the previous workshop can help save time. Data and insight is invaluable at every stage of the problem solving process and this one is no different.

Problem solving workshops made easy

Problem solving strategies are methods of approaching and facilitating the process of problem-solving with a set of techniques , actions, and processes. Different strategies are more effective if you are trying to solve broad problems such as achieving higher growth versus more focused problems like, how do we improve our customer onboarding process?

Broadly, the problem solving steps outlined above should be included in any problem solving strategy though choosing where to focus your time and what approaches should be taken is where they begin to differ. You might find that some strategies ask for the problem identification to be done prior to the session or that everything happens in the course of a one day workshop.

The key similarity is that all good problem solving strategies are structured and designed. Four hours of open discussion is never going to be as productive as a four-hour workshop designed to lead a group through a problem solving process.

Good problem solving strategies are tailored to the team, organization and problem you will be attempting to solve. Here are some example problem solving strategies you can learn from or use to get started.

Use a workshop to lead a team through a group process

Often, the first step to solving problems or organizational challenges is bringing a group together effectively. Most teams have the tools, knowledge, and expertise necessary to solve their challenges – they just need some guidance in how to use leverage those skills and a structure and format that allows people to focus their energies.

Facilitated workshops are one of the most effective ways of solving problems of any scale. By designing and planning your workshop carefully, you can tailor the approach and scope to best fit the needs of your team and organization.

Problem solving workshop

Creating a bespoke, tailored process
Tackling problems of any size
Building in-house workshop ability and encouraging their use

Workshops are an effective strategy for solving problems. By using tried and test facilitation techniques and methods, you can design and deliver a workshop that is perfectly suited to the unique variables of your organization. You may only have the capacity for a half-day workshop and so need a problem solving process to match.

By using our session planner tool and importing methods from our library of 700+ facilitation techniques, you can create the right problem solving workshop for your team. It might be that you want to encourage creative thinking or look at things from a new angle to unblock your groups approach to problem solving. By tailoring your workshop design to the purpose, you can help ensure great results.

One of the main benefits of a workshop is the structured approach to problem solving. Not only does this mean that the workshop itself will be successful, but many of the methods and techniques will help your team improve their working processes outside of the workshop.

We believe that workshops are one of the best tools you can use to improve the way your team works together. Start with a problem solving workshop and then see what team building, culture or design workshops can do for your organization!

Run a design sprint

Great for:

aligning large, multi-discipline teams
quickly designing and testing solutions
tackling large, complex organizational challenges and breaking them down into smaller tasks

By using design thinking principles and methods, a design sprint is a great way of identifying, prioritizing and prototyping solutions to long term challenges that can help solve major organizational problems with quick action and measurable results.

Some familiarity with design thinking is useful, though not integral, and this strategy can really help a team align if there is some discussion around which problems should be approached first.

The stage-based structure of the design sprint is also very useful for teams new to design thinking. The inspiration phase, where you look to competitors that have solved your problem, and the rapid prototyping and testing phases are great for introducing new concepts that will benefit a team in all their future work.

It can be common for teams to look inward for solutions and so looking to the market for solutions you can iterate on can be very productive. Instilling an agile prototyping and testing mindset can also be great when helping teams move forwards – generating and testing solutions quickly can help save time in the long run and is also pretty exciting!

Break problems down into smaller issues

Organizational challenges and problems are often complicated and large scale in nature. Sometimes, trying to resolve such an issue in one swoop is simply unachievable or overwhelming. Try breaking down such problems into smaller issues that you can work on step by step. You may not be able to solve the problem of churning customers off the bat, but you can work with your team to identify smaller effort but high impact elements and work on those first.

This problem solving strategy can help a team generate momentum, prioritize and get some easy wins. It’s also a great strategy to employ with teams who are just beginning to learn how to approach the problem solving process. If you want some insight into a way to employ this strategy, we recommend looking at our design sprint template below!

Use guiding frameworks or try new methodologies

Some problems are best solved by introducing a major shift in perspective or by using new methodologies that encourage your team to think differently.

Props and tools such as Methodkit , which uses a card-based toolkit for facilitation, or Lego Serious Play can be great ways to engage your team and find an inclusive, democratic problem solving strategy. Remember that play and creativity are great tools for achieving change and whatever the challenge, engaging your participants can be very effective where other strategies may have failed.

LEGO Serious Play

Improving core problem solving skills
Thinking outside of the box
Encouraging creative solutions

LEGO Serious Play is a problem solving methodology designed to get participants thinking differently by using 3D models and kinesthetic learning styles. By physically building LEGO models based on questions and exercises, participants are encouraged to think outside of the box and create their own responses.

Collaborate LEGO Serious Play exercises are also used to encourage communication and build problem solving skills in a group. By using this problem solving process, you can often help different kinds of learners and personality types contribute and unblock organizational problems with creative thinking.

Problem solving strategies like LEGO Serious Play are super effective at helping a team solve more skills-based problems such as communication between teams or a lack of creative thinking. Some problems are not suited to LEGO Serious Play and require a different problem solving strategy.

Card Decks and Method Kits

New facilitators or non-facilitators
Approaching difficult subjects with a simple, creative framework
Engaging those with varied learning styles

Card decks and method kids are great tools for those new to facilitation or for whom facilitation is not the primary role. Card decks such as the emotional culture deck can be used for complete workshops and in many cases, can be used right out of the box. Methodkit has a variety of kits designed for scenarios ranging from personal development through to personas and global challenges so you can find the right deck for your particular needs.

Having an easy to use framework that encourages creativity or a new approach can take some of the friction or planning difficulties out of the workshop process and energize a team in any setting. Simplicity is the key with these methods. By ensuring everyone on your team can get involved and engage with the process as quickly as possible can really contribute to the success of your problem solving strategy.

Source external advice

Looking to peers, experts and external facilitators can be a great way of approaching the problem solving process. Your team may not have the necessary expertise, insights of experience to tackle some issues, or you might simply benefit from a fresh perspective. Some problems may require bringing together an entire team, and coaching managers or team members individually might be the right approach. Remember that not all problems are best resolved in the same manner.

If you’re a solo entrepreneur, peer groups, coaches and mentors can also be invaluable at not only solving specific business problems, but in providing a support network for resolving future challenges. One great approach is to join a Mastermind Group and link up with like-minded individuals and all grow together. Remember that however you approach the sourcing of external advice, do so thoughtfully, respectfully and honestly. Reciprocate where you can and prepare to be surprised by just how kind and helpful your peers can be!

Mastermind Group

Solo entrepreneurs or small teams with low capacity
Peer learning and gaining outside expertise
Getting multiple external points of view quickly

Problem solving in large organizations with lots of skilled team members is one thing, but how about if you work for yourself or in a very small team without the capacity to get the most from a design sprint or LEGO Serious Play session?

A mastermind group – sometimes known as a peer advisory board – is where a group of people come together to support one another in their own goals, challenges, and businesses. Each participant comes to the group with their own purpose and the other members of the group will help them create solutions, brainstorm ideas, and support one another.

Mastermind groups are very effective in creating an energized, supportive atmosphere that can deliver meaningful results. Learning from peers from outside of your organization or industry can really help unlock new ways of thinking and drive growth. Access to the experience and skills of your peers can be invaluable in helping fill the gaps in your own ability, particularly in young companies.

A mastermind group is a great solution for solo entrepreneurs, small teams, or for organizations that feel that external expertise or fresh perspectives will be beneficial for them. It is worth noting that Mastermind groups are often only as good as the participants and what they can bring to the group. Participants need to be committed, engaged and understand how to work in this context.

Coaching and mentoring

Focused learning and development
Filling skills gaps
Working on a range of challenges over time

Receiving advice from a business coach or building a mentor/mentee relationship can be an effective way of resolving certain challenges. The one-to-one format of most coaching and mentor relationships can really help solve the challenges those individuals are having and benefit the organization as a result.

A great mentor can be invaluable when it comes to spotting potential problems before they arise and coming to understand a mentee very well has a host of other business benefits. You might run an internal mentorship program to help develop your team’s problem solving skills and strategies or as part of a large learning and development program. External coaches can also be an important part of your problem solving strategy, filling skills gaps for your management team or helping with specific business issues.

Now we’ve explored the problem solving process and the steps you will want to go through in order to have an effective session, let’s look at the skills you and your team need to be more effective problem solvers.

Problem solving skills are highly sought after, whatever industry or team you work in. Organizations are keen to employ people who are able to approach problems thoughtfully and find strong, realistic solutions. Whether you are a facilitator , a team leader or a developer, being an effective problem solver is a skill you’ll want to develop.

Problem solving skills form a whole suite of techniques and approaches that an individual uses to not only identify problems but to discuss them productively before then developing appropriate solutions.

Here are some of the most important problem solving skills everyone from executives to junior staff members should learn. We’ve also included an activity or exercise from the SessionLab library that can help you and your team develop that skill.

If you’re running a workshop or training session to try and improve problem solving skills in your team, try using these methods to supercharge your process!

Active listening

Active listening is one of the most important skills anyone who works with people can possess. In short, active listening is a technique used to not only better understand what is being said by an individual, but also to be more aware of the underlying message the speaker is trying to convey. When it comes to problem solving, active listening is integral for understanding the position of every participant and to clarify the challenges, ideas and solutions they bring to the table.

Some active listening skills include:

Paying complete attention to the speaker.
Removing distractions.
Avoid interruption.
Taking the time to fully understand before preparing a rebuttal.
Responding respectfully and appropriately.
Demonstrate attentiveness and positivity with an open posture, making eye contact with the speaker, smiling and nodding if appropriate. Show that you are listening and encourage them to continue.
Be aware of and respectful of feelings. Judge the situation and respond appropriately. You can disagree without being disrespectful.
Observe body language.
Paraphrase what was said in your own words, either mentally or verbally.
Remain neutral.
Reflect and take a moment before responding.
Ask deeper questions based on what is said and clarify points where necessary.

Active Listening #hyperisland #skills #active listening #remote-friendly This activity supports participants to reflect on a question and generate their own solutions using simple principles of active listening and peer coaching. It’s an excellent introduction to active listening but can also be used with groups that are already familiar with it. Participants work in groups of three and take turns being: “the subject”, the listener, and the observer.

Analytical skills

All problem solving models require strong analytical skills, particularly during the beginning of the process and when it comes to analyzing how solutions have performed.

Analytical skills are primarily focused on performing an effective analysis by collecting, studying and parsing data related to a problem or opportunity.

It often involves spotting patterns, being able to see things from different perspectives and using observable facts and data to make suggestions or produce insight.

Analytical skills are also important at every stage of the problem solving process and by having these skills, you can ensure that any ideas or solutions you create or backed up analytically and have been sufficiently thought out.

Nine Whys #innovation #issue analysis #liberating structures With breathtaking simplicity, you can rapidly clarify for individuals and a group what is essentially important in their work. You can quickly reveal when a compelling purpose is missing in a gathering and avoid moving forward without clarity. When a group discovers an unambiguous shared purpose, more freedom and more responsibility are unleashed. You have laid the foundation for spreading and scaling innovations with fidelity.

Collaboration

Trying to solve problems on your own is difficult. Being able to collaborate effectively, with a free exchange of ideas, to delegate and be a productive member of a team is hugely important to all problem solving strategies.

Remember that whatever your role, collaboration is integral, and in a problem solving process, you are all working together to find the best solution for everyone.

Marshmallow challenge with debriefing #teamwork #team #leadership #collaboration In eighteen minutes, teams must build the tallest free-standing structure out of 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, one yard of string, and one marshmallow. The marshmallow needs to be on top. The Marshmallow Challenge was developed by Tom Wujec, who has done the activity with hundreds of groups around the world. Visit the Marshmallow Challenge website for more information. This version has an extra debriefing question added with sample questions focusing on roles within the team.

Communication

Being an effective communicator means being empathetic, clear and succinct, asking the right questions, and demonstrating active listening skills throughout any discussion or meeting.

In a problem solving setting, you need to communicate well in order to progress through each stage of the process effectively. As a team leader, it may also fall to you to facilitate communication between parties who may not see eye to eye. Effective communication also means helping others to express themselves and be heard in a group.

Bus Trip #feedback #communication #appreciation #closing #thiagi #team This is one of my favourite feedback games. I use Bus Trip at the end of a training session or a meeting, and I use it all the time. The game creates a massive amount of energy with lots of smiles, laughs, and sometimes even a teardrop or two.

Creative problem solving skills can be some of the best tools in your arsenal. Thinking creatively, being able to generate lots of ideas and come up with out of the box solutions is useful at every step of the process.

The kinds of problems you will likely discuss in a problem solving workshop are often difficult to solve, and by approaching things in a fresh, creative manner, you can often create more innovative solutions.

Having practical creative skills is also a boon when it comes to problem solving. If you can help create quality design sketches and prototypes in record time, it can help bring a team to alignment more quickly or provide a base for further iteration.

The paper clip method #sharing #creativity #warm up #idea generation #brainstorming The power of brainstorming. A training for project leaders, creativity training, and to catalyse getting new solutions.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is one of the fundamental problem solving skills you’ll want to develop when working on developing solutions. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, rationalize and evaluate while being aware of personal bias, outlying factors and remaining open-minded.

Defining and analyzing problems without deploying critical thinking skills can mean you and your team go down the wrong path. Developing solutions to complex issues requires critical thinking too – ensuring your team considers all possibilities and rationally evaluating them.

Agreement-Certainty Matrix #issue analysis #liberating structures #problem solving You can help individuals or groups avoid the frequent mistake of trying to solve a problem with methods that are not adapted to the nature of their challenge. The combination of two questions makes it possible to easily sort challenges into four categories: simple, complicated, complex , and chaotic . A problem is simple when it can be solved reliably with practices that are easy to duplicate. It is complicated when experts are required to devise a sophisticated solution that will yield the desired results predictably. A problem is complex when there are several valid ways to proceed but outcomes are not predictable in detail. Chaotic is when the context is too turbulent to identify a path forward. A loose analogy may be used to describe these differences: simple is like following a recipe, complicated like sending a rocket to the moon, complex like raising a child, and chaotic is like the game “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.” The Liberating Structures Matching Matrix in Chapter 5 can be used as the first step to clarify the nature of a challenge and avoid the mismatches between problems and solutions that are frequently at the root of chronic, recurring problems.

Data analysis

Though it shares lots of space with general analytical skills, data analysis skills are something you want to cultivate in their own right in order to be an effective problem solver.

Being good at data analysis doesn’t just mean being able to find insights from data, but also selecting the appropriate data for a given issue, interpreting it effectively and knowing how to model and present that data. Depending on the problem at hand, it might also include a working knowledge of specific data analysis tools and procedures.

Having a solid grasp of data analysis techniques is useful if you’re leading a problem solving workshop but if you’re not an expert, don’t worry. Bring people into the group who has this skill set and help your team be more effective as a result.

Decision making

All problems need a solution and all solutions require that someone make the decision to implement them. Without strong decision making skills, teams can become bogged down in discussion and less effective as a result.

Making decisions is a key part of the problem solving process. It’s important to remember that decision making is not restricted to the leadership team. Every staff member makes decisions every day and developing these skills ensures that your team is able to solve problems at any scale. Remember that making decisions does not mean leaping to the first solution but weighing up the options and coming to an informed, well thought out solution to any given problem that works for the whole team.

Lightning Decision Jam (LDJ) #action #decision making #problem solving #issue analysis #innovation #design #remote-friendly The problem with anything that requires creative thinking is that it’s easy to get lost—lose focus and fall into the trap of having useless, open-ended, unstructured discussions. Here’s the most effective solution I’ve found: Replace all open, unstructured discussion with a clear process. What to use this exercise for: Anything which requires a group of people to make decisions, solve problems or discuss challenges. It’s always good to frame an LDJ session with a broad topic, here are some examples: The conversion flow of our checkout Our internal design process How we organise events Keeping up with our competition Improving sales flow

Dependability

Most complex organizational problems require multiple people to be involved in delivering the solution. Ensuring that the team and organization can depend on you to take the necessary actions and communicate where necessary is key to ensuring problems are solved effectively.

Being dependable also means working to deadlines and to brief. It is often a matter of creating trust in a team so that everyone can depend on one another to complete the agreed actions in the agreed time frame so that the team can move forward together. Being undependable can create problems of friction and can limit the effectiveness of your solutions so be sure to bear this in mind throughout a project.

Team Purpose & Culture #team #hyperisland #culture #remote-friendly This is an essential process designed to help teams define their purpose (why they exist) and their culture (how they work together to achieve that purpose). Defining these two things will help any team to be more focused and aligned. With support of tangible examples from other companies, the team members work as individuals and a group to codify the way they work together. The goal is a visual manifestation of both the purpose and culture that can be put up in the team’s work space.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is an important skill for any successful team member, whether communicating internally or with clients or users. In the problem solving process, emotional intelligence means being attuned to how people are feeling and thinking, communicating effectively and being self-aware of what you bring to a room.

There are often differences of opinion when working through problem solving processes, and it can be easy to let things become impassioned or combative. Developing your emotional intelligence means being empathetic to your colleagues and managing your own emotions throughout the problem and solution process. Be kind, be thoughtful and put your points across care and attention.

Being emotionally intelligent is a skill for life and by deploying it at work, you can not only work efficiently but empathetically. Check out the emotional culture workshop template for more!

Facilitation

As we’ve clarified in our facilitation skills post, facilitation is the art of leading people through processes towards agreed-upon objectives in a manner that encourages participation, ownership, and creativity by all those involved. While facilitation is a set of interrelated skills in itself, the broad definition of facilitation can be invaluable when it comes to problem solving. Leading a team through a problem solving process is made more effective if you improve and utilize facilitation skills – whether you’re a manager, team leader or external stakeholder.

The Six Thinking Hats #creative thinking #meeting facilitation #problem solving #issue resolution #idea generation #conflict resolution The Six Thinking Hats are used by individuals and groups to separate out conflicting styles of thinking. They enable and encourage a group of people to think constructively together in exploring and implementing change, rather than using argument to fight over who is right and who is wrong.

Flexibility

Being flexible is a vital skill when it comes to problem solving. This does not mean immediately bowing to pressure or changing your opinion quickly: instead, being flexible is all about seeing things from new perspectives, receiving new information and factoring it into your thought process.

Flexibility is also important when it comes to rolling out solutions. It might be that other organizational projects have greater priority or require the same resources as your chosen solution. Being flexible means understanding needs and challenges across the team and being open to shifting or arranging your own schedule as necessary. Again, this does not mean immediately making way for other projects. It’s about articulating your own needs, understanding the needs of others and being able to come to a meaningful compromise.

The Creativity Dice #creativity #problem solving #thiagi #issue analysis Too much linear thinking is hazardous to creative problem solving. To be creative, you should approach the problem (or the opportunity) from different points of view. You should leave a thought hanging in mid-air and move to another. This skipping around prevents premature closure and lets your brain incubate one line of thought while you consciously pursue another.

Working in any group can lead to unconscious elements of groupthink or situations in which you may not wish to be entirely honest. Disagreeing with the opinions of the executive team or wishing to save the feelings of a coworker can be tricky to navigate, but being honest is absolutely vital when to comes to developing effective solutions and ensuring your voice is heard.

Remember that being honest does not mean being brutally candid. You can deliver your honest feedback and opinions thoughtfully and without creating friction by using other skills such as emotional intelligence.

Explore your Values #hyperisland #skills #values #remote-friendly Your Values is an exercise for participants to explore what their most important values are. It’s done in an intuitive and rapid way to encourage participants to follow their intuitive feeling rather than over-thinking and finding the “correct” values. It is a good exercise to use to initiate reflection and dialogue around personal values.

Initiative

The problem solving process is multi-faceted and requires different approaches at certain points of the process. Taking initiative to bring problems to the attention of the team, collect data or lead the solution creating process is always valuable. You might even roadtest your own small scale solutions or brainstorm before a session. Taking initiative is particularly effective if you have good deal of knowledge in that area or have ownership of a particular project and want to get things kickstarted.

That said, be sure to remember to honor the process and work in service of the team. If you are asked to own one part of the problem solving process and you don’t complete that task because your initiative leads you to work on something else, that’s not an effective method of solving business challenges.

15% Solutions #action #liberating structures #remote-friendly You can reveal the actions, however small, that everyone can do immediately. At a minimum, these will create momentum, and that may make a BIG difference. 15% Solutions show that there is no reason to wait around, feel powerless, or fearful. They help people pick it up a level. They get individuals and the group to focus on what is within their discretion instead of what they cannot change. With a very simple question, you can flip the conversation to what can be done and find solutions to big problems that are often distributed widely in places not known in advance. Shifting a few grains of sand may trigger a landslide and change the whole landscape.

Impartiality

A particularly useful problem solving skill for product owners or managers is the ability to remain impartial throughout much of the process. In practice, this means treating all points of view and ideas brought forward in a meeting equally and ensuring that your own areas of interest or ownership are not favored over others.

There may be a stage in the process where a decision maker has to weigh the cost and ROI of possible solutions against the company roadmap though even then, ensuring that the decision made is based on merit and not personal opinion.

Empathy map #frame insights #create #design #issue analysis An empathy map is a tool to help a design team to empathize with the people they are designing for. You can make an empathy map for a group of people or for a persona. To be used after doing personas when more insights are needed.

Being a good leader means getting a team aligned, energized and focused around a common goal. In the problem solving process, strong leadership helps ensure that the process is efficient, that any conflicts are resolved and that a team is managed in the direction of success.

It’s common for managers or executives to assume this role in a problem solving workshop, though it’s important that the leader maintains impartiality and does not bulldoze the group in a particular direction. Remember that good leadership means working in service of the purpose and team and ensuring the workshop is a safe space for employees of any level to contribute. Take a look at our leadership games and activities post for more exercises and methods to help improve leadership in your organization.

Leadership Pizza #leadership #team #remote-friendly This leadership development activity offers a self-assessment framework for people to first identify what skills, attributes and attitudes they find important for effective leadership, and then assess their own development and initiate goal setting.

In the context of problem solving, mediation is important in keeping a team engaged, happy and free of conflict. When leading or facilitating a problem solving workshop, you are likely to run into differences of opinion. Depending on the nature of the problem, certain issues may be brought up that are emotive in nature.

Being an effective mediator means helping those people on either side of such a divide are heard, listen to one another and encouraged to find common ground and a resolution. Mediating skills are useful for leaders and managers in many situations and the problem solving process is no different.

Conflict Responses #hyperisland #team #issue resolution A workshop for a team to reflect on past conflicts, and use them to generate guidelines for effective conflict handling. The workshop uses the Thomas-Killman model of conflict responses to frame a reflective discussion. Use it to open up a discussion around conflict with a team.

Planning

Solving organizational problems is much more effective when following a process or problem solving model. Planning skills are vital in order to structure, deliver and follow-through on a problem solving workshop and ensure your solutions are intelligently deployed.

Planning skills include the ability to organize tasks and a team, plan and design the process and take into account any potential challenges. Taking the time to plan carefully can save time and frustration later in the process and is valuable for ensuring a team is positioned for success.

3 Action Steps #hyperisland #action #remote-friendly This is a small-scale strategic planning session that helps groups and individuals to take action toward a desired change. It is often used at the end of a workshop or programme. The group discusses and agrees on a vision, then creates some action steps that will lead them towards that vision. The scope of the challenge is also defined, through discussion of the helpful and harmful factors influencing the group.

Prioritization

As organisations grow, the scale and variation of problems they face multiplies. Your team or is likely to face numerous challenges in different areas and so having the skills to analyze and prioritize becomes very important, particularly for those in leadership roles.

A thorough problem solving process is likely to deliver multiple solutions and you may have several different problems you wish to solve simultaneously. Prioritization is the ability to measure the importance, value, and effectiveness of those possible solutions and choose which to enact and in what order. The process of prioritization is integral in ensuring the biggest challenges are addressed with the most impactful solutions.

Impact and Effort Matrix #gamestorming #decision making #action #remote-friendly In this decision-making exercise, possible actions are mapped based on two factors: effort required to implement and potential impact. Categorizing ideas along these lines is a useful technique in decision making, as it obliges contributors to balance and evaluate suggested actions before committing to them.

Project management

Some problem solving skills are utilized in a workshop or ideation phases, while others come in useful when it comes to decision making. Overseeing an entire problem solving process and ensuring its success requires strong project management skills.

While project management incorporates many of the other skills listed here, it is important to note the distinction of considering all of the factors of a project and managing them successfully. Being able to negotiate with stakeholders, manage tasks, time and people, consider costs and ROI, and tie everything together is massively helpful when going through the problem solving process.

Record keeping

Working out meaningful solutions to organizational challenges is only one part of the process. Thoughtfully documenting and keeping records of each problem solving step for future consultation is important in ensuring efficiency and meaningful change.

For example, some problems may be lower priority than others but can be revisited in the future. If the team has ideated on solutions and found some are not up to the task, record those so you can rule them out and avoiding repeating work. Keeping records of the process also helps you improve and refine your problem solving model next time around!

Personal Kanban #gamestorming #action #agile #project planning Personal Kanban is a tool for organizing your work to be more efficient and productive. It is based on agile methods and principles.

Research skills

Conducting research to support both the identification of problems and the development of appropriate solutions is important for an effective process. Knowing where to go to collect research, how to conduct research efficiently, and identifying pieces of research are relevant are all things a good researcher can do well.

In larger groups, not everyone has to demonstrate this ability in order for a problem solving workshop to be effective. That said, having people with research skills involved in the process, particularly if they have existing area knowledge, can help ensure the solutions that are developed with data that supports their intention. Remember that being able to deliver the results of research efficiently and in a way the team can easily understand is also important. The best data in the world is only as effective as how it is delivered and interpreted.

Customer experience map #ideation #concepts #research #design #issue analysis #remote-friendly Customer experience mapping is a method of documenting and visualizing the experience a customer has as they use the product or service. It also maps out their responses to their experiences. To be used when there is a solution (even in a conceptual stage) that can be analyzed.

Risk management

Managing risk is an often overlooked part of the problem solving process. Solutions are often developed with the intention of reducing exposure to risk or solving issues that create risk but sometimes, great solutions are more experimental in nature and as such, deploying them needs to be carefully considered.

Managing risk means acknowledging that there may be risks associated with more out of the box solutions or trying new things, but that this must be measured against the possible benefits and other organizational factors.

Be informed, get the right data and stakeholders in the room and you can appropriately factor risk into your decision making process.

Decisions, Decisions… #communication #decision making #thiagi #action #issue analysis When it comes to decision-making, why are some of us more prone to take risks while others are risk-averse? One explanation might be the way the decision and options were presented. This exercise, based on Kahneman and Tversky’s classic study , illustrates how the framing effect influences our judgement and our ability to make decisions . The participants are divided into two groups. Both groups are presented with the same problem and two alternative programs for solving them. The two programs both have the same consequences but are presented differently. The debriefing discussion examines how the framing of the program impacted the participant’s decision.

Team-building

No single person is as good at problem solving as a team. Building an effective team and helping them come together around a common purpose is one of the most important problem solving skills, doubly so for leaders. By bringing a team together and helping them work efficiently, you pave the way for team ownership of a problem and the development of effective solutions.

In a problem solving workshop, it can be tempting to jump right into the deep end, though taking the time to break the ice, energize the team and align them with a game or exercise will pay off over the course of the day.

Remember that you will likely go through the problem solving process multiple times over an organization’s lifespan and building a strong team culture will make future problem solving more effective. It’s also great to work with people you know, trust and have fun with. Working on team building in and out of the problem solving process is a hallmark of successful teams that can work together to solve business problems.

9 Dimensions Team Building Activity #ice breaker #teambuilding #team #remote-friendly 9 Dimensions is a powerful activity designed to build relationships and trust among team members. There are 2 variations of this icebreaker. The first version is for teams who want to get to know each other better. The second version is for teams who want to explore how they are working together as a team.

Time management

The problem solving process is designed to lead a team from identifying a problem through to delivering a solution and evaluating its effectiveness. Without effective time management skills or timeboxing of tasks, it can be easy for a team to get bogged down or be inefficient.

By using a problem solving model and carefully designing your workshop, you can allocate time efficiently and trust that the process will deliver the results you need in a good timeframe.

Time management also comes into play when it comes to rolling out solutions, particularly those that are experimental in nature. Having a clear timeframe for implementing and evaluating solutions is vital for ensuring their success and being able to pivot if necessary.

Improving your skills at problem solving is often a career-long pursuit though there are methods you can use to make the learning process more efficient and to supercharge your problem solving skillset.

Remember that the skills you need to be a great problem solver have a large overlap with those skills you need to be effective in any role. Investing time and effort to develop your active listening or critical thinking skills is valuable in any context. Here are 7 ways to improve your problem solving skills.

Share best practices

Remember that your team is an excellent source of skills, wisdom, and techniques and that you should all take advantage of one another where possible. Best practices that one team has for solving problems, conducting research or making decisions should be shared across the organization. If you have in-house staff that have done active listening training or are data analysis pros, have them lead a training session.

Your team is one of your best resources. Create space and internal processes for the sharing of skills so that you can all grow together.

Ask for help and attend training

Once you’ve figured out you have a skills gap, the next step is to take action to fill that skills gap. That might be by asking your superior for training or coaching, or liaising with team members with that skill set. You might even attend specialized training for certain skills – active listening or critical thinking, for example, are business-critical skills that are regularly offered as part of a training scheme.

Whatever method you choose, remember that taking action of some description is necessary for growth. Whether that means practicing, getting help, attending training or doing some background reading, taking active steps to improve your skills is the way to go.

Learn a process

Problem solving can be complicated, particularly when attempting to solve large problems for the first time. Using a problem solving process helps give structure to your problem solving efforts and focus on creating outcomes, rather than worrying about the format.

Tools such as the seven-step problem solving process above are effective because not only do they feature steps that will help a team solve problems, they also develop skills along the way. Each step asks for people to engage with the process using different skills and in doing so, helps the team learn and grow together. Group processes of varying complexity and purpose can also be found in the SessionLab library of facilitation techniques . Using a tried and tested process and really help ease the learning curve for both those leading such a process, as well as those undergoing the purpose.

Effective teams make decisions about where they should and shouldn’t expend additional effort. By using a problem solving process, you can focus on the things that matter, rather than stumbling towards a solution haphazardly.

Create a feedback loop

Some skills gaps are more obvious than others. It’s possible that your perception of your active listening skills differs from those of your colleagues.

It’s valuable to create a system where team members can provide feedback in an ordered and friendly manner so they can all learn from one another. Only by identifying areas of improvement can you then work to improve them.

Remember that feedback systems require oversight and consideration so that they don’t turn into a place to complain about colleagues. Design the system intelligently so that you encourage the creation of learning opportunities, rather than encouraging people to list their pet peeves.

While practice might not make perfect, it does make the problem solving process easier. If you are having trouble with critical thinking, don’t shy away from doing it. Get involved where you can and stretch those muscles as regularly as possible.

Problem solving skills come more naturally to some than to others and that’s okay. Take opportunities to get involved and see where you can practice your skills in situations outside of a workshop context. Try collaborating in other circumstances at work or conduct data analysis on your own projects. You can often develop those skills you need for problem solving simply by doing them. Get involved!

Use expert exercises and methods

Learn from the best. Our library of 700+ facilitation techniques is full of activities and methods that help develop the skills you need to be an effective problem solver. Check out our templates to see how to approach problem solving and other organizational challenges in a structured and intelligent manner.

There is no single approach to improving problem solving skills, but by using the techniques employed by others you can learn from their example and develop processes that have seen proven results.

Try new ways of thinking and change your mindset

Using tried and tested exercises that you know well can help deliver results, but you do run the risk of missing out on the learning opportunities offered by new approaches. As with the problem solving process, changing your mindset can remove blockages and be used to develop your problem solving skills.

Most teams have members with mixed skill sets and specialties. Mix people from different teams and share skills and different points of view. Teach your customer support team how to use design thinking methods or help your developers with conflict resolution techniques. Try switching perspectives with facilitation techniques like Flip It! or by using new problem solving methodologies or models. Give design thinking, liberating structures or lego serious play a try if you want to try a new approach. You will find that framing problems in new ways and using existing skills in new contexts can be hugely useful for personal development and improving your skillset. It’s also a lot of fun to try new things. Give it a go!

Encountering business challenges and needing to find appropriate solutions is not unique to your organization. Lots of very smart people have developed methods, theories and approaches to help develop problem solving skills and create effective solutions. Learn from them!

Books like The Art of Thinking Clearly , Think Smarter, or Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow are great places to start, though it’s also worth looking at blogs related to organizations facing similar problems to yours, or browsing for success stories. Seeing how Dropbox massively increased growth and working backward can help you see the skills or approach you might be lacking to solve that same problem. Learning from others by reading their stories or approaches can be time-consuming but ultimately rewarding.

A tired, distracted mind is not in the best position to learn new skills. It can be tempted to burn the candle at both ends and develop problem solving skills outside of work. Absolutely use your time effectively and take opportunities for self-improvement, though remember that rest is hugely important and that without letting your brain rest, you cannot be at your most effective.

Creating distance between yourself and the problem you might be facing can also be useful. By letting an idea sit, you can find that a better one presents itself or you can develop it further. Take regular breaks when working and create a space for downtime. Remember that working smarter is preferable to working harder and that self-care is important for any effective learning or improvement process.

Want to design better group processes?

Over to you

Now we’ve explored some of the key problem solving skills and the problem solving steps necessary for an effective process, you’re ready to begin developing more effective solutions and leading problem solving workshops.

Need more inspiration? Check out our post on problem solving activities you can use when guiding a group towards a great solution in your next workshop or meeting. Have questions? Did you have a great problem solving technique you use with your team? Get in touch in the comments below. We’d love to chat!

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

Effects of online problem-solving instruction and identification attitude toward instructional strategies on students' creativity.

$\nYi-Ping Wang$

College of International Relations, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China

Problem-solving ability is an essential part of daily life. Thus, curiosity and a thirst for knowledge should be cultivated in students to help them develop problem solving and independent thinking skills. Along with positive attitudes and an active disposition, these abilities are needed to solve problems throughout the lifespan and develop -confidence. To achieve educational objectives in the context of globalization, creative ability is necessary for generating competitive advantages. Therefore, creative thinking, critical thinking, and problem-solving ability are important basic competencies needed for future world citizens. Creativity should also be integrated into subject teaching to cultivate students' lifelong learning and a creative attitude toward life. A questionnaire was distributed to 420 students in colleges and universities in Fujian, China. After removing invalid and incomplete responses, 363 copies were found to be valid yielding a response rate of 86%. Findings indicate that the new generation requires high levels of support to develop creativity and integrate diverse subjects such as nature, humanities, and technology. A rich imagination is needed to root creativity in the new generation.

Introduction

Problem solving is ubiquitous in modern life and an essential skill for overcoming the problems we encounter daily. Problems can be overcome using problem-solving principles and creative inspiration from individuals ( Hao et al., 2016 ). Thus, students' curiosity and thirst for knowledge should be cultivated to develop their problem solving and independent thinking abilities. An active approach and positive attitude to solving problems may enhance self-confidence and the ability to cope with challenges.

Education aims to cultivate healthy personalities, thinking, judgment, and creativity ( Su et al., 2014 ). Essentially, education is the learning process to expand students' potential and cultivate their ability to adapt to—and improve—their environment. Basic goals of education should include self-expression, independent thinking, active inquiry, and problem solving. The curriculum goals should be life-centered to develop individuals' potential, cultivate scientific knowledge and skills, and help students adapt to the demands of modern life ( Atmatzidou et al., 2018 ). Education aims to deliver basic knowledge, cultivate physical and mental development, inquiry, and reflection, and create healthy citizens through activities involving interaction between individuals, individuals and society, and society and nature. To achieve educational objectives, students should be guided to develop their performance and creation abilities, research and active exploration abilities, independent thinking and problem-solving abilities. In the current globalization context, creative abilities are required for building competitive advantages. Accordingly, creative thinking, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities are key skills for future world citizens. The cultivation of creativity should also be integrated into subject instruction, so that students develop their lifelong learning and creative attitudes toward life. Many countries are eager to cultivate creative new generations and promote the development of local business and humanistic technological education. It has become a national platform for the new generations of international technological art ( Zhang and Chu, 2016 ). In particular, the traditional productivity-oriented competition model is slowly being transformed to creativity-oriented industries. Innovation capability is likely to bring competitive advantages in the Internet information age. As the field of information technology grows exponentially, innovation capability has become more important. However, if opportunities for development are missed, it can be difficult to catch up as the need for creativity is likely to grow in the foreseeable future.

In this study we focus on student creativity and how it is affected by online problem-solving instruction and identification of attitudes toward instructional strategies. Our purpose is to help the new generation develop creativity and a rich imagination to integrate the power of nature, humanities, and technology.

Literature Review and Hypothesis

Su et al. (2017) proposed that teachers who use effective instructional strategies allow students to successfully negotiate the challenges of life, as effective instructional strategies may enhance students' problem-solving ability. Deeper relationships between teachers and students also result in better learning motivation for students. Art-related activities were used to observe the factors affecting preschool children's problem-solving ability ( Calvo et al., 2018 ). These factors included the cognition of problem goals, the development of perception ability, individual experience, interaction among peers, and resource assistance provided by teachers' instructional strategies. ( LaForce et al., 2017 ) pointed out that identifying problem-related data is an essential step in the problem-solving process, i.e., the process of acquiring data, judging data, reducing data coverage, or linking relevant data ( Wu et al., 2020a ). Teachers' instructional strategies for online problem solving also affect student performance. The following hypothesis was therefore established for this study.

H1: Online problem-solving instruction has a significant positive correlation with identification attitude.

Lu et al. (2017) consider that teachers can enhance students' problem-solving ability and cultivate their problem-finding skills through instructional strategies guiding discussion of current affairs. Instructional strategies and the use of multimedia in technology education can induce students' identification attitudes and learning motivation, ultimately enhancing learning effectiveness and facilitating the development of imagination and creativity. Students with identification attitudes toward strategies could design problem-solving methods using science ( Newhouse, 2017 ). The students understood that innovation was not necessarily the novel creation of “something from nothing” but might involve modification and new development based on existing affairs ( Wu et al., 2020b ). Achilleos et al. (2019) regard attitude toward education instructional strategies as the most important factor in students' creativity learning, where teachers, social and cultural factors, and experience in learning a foreign language revealed significant correlations. Our second hypothesis was therefore presented for this study.

H2: Identification attitude shows strong positive correlations with creativity.

Hsieh et al. (2017) posit that science-related thinking, discovery, and creation can be regarded as the research component of problem solving. Creativity is characterized by keenness, fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration—a kind of mental intelligence to generate distinct new concepts from known experiences or knowledge to solve problems with creative methods. Creativity can also be the application of known information, based on targeted outcomes, to generate novel, unique, and valuable new concepts or a new product or technology, unexplored innovative concepts or problem-solving abilities ( Wu et al., 2021 ). Joachim et al. (2018) consider creativity as a part of problem solving, as problem-solving characteristics often involve novel thinking, strong motivation and determination to present the important status of the solution in the latent process of problem solving. However, Joachim et al.'s (2018) views on creativity and problem-solving have largely been unexplored to date. Novel performance at any level of the creative process could be considered as creation. Rietz et al. (2019) stated that life brings diverse problems and the key to addressing these lies in creativity. Only when people invest more attention in creativity can problems be solved leading to optimum solutions for life's challenges. This gives rise to our third hypothesis.

H3: Online problem-solving instruction reveals strong positive correlations with creativity

Methodology

Operational definitions, online problem-solving instruction.

Referring to Chen et al. (2019) , the dimensions of online problem-solving instruction in this study were as follows.

1. Exercise example: Examples to illustrate teaching goals are provided as part of teachers' instruction. Students can learn effective problem-solving skills by observing experts' problem-solving interpretation and demonstration step-by-step.

2. Problem orientation: Problem-oriented learning refers to teachers giving carefully-designed situational problems to students, who start from a problem and proceed to problem solving and learning. After self-learning, students participate in team discussion or discussions with teachers. With constant trials, solutions are eventually proposed.

Identification Attitude

The dimensions for identification attitude toward learning are based on Tang et al. (2019) and contain the following three components.

1. Cognitive component: This refers to an individual's belief in or knowledge of specific matters. The cognition of attitude refers to evaluation of meaning from factual statements presented, i.e., an individual may form an attitude for or against a particular object. For instance, students understand that teachers have rich professional knowledge and can present materials with good organization.

2. Affective component: The affective or emotional component refers to an individual's emotions and feelings, including positive and negative feelings of respect and contempt, like and dislike, sympathy and exclusion. For example, students evaluating a teacher as a friendly person would have positive feelings about the teacher and want to develop that relationship.

3. Behavioral component: Behavior refers to an individual's response tendency to attitude objects, i.e., an individual's explicit behavioral performance when acting in relation to objects. Possible responses include approach, avoidance, or indifference. For instance, students might accept their teachers' arrangement of an activity with respect and actively ask teachers questions.

Kim et al. (2019) consider creativity includes basic cognitive abilities of divergent thinking, and that such abilities can be understood through testing tools or observation.

1. Fluency: Fluency refers to the quantity of a person's concept output, i.e., the ability to generate possible programs or solutions. A student with fluent thinking would propose several responses at the concept generation stage.

2. Flexibility: Flexibility is the ability to change thinking direction, i.e., being able to think of different methods when problems occur, to find out distinct applications or new concepts.

3. Originality: Originality refers to generation of unique and novel ideas, i.e., doing unexpected things or having the ability to see others' points of view.

4. Elaboration: Elaboration is a supplementary idea that refers to the ability to add new ideas to an original concept, i.e., the ability to increase novel concepts or build on existing ideas or basic concepts.

Research Objective

There are 89 colleges and universities in Fujian, China (50 colleges and 39 universities). Students in these institutions in Fujian comprised the research sample, and we distributed 420 copies of our questionnaire to them. After removing invalid and incomplete questionnaires, a total of 363 valid copies were returned, with a response rate of 86%.

This research focused on discussing online problems about teaching and teaching strategies. It used experimental design and online problem solving to do experimental research for 2 hours every week for 24 weeks (48 hours in total). To analyze data from the questionnaire, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used. We followed a two-stage analysis of goodness-of-fit and model verification. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was first executed, aiming to test complex variables in the model by deleting measured variables with negative effects on the cause-and-effect analysis. We then proceeded with path analysis with the modified model. Path analysis aims to estimate the path relationship among variables. Without testing complex variables through CFA, the path analysis might be affected by complex variables resulting in poor goodness-of-fit or an insignificant model path. Amos 18.0 was used in this study for the model fit test. The measurement result of CMIN/DF is considered good if lower than five and excellent if lower than three; Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit index (AGFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) are considered good if higher than 0.9; and Root Mean Square Residual (RMR), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) are good if values are lower than 0.05.

Factor Analysis

Two factors of “exercise example” (eigenvalue = 4.638, α = 0.88) and “problem orientation” (eigenvalue = 3.751, α = 0.85) were extracted from the scale of instructional strategies for online problem solving. The cumulative covariance accounted for was 72.683%. Three factors were extracted from the identification attitude scale: “cognitive component” (eigenvalue = 2.463, α = 0.81), “affective component” (eigenvalue = 1.754, α = 0.83), and “behavioral component” (eigenvalue = 1.491, α = 0.84). The cumulative covariance reached 73.942%. Four factors were extracted from the creativity scale: “fluency” (eigenvalue = 2.461, α = 0.84), “flexibility” (eigenvalue = 2.055, α = 0.82), “originality” (eigenvalue = 1.976, α = 0.87), and “elaboration” (eigenvalue = 1.689, α = 0.86). The cumulative covariance accounted for was 79.317%.

Empirical Analysis of SEM

CFA results indicated the convergent and discriminant validity of the model were first observed, with convergent validity describing the reliability of individually observed variables, construct reliability (CR), and average variances extracted (AVE). Values of more than 0.5 indicate good reliability of individually observed variables. The factor loadings of the observed variables in the empirical analysis model were higher than the suggested value. CR should exceed 0.6, although some researchers suggest that 0.5 or above is acceptable. The model calibration results reveal CR was higher than 0.6, and AVE higher than 0.5, thus conforming to the suggested values.

Regarding the calibration results of structural equations, χ 2 / df , RMSEA, GFI, AGFI, RMR, and NFI were also calculated. For χ 2 / df a standard ≦5 is suggested and χ 2 / df = 2.422 ≦ 5 in this study. The standard for RMSEA is ≦0.08; reported here as 0.044 ≦ 0.08. GFI has a suggested standard of ≧0.9 and here it is reported as 0.951 ≧ 0.9. AGFI's suggested standard ≧0.9; it shows AGFI = 0.927 ≧ 0.9 in this study. RMR has a suggested standard of ≦0.05, and here it was reported as 0.023 ≦ 0.05. The NFI standard is ≧0.9; here it presents NFI = 0.937 ≧ 0.9 in this study. The overall model fit is good. The parameter calibration of the structural equation is shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 . The research results reveal instructional strategies for online problem solving → identification attitude: 0.346 *** , that is, H1 was supported. Identification attitude → creativity: 0.375 *** , that is, H2 was supported, and instructional strategies for online problem solving → creativity: 0.425 *** , that is, H3 was supported.

Table 1 . Structural equation modeling result.

Figure 1 . FigureModel path diagram.

The results show that online instructional strategies for online problem solving can enhance students' creativity. Apparently, an expository teaching style is no longer sufficient to cope with challenges encountered. Rather, teachers need to be willing to constantly learn and change their teaching behavior to cope with the rapid development of new technology and enhance teaching efficiency. When conveying new knowledge to beginners, the provision of exercise examples may help students establish new schema to benefit the application to similar situations. When lacking relevant schema, beginners may try to solve problems with trial and error. In this case, exercise examples with experts demonstrating problem-solving steps could benefit students' learning performance in the new field. Problems studied in real life may facilitate students' creativity, drawing on their existing knowledge as they use available resources and unconsciously apply existing knowledge to enhance creative ability. The solutions to problems are unpredictable but require the ability to cope with interaction between people in a given culture or society in different situations. As a result, teachers should make decisions with the consideration of situational changes in the teaching site, i.e., students' ability, performance and teaching schedule, rather than generalizing across all situations. We do not suggest limiting creative thinking or defining set times for enhancing students' creative thinking. Instead, factors that influence creative efficiency, creative value, and curriculum schedules should be taken into account. As teachers plan their teaching activities, they should pay particular attention to students' academic performance and the vicarious experience of teachers or peers. Uysal (2014) believed people can develop their mental ability through learning even without any creative invention. When we face any new concept, it is better to keep an open mind. That way we will realize there is still a lot to be created ( Fernández et al., 2018 ). Labusch et al. (2019) said the development of creativity is not only creating positive thoughts but also turning these advantages into something more refined and broader. Teachers need to provide learning opportunities that students can apply in their daily lives leading to a re-evaluation of their identification attitudes toward instructional strategies. In this case, enhancing students' self-efficacy may assist them in overcoming learning challenges and cultivating a more positive learning attitude.

The research results demonstrate that online problem solving supports students to examine their ideas, chase after knowledge and continually improve their learning. They can freely develop their imaginations and make choices without being limited to find tools suitable for self-performance. They can concentrate on details, retain memories, and calmly think of more elaborate problem-solving approaches. Students draw on plans and organization to make significant progress in their thinking depth, novelty, flexibility, unique style, and diversity of function. To cultivate students' habits of brainstorming and thinking, they must become familiar with the general use of contextual information, and flexibility to change approaches and seek answers. Training flexible thinking is essential so that students can cope with problems with ease, propose various options and generate solutions. Lumsdaine and Lumsdaine (1995) let students learn from each other and modify their own thought. This transition could help them to achieve their potential. Solitary and monotonous learning material can no longer attract students' attention. Teachers need to provide a wider variety of materials and free choices without limit. They could also find more suitable tools for teaching. Therefore, Treffinger and Isaksen (1992) no longer provide model answers. They want students to explore and develop without any restriction. This could also amplify their personal experience and bring more options into it. It enhances student's uniqueness, and this needs overall growth, subjectively and objectively. People should never venerate one over the other. We should also learn to make good use of the conditions and things we already have. The same thing could have an entirely different outcome depending on how we use it ( Aşik and Erktin, 2019 ). Consequently, problem-solving instruction could assist in the cultivation of creativity in students' practice ability or cultivation of independent thinking and problem-solving ability. Teachers should attempt to create beneficial educational environments, cultivating students' learning interests, and enhancing their mental development. With accumulated experience, students can then be encouraged to develop more flexible skills, sensitive perception, and active thinking along with the ability to appropriately express these experiences. This would provide comprehensive preparation for enhancing students' creative thinking ability. Instructional strategies for online problem solving heavily emphasize cooperative discussion, brainstorming, and presentation. Tasks focusing on students' favorite novels and other relevant interests are valuable for sustaining long-term attention. Success in learning does not simply rely on rich knowledge and skillful techniques; affective attitudes also play an important part. Such characteristics may encourage students to positively and actively face problems and logically enhance their learning attitudes step-by-step.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of the Huaqiao University. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

Y-PW performed the initial analyses and approved the submitted version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the reviewers for their valuable comments.

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Keywords: online problem, instructional strategies, identification attitude, affective component, creativity

Citation: Wang Y-P (2021) Effects of Online Problem-Solving Instruction and Identification Attitude Toward Instructional Strategies on Students' Creativity. Front. Psychol. 12:771128. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771128

Received: 05 September 2021; Accepted: 27 September 2021; Published: 14 October 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Wang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Yi-Ping Wang, 1487774578@qq.com

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Published: 11 January 2023

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

Enwei Xu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6424-8169 1 ,
Wei Wang 1 &
Qingxia Wang 1

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 10 , Article number: 16 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Science, technology and society

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education as well as a key competence for learners in the 21st century. However, the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking remains uncertain. This current research presents the major findings of a meta-analysis of 36 pieces of the literature revealed in worldwide educational periodicals during the 21st century to identify the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and to determine, based on evidence, whether and to what extent collaborative problem solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. The findings show that (1) collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster students’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]); (2) in respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem solving can significantly and successfully enhance students’ attitudinal tendencies (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI[0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI[0.58, 0.82]); and (3) the teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01) all have an impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. On the basis of these results, recommendations are made for further study and instruction to better support students’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Fostering twenty-first century skills among primary school students through math project-based learning

Nadia Rehman, Wenlan Zhang, … Samia Batool

A meta-analysis to gauge the impact of pedagogies employed in mixed-ability high school biology classrooms

Malavika E. Santhosh, Jolly Bhadra, … Noora Al-Thani

A guide to critical thinking: implications for dental education

Deborah Martin

Introduction

Although critical thinking has a long history in research, the concept of critical thinking, which is regarded as an essential competence for learners in the 21st century, has recently attracted more attention from researchers and teaching practitioners (National Research Council, 2012 ). Critical thinking should be the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education (Peng and Deng, 2017 ) because students with critical thinking can not only understand the meaning of knowledge but also effectively solve practical problems in real life even after knowledge is forgotten (Kek and Huijser, 2011 ). The definition of critical thinking is not universal (Ennis, 1989 ; Castle, 2009 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). In general, the definition of critical thinking is a self-aware and self-regulated thought process (Facione, 1990 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). It refers to the cognitive skills needed to interpret, analyze, synthesize, reason, and evaluate information as well as the attitudinal tendency to apply these abilities (Halpern, 2001 ). The view that critical thinking can be taught and learned through curriculum teaching has been widely supported by many researchers (e.g., Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), leading to educators’ efforts to foster it among students. In the field of teaching practice, there are three types of courses for teaching critical thinking (Ennis, 1989 ). The first is an independent curriculum in which critical thinking is taught and cultivated without involving the knowledge of specific disciplines; the second is an integrated curriculum in which critical thinking is integrated into the teaching of other disciplines as a clear teaching goal; and the third is a mixed curriculum in which critical thinking is taught in parallel to the teaching of other disciplines for mixed teaching training. Furthermore, numerous measuring tools have been developed by researchers and educators to measure critical thinking in the context of teaching practice. These include standardized measurement tools, such as WGCTA, CCTST, CCTT, and CCTDI, which have been verified by repeated experiments and are considered effective and reliable by international scholars (Facione and Facione, 1992 ). In short, descriptions of critical thinking, including its two dimensions of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, different types of teaching courses, and standardized measurement tools provide a complex normative framework for understanding, teaching, and evaluating critical thinking.

Cultivating critical thinking in curriculum teaching can start with a problem, and one of the most popular critical thinking instructional approaches is problem-based learning (Liu et al., 2020 ). Duch et al. ( 2001 ) noted that problem-based learning in group collaboration is progressive active learning, which can improve students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative problem-solving is the organic integration of collaborative learning and problem-based learning, which takes learners as the center of the learning process and uses problems with poor structure in real-world situations as the starting point for the learning process (Liang et al., 2017 ). Students learn the knowledge needed to solve problems in a collaborative group, reach a consensus on problems in the field, and form solutions through social cooperation methods, such as dialogue, interpretation, questioning, debate, negotiation, and reflection, thus promoting the development of learners’ domain knowledge and critical thinking (Cindy, 2004 ; Liang et al., 2017 ).

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely used in the teaching practice of critical thinking, and several studies have attempted to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical literature on critical thinking from various perspectives. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of collaborative problem-solving on critical thinking. Therefore, the best approach for developing and enhancing critical thinking throughout collaborative problem-solving is to examine how to implement critical thinking instruction; however, this issue is still unexplored, which means that many teachers are incapable of better instructing critical thinking (Leng and Lu, 2020 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). For example, Huber ( 2016 ) provided the meta-analysis findings of 71 publications on gaining critical thinking over various time frames in college with the aim of determining whether critical thinking was truly teachable. These authors found that learners significantly improve their critical thinking while in college and that critical thinking differs with factors such as teaching strategies, intervention duration, subject area, and teaching type. The usefulness of collaborative problem-solving in fostering students’ critical thinking, however, was not determined by this study, nor did it reveal whether there existed significant variations among the different elements. A meta-analysis of 31 pieces of educational literature was conducted by Liu et al. ( 2020 ) to assess the impact of problem-solving on college students’ critical thinking. These authors found that problem-solving could promote the development of critical thinking among college students and proposed establishing a reasonable group structure for problem-solving in a follow-up study to improve students’ critical thinking. Additionally, previous empirical studies have reached inconclusive and even contradictory conclusions about whether and to what extent collaborative problem-solving increases or decreases critical thinking levels. As an illustration, Yang et al. ( 2008 ) carried out an experiment on the integrated curriculum teaching of college students based on a web bulletin board with the goal of fostering participants’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These authors’ research revealed that through sharing, debating, examining, and reflecting on various experiences and ideas, collaborative problem-solving can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking in real-life problem situations. In contrast, collaborative problem-solving had a positive impact on learners’ interaction and could improve learning interest and motivation but could not significantly improve students’ critical thinking when compared to traditional classroom teaching, according to research by Naber and Wyatt ( 2014 ) and Sendag and Odabasi ( 2009 ) on undergraduate and high school students, respectively.

The above studies show that there is inconsistency regarding the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough and trustworthy review to detect and decide whether and to what degree collaborative problem-solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. Meta-analysis is a quantitative analysis approach that is utilized to examine quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. This approach characterizes the effectiveness of its impact by averaging the effect sizes of numerous qualitative studies in an effort to reduce the uncertainty brought on by independent research and produce more conclusive findings (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

This paper used a meta-analytic approach and carried out a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking in order to make a contribution to both research and practice. The following research questions were addressed by this meta-analysis:

What is the overall effect size of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills)?

How are the disparities between the study conclusions impacted by various moderating variables if the impacts of various experimental designs in the included studies are heterogeneous?

This research followed the strict procedures (e.g., database searching, identification, screening, eligibility, merging, duplicate removal, and analysis of included studies) of Cooper’s ( 2010 ) proposed meta-analysis approach for examining quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. The relevant empirical research that appeared in worldwide educational periodicals within the 21st century was subjected to this meta-analysis using Rev-Man 5.4. The consistency of the data extracted separately by two researchers was tested using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, and a publication bias test and a heterogeneity test were run on the sample data to ascertain the quality of this meta-analysis.

Data sources and search strategies

There were three stages to the data collection process for this meta-analysis, as shown in Fig. 1 , which shows the number of articles included and eliminated during the selection process based on the statement and study eligibility criteria.

This flowchart shows the number of records identified, included and excluded in the article.

First, the databases used to systematically search for relevant articles were the journal papers of the Web of Science Core Collection and the Chinese Core source journal, as well as the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI) source journal papers included in CNKI. These databases were selected because they are credible platforms that are sources of scholarly and peer-reviewed information with advanced search tools and contain literature relevant to the subject of our topic from reliable researchers and experts. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the Web of Science was “TS = (((“critical thinking” or “ct” and “pretest” or “posttest”) or (“critical thinking” or “ct” and “control group” or “quasi experiment” or “experiment”)) and (“collaboration” or “collaborative learning” or “CSCL”) and (“problem solving” or “problem-based learning” or “PBL”))”. The research area was “Education Educational Research”, and the search period was “January 1, 2000, to December 30, 2021”. A total of 412 papers were obtained. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the CNKI was “SU = (‘critical thinking’*‘collaboration’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘collaborative learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘CSCL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem solving’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem-based learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘PBL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem oriented’) AND FT = (‘experiment’ + ‘quasi experiment’ + ‘pretest’ + ‘posttest’ + ‘empirical study’)” (translated into Chinese when searching). A total of 56 studies were found throughout the search period of “January 2000 to December 2021”. From the databases, all duplicates and retractions were eliminated before exporting the references into Endnote, a program for managing bibliographic references. In all, 466 studies were found.

Second, the studies that matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis were chosen by two researchers after they had reviewed the abstracts and titles of the gathered articles, yielding a total of 126 studies.

Third, two researchers thoroughly reviewed each included article’s whole text in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meanwhile, a snowball search was performed using the references and citations of the included articles to ensure complete coverage of the articles. Ultimately, 36 articles were kept.

Two researchers worked together to carry out this entire process, and a consensus rate of almost 94.7% was reached after discussion and negotiation to clarify any emerging differences.

Eligibility criteria

Since not all the retrieved studies matched the criteria for this meta-analysis, eligibility criteria for both inclusion and exclusion were developed as follows:

The publication language of the included studies was limited to English and Chinese, and the full text could be obtained. Articles that did not meet the publication language and articles not published between 2000 and 2021 were excluded.

The research design of the included studies must be empirical and quantitative studies that can assess the effect of collaborative problem-solving on the development of critical thinking. Articles that could not identify the causal mechanisms by which collaborative problem-solving affects critical thinking, such as review articles and theoretical articles, were excluded.

The research method of the included studies must feature a randomized control experiment or a quasi-experiment, or a natural experiment, which have a higher degree of internal validity with strong experimental designs and can all plausibly provide evidence that critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving are causally related. Articles with non-experimental research methods, such as purely correlational or observational studies, were excluded.

The participants of the included studies were only students in school, including K-12 students and college students. Articles in which the participants were non-school students, such as social workers or adult learners, were excluded.

The research results of the included studies must mention definite signs that may be utilized to gauge critical thinking’s impact (e.g., sample size, mean value, or standard deviation). Articles that lacked specific measurement indicators for critical thinking and could not calculate the effect size were excluded.

Data coding design

In order to perform a meta-analysis, it is necessary to collect the most important information from the articles, codify that information’s properties, and convert descriptive data into quantitative data. Therefore, this study designed a data coding template (see Table 1 ). Ultimately, 16 coding fields were retained.

The designed data-coding template consisted of three pieces of information. Basic information about the papers was included in the descriptive information: the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper.

The variable information for the experimental design had three variables: the independent variable (instruction method), the dependent variable (critical thinking), and the moderating variable (learning stage, teaching type, intervention duration, learning scaffold, group size, measuring tool, and subject area). Depending on the topic of this study, the intervention strategy, as the independent variable, was coded into collaborative and non-collaborative problem-solving. The dependent variable, critical thinking, was coded as a cognitive skill and an attitudinal tendency. And seven moderating variables were created by grouping and combining the experimental design variables discovered within the 36 studies (see Table 1 ), where learning stages were encoded as higher education, high school, middle school, and primary school or lower; teaching types were encoded as mixed courses, integrated courses, and independent courses; intervention durations were encoded as 0–1 weeks, 1–4 weeks, 4–12 weeks, and more than 12 weeks; group sizes were encoded as 2–3 persons, 4–6 persons, 7–10 persons, and more than 10 persons; learning scaffolds were encoded as teacher-supported learning scaffold, technique-supported learning scaffold, and resource-supported learning scaffold; measuring tools were encoded as standardized measurement tools (e.g., WGCTA, CCTT, CCTST, and CCTDI) and self-adapting measurement tools (e.g., modified or made by researchers); and subject areas were encoded according to the specific subjects used in the 36 included studies.

The data information contained three metrics for measuring critical thinking: sample size, average value, and standard deviation. It is vital to remember that studies with various experimental designs frequently adopt various formulas to determine the effect size. And this paper used Morris’ proposed standardized mean difference (SMD) calculation formula ( 2008 , p. 369; see Supplementary Table S3 ).

Procedure for extracting and coding data

According to the data coding template (see Table 1 ), the 36 papers’ information was retrieved by two researchers, who then entered them into Excel (see Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of each study were extracted separately in the data extraction procedure if an article contained numerous studies on critical thinking, or if a study assessed different critical thinking dimensions. For instance, Tiwari et al. ( 2010 ) used four time points, which were viewed as numerous different studies, to examine the outcomes of critical thinking, and Chen ( 2013 ) included the two outcome variables of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, which were regarded as two studies. After discussion and negotiation during data extraction, the two researchers’ consistency test coefficients were roughly 93.27%. Supplementary Table S2 details the key characteristics of the 36 included articles with 79 effect quantities, including descriptive information (e.g., the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper), variable information (e.g., independent variables, dependent variables, and moderating variables), and data information (e.g., mean values, standard deviations, and sample size). Following that, testing for publication bias and heterogeneity was done on the sample data using the Rev-Man 5.4 software, and then the test results were used to conduct a meta-analysis.

Publication bias test

When the sample of studies included in a meta-analysis does not accurately reflect the general status of research on the relevant subject, publication bias is said to be exhibited in this research. The reliability and accuracy of the meta-analysis may be impacted by publication bias. Due to this, the meta-analysis needs to check the sample data for publication bias (Stewart et al., 2006 ). A popular method to check for publication bias is the funnel plot; and it is unlikely that there will be publishing bias when the data are equally dispersed on either side of the average effect size and targeted within the higher region. The data are equally dispersed within the higher portion of the efficient zone, consistent with the funnel plot connected with this analysis (see Fig. 2 ), indicating that publication bias is unlikely in this situation.

This funnel plot shows the result of publication bias of 79 effect quantities across 36 studies.

Heterogeneity test

To select the appropriate effect models for the meta-analysis, one might use the results of a heterogeneity test on the data effect sizes. In a meta-analysis, it is common practice to gauge the degree of data heterogeneity using the I 2 value, and I 2 ≥ 50% is typically understood to denote medium-high heterogeneity, which calls for the adoption of a random effect model; if not, a fixed effect model ought to be applied (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The findings of the heterogeneity test in this paper (see Table 2 ) revealed that I 2 was 86% and displayed significant heterogeneity ( P < 0.01). To ensure accuracy and reliability, the overall effect size ought to be calculated utilizing the random effect model.

The analysis of the overall effect size

This meta-analysis utilized a random effect model to examine 79 effect quantities from 36 studies after eliminating heterogeneity. In accordance with Cohen’s criterion (Cohen, 1992 ), it is abundantly clear from the analysis results, which are shown in the forest plot of the overall effect (see Fig. 3 ), that the cumulative impact size of cooperative problem-solving is 0.82, which is statistically significant ( z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]), and can encourage learners to practice critical thinking.

This forest plot shows the analysis result of the overall effect size across 36 studies.

In addition, this study examined two distinct dimensions of critical thinking to better understand the precise contributions that collaborative problem-solving makes to the growth of critical thinking. The findings (see Table 3 ) indicate that collaborative problem-solving improves cognitive skills (ES = 0.70) and attitudinal tendency (ES = 1.17), with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 7.95, P < 0.01). Although collaborative problem-solving improves both dimensions of critical thinking, it is essential to point out that the improvements in students’ attitudinal tendency are much more pronounced and have a significant comprehensive effect (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]), whereas gains in learners’ cognitive skill are slightly improved and are just above average. (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

The analysis of moderator effect size

The whole forest plot’s 79 effect quantities underwent a two-tailed test, which revealed significant heterogeneity ( I 2 = 86%, z = 12.78, P < 0.01), indicating differences between various effect sizes that may have been influenced by moderating factors other than sampling error. Therefore, exploring possible moderating factors that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis, such as the learning stage, learning scaffold, teaching type, group size, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, in order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking. The findings (see Table 4 ) indicate that various moderating factors have advantageous effects on critical thinking. In this situation, the subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01), and teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05) are all significant moderators that can be applied to support the cultivation of critical thinking. However, since the learning stage and the measuring tools did not significantly differ among intergroup (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05, and chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05), we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These are the precise outcomes, as follows:

Various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively, without significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05). High school was first on the list of effect sizes (ES = 1.36, P < 0.01), then higher education (ES = 0.78, P < 0.01), and middle school (ES = 0.73, P < 0.01). These results show that, despite the learning stage’s beneficial influence on cultivating learners’ critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is essential for cultivating critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Different teaching types had varying degrees of positive impact on critical thinking, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05). The effect size was ranked as follows: mixed courses (ES = 1.34, P < 0.01), integrated courses (ES = 0.81, P < 0.01), and independent courses (ES = 0.27, P < 0.01). These results indicate that the most effective approach to cultivate critical thinking utilizing collaborative problem solving is through the teaching type of mixed courses.

Various intervention durations significantly improved critical thinking, and there were significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01). The effect sizes related to this variable showed a tendency to increase with longer intervention durations. The improvement in critical thinking reached a significant level (ES = 0.85, P < 0.01) after more than 12 weeks of training. These findings indicate that the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated, with a longer intervention duration having a greater effect.

Different learning scaffolds influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01). The resource-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.69, P < 0.01) acquired a medium-to-higher level of impact, the technique-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.63, P < 0.01) also attained a medium-to-higher level of impact, and the teacher-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.92, P < 0.01) displayed a high level of significant impact. These results show that the learning scaffold with teacher support has the greatest impact on cultivating critical thinking.

Various group sizes influenced critical thinking positively, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05). Critical thinking showed a general declining trend with increasing group size. The overall effect size of 2–3 people in this situation was the biggest (ES = 0.99, P < 0.01), and when the group size was greater than 7 people, the improvement in critical thinking was at the lower-middle level (ES < 0.5, P < 0.01). These results show that the impact on critical thinking is positively connected with group size, and as group size grows, so does the overall impact.

Various measuring tools influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05). In this situation, the self-adapting measurement tools obtained an upper-medium level of effect (ES = 0.78), whereas the complete effect size of the standardized measurement tools was the largest, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 0.84, P < 0.01). These results show that, despite the beneficial influence of the measuring tool on cultivating critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Different subject areas had a greater impact on critical thinking, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05). Mathematics had the greatest overall impact, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 1.68, P < 0.01), followed by science (ES = 1.25, P < 0.01) and medical science (ES = 0.87, P < 0.01), both of which also achieved a significant level of effect. Programming technology was the least effective (ES = 0.39, P < 0.01), only having a medium-low degree of effect compared to education (ES = 0.72, P < 0.01) and other fields (such as language, art, and social sciences) (ES = 0.58, P < 0.01). These results suggest that scientific fields (e.g., mathematics, science) may be the most effective subject areas for cultivating critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

According to this meta-analysis, using collaborative problem-solving as an intervention strategy in critical thinking teaching has a considerable amount of impact on cultivating learners’ critical thinking as a whole and has a favorable promotional effect on the two dimensions of critical thinking. According to certain studies, collaborative problem solving, the most frequently used critical thinking teaching strategy in curriculum instruction can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking (e.g., Liang et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Cindy, 2004 ). This meta-analysis provides convergent data support for the above research views. Thus, the findings of this meta-analysis not only effectively address the first research query regarding the overall effect of cultivating critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills) utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving, but also enhance our confidence in cultivating critical thinking by using collaborative problem-solving intervention approach in the context of classroom teaching.

Furthermore, the associated improvements in attitudinal tendency are much stronger, but the corresponding improvements in cognitive skill are only marginally better. According to certain studies, cognitive skill differs from the attitudinal tendency in classroom instruction; the cultivation and development of the former as a key ability is a process of gradual accumulation, while the latter as an attitude is affected by the context of the teaching situation (e.g., a novel and exciting teaching approach, challenging and rewarding tasks) (Halpern, 2001 ; Wei and Hong, 2022 ). Collaborative problem-solving as a teaching approach is exciting and interesting, as well as rewarding and challenging; because it takes the learners as the focus and examines problems with poor structure in real situations, and it can inspire students to fully realize their potential for problem-solving, which will significantly improve their attitudinal tendency toward solving problems (Liu et al., 2020 ). Similar to how collaborative problem-solving influences attitudinal tendency, attitudinal tendency impacts cognitive skill when attempting to solve a problem (Liu et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), and stronger attitudinal tendencies are associated with improved learning achievement and cognitive ability in students (Sison, 2008 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). It can be seen that the two specific dimensions of critical thinking as well as critical thinking as a whole are affected by collaborative problem-solving, and this study illuminates the nuanced links between cognitive skills and attitudinal tendencies with regard to these two dimensions of critical thinking. To fully develop students’ capacity for critical thinking, future empirical research should pay closer attention to cognitive skills.

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

In order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking, exploring possible moderating effects that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis. The findings show that the moderating factors, such as the teaching type, learning stage, group size, learning scaffold, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, could all support the cultivation of collaborative problem-solving in critical thinking. Among them, the effect size differences between the learning stage and measuring tool are not significant, which does not explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

In terms of the learning stage, various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively without significant intergroup differences, indicating that we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking.

Although high education accounts for 70.89% of all empirical studies performed by researchers, high school may be the appropriate learning stage to foster students’ critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving since it has the largest overall effect size. This phenomenon may be related to student’s cognitive development, which needs to be further studied in follow-up research.

With regard to teaching type, mixed course teaching may be the best teaching method to cultivate students’ critical thinking. Relevant studies have shown that in the actual teaching process if students are trained in thinking methods alone, the methods they learn are isolated and divorced from subject knowledge, which is not conducive to their transfer of thinking methods; therefore, if students’ thinking is trained only in subject teaching without systematic method training, it is challenging to apply to real-world circumstances (Ruggiero, 2012 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Teaching critical thinking as mixed course teaching in parallel to other subject teachings can achieve the best effect on learners’ critical thinking, and explicit critical thinking instruction is more effective than less explicit critical thinking instruction (Bensley and Spero, 2014 ).

In terms of the intervention duration, with longer intervention times, the overall effect size shows an upward tendency. Thus, the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated. Critical thinking, as a key competency for students in the 21st century, is difficult to get a meaningful improvement in a brief intervention duration. Instead, it could be developed over a lengthy period of time through consistent teaching and the progressive accumulation of knowledge (Halpern, 2001 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Therefore, future empirical studies ought to take these restrictions into account throughout a longer period of critical thinking instruction.

With regard to group size, a group size of 2–3 persons has the highest effect size, and the comprehensive effect size decreases with increasing group size in general. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a group composed of two to four members is most appropriate for collaborative learning (Schellens and Valcke, 2006 ). However, the meta-analysis results also indicate that once the group size exceeds 7 people, small groups cannot produce better interaction and performance than large groups. This may be because the learning scaffolds of technique support, resource support, and teacher support improve the frequency and effectiveness of interaction among group members, and a collaborative group with more members may increase the diversity of views, which is helpful to cultivate critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

With regard to the learning scaffold, the three different kinds of learning scaffolds can all enhance critical thinking. Among them, the teacher-supported learning scaffold has the largest overall effect size, demonstrating the interdependence of effective learning scaffolds and collaborative problem-solving. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a successful strategy is to encourage learners to collaborate, come up with solutions, and develop critical thinking skills by using learning scaffolds (Reiser, 2004 ; Xu et al., 2022 ); learning scaffolds can lower task complexity and unpleasant feelings while also enticing students to engage in learning activities (Wood et al., 2006 ); learning scaffolds are designed to assist students in using learning approaches more successfully to adapt the collaborative problem-solving process, and the teacher-supported learning scaffolds have the greatest influence on critical thinking in this process because they are more targeted, informative, and timely (Xu et al., 2022 ).

With respect to the measuring tool, despite the fact that standardized measurement tools (such as the WGCTA, CCTT, and CCTST) have been acknowledged as trustworthy and effective by worldwide experts, only 54.43% of the research included in this meta-analysis adopted them for assessment, and the results indicated no intergroup differences. These results suggest that not all teaching circumstances are appropriate for measuring critical thinking using standardized measurement tools. “The measuring tools for measuring thinking ability have limits in assessing learners in educational situations and should be adapted appropriately to accurately assess the changes in learners’ critical thinking.”, according to Simpson and Courtney ( 2002 , p. 91). As a result, in order to more fully and precisely gauge how learners’ critical thinking has evolved, we must properly modify standardized measuring tools based on collaborative problem-solving learning contexts.

With regard to the subject area, the comprehensive effect size of science departments (e.g., mathematics, science, medical science) is larger than that of language arts and social sciences. Some recent international education reforms have noted that critical thinking is a basic part of scientific literacy. Students with scientific literacy can prove the rationality of their judgment according to accurate evidence and reasonable standards when they face challenges or poorly structured problems (Kyndt et al., 2013 ), which makes critical thinking crucial for developing scientific understanding and applying this understanding to practical problem solving for problems related to science, technology, and society (Yore et al., 2007 ).

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Other than those stated in the discussion above, the following suggestions are offered for critical thinking instruction utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

First, teachers should put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, to design real problems based on collaborative situations. This meta-analysis provides evidence to support the view that collaborative problem-solving has a strong synergistic effect on promoting students’ critical thinking. Asking questions about real situations and allowing learners to take part in critical discussions on real problems during class instruction are key ways to teach critical thinking rather than simply reading speculative articles without practice (Mulnix, 2012 ). Furthermore, the improvement of students’ critical thinking is realized through cognitive conflict with other learners in the problem situation (Yang et al., 2008 ). Consequently, it is essential for teachers to put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, and design real problems and encourage students to discuss, negotiate, and argue based on collaborative problem-solving situations.

Second, teachers should design and implement mixed courses to cultivate learners’ critical thinking, utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving. Critical thinking can be taught through curriculum instruction (Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), with the goal of cultivating learners’ critical thinking for flexible transfer and application in real problem-solving situations. This meta-analysis shows that mixed course teaching has a highly substantial impact on the cultivation and promotion of learners’ critical thinking. Therefore, teachers should design and implement mixed course teaching with real collaborative problem-solving situations in combination with the knowledge content of specific disciplines in conventional teaching, teach methods and strategies of critical thinking based on poorly structured problems to help students master critical thinking, and provide practical activities in which students can interact with each other to develop knowledge construction and critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Third, teachers should be more trained in critical thinking, particularly preservice teachers, and they also should be conscious of the ways in which teachers’ support for learning scaffolds can promote critical thinking. The learning scaffold supported by teachers had the greatest impact on learners’ critical thinking, in addition to being more directive, targeted, and timely (Wood et al., 2006 ). Critical thinking can only be effectively taught when teachers recognize the significance of critical thinking for students’ growth and use the proper approaches while designing instructional activities (Forawi, 2016 ). Therefore, with the intention of enabling teachers to create learning scaffolds to cultivate learners’ critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem solving, it is essential to concentrate on the teacher-supported learning scaffolds and enhance the instruction for teaching critical thinking to teachers, especially preservice teachers.

Implications and limitations

There are certain limitations in this meta-analysis, but future research can correct them. First, the search languages were restricted to English and Chinese, so it is possible that pertinent studies that were written in other languages were overlooked, resulting in an inadequate number of articles for review. Second, these data provided by the included studies are partially missing, such as whether teachers were trained in the theory and practice of critical thinking, the average age and gender of learners, and the differences in critical thinking among learners of various ages and genders. Third, as is typical for review articles, more studies were released while this meta-analysis was being done; therefore, it had a time limit. With the development of relevant research, future studies focusing on these issues are highly relevant and needed.

Conclusions

The subject of the magnitude of collaborative problem-solving’s impact on fostering students’ critical thinking, which received scant attention from other studies, was successfully addressed by this study. The question of the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking was addressed in this study, which addressed a topic that had gotten little attention in earlier research. The following conclusions can be made:

Regarding the results obtained, collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster learners’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z = 12.78, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]). With respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem-solving can significantly and effectively improve students’ attitudinal tendency, and the comprehensive effect is significant (ES = 1.17, z = 7.62, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z = 11.55, P < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

As demonstrated by both the results and the discussion, there are varying degrees of beneficial effects on students’ critical thinking from all seven moderating factors, which were found across 36 studies. In this context, the teaching type (chi 2 = 7.20, P < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2 = 12.18, P < 0.01), subject area (chi 2 = 13.36, P < 0.05), group size (chi 2 = 8.77, P < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2 = 9.03, P < 0.01) all have a positive impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. Since the learning stage (chi 2 = 3.15, P = 0.21 > 0.05) and measuring tools (chi 2 = 0.08, P = 0.78 > 0.05) did not demonstrate any significant intergroup differences, we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article and its supplementary information files, and the supplementary information files are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IPFJO6 .

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This research was supported by the graduate scientific research and innovation project of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region named “Research on in-depth learning of high school information technology courses for the cultivation of computing thinking” (No. XJ2022G190) and the independent innovation fund project for doctoral students of the College of Educational Science of Xinjiang Normal University named “Research on project-based teaching of high school information technology courses from the perspective of discipline core literacy” (No. XJNUJKYA2003).

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Xu, E., Wang, W. & Wang, Q. The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 16 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

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T/E design based learning: assessing student critical thinking and problem solving abilities

Published: 07 July 2020
Volume 32 , pages 267–285, ( 2022 )

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Susheela Shanta ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2387-6318 1 &
John G. Wells ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9730-577X 2

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The research presented is of an investigation into the critical thinking (CT) and problem solving (PS) abilities used by high school technology and engineering (T/E) students when attempting to achieve a viable solution for an authentic engineering design-no-make challenge presented outside the context of the classroom in which their STEM content was first learned. Five key abilities were identified and assessed as indicators of a student’s ability to problem solving within the context of authentic engineering design. Findings from data analyses indicates T/E students who acquire STEM content through T/E design base learning demonstrate significantly better CT and PS abilities in designing an engineering solution compared with a hypothesized mean for students receiving their STEM content via traditional classroom instruction. Furthermore, student abilities associated with selecting and utilizing relevant science and math content and practices, and communicating logical reasoning in their design solution were found to be critical to successful problem solving.

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Shanta, S., Wells, J.G. T/E design based learning: assessing student critical thinking and problem solving abilities. Int J Technol Des Educ 32 , 267–285 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-020-09608-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-020-09608-8

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Can the Effect of Problem Solvers’ Characteristics on Adolescents’ Cooperative Problem Solving Ability Be Improved by Group Sizes?

Chuanhua gu.

1 School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

2 Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China

Xiaoqing Ma

Qianqian li.

3 Department of Preschool Education, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Cooperative problem solving (CPS) is an essential ability in people’s daily life. When individuals with different problem-solvers’ characteristics (orientation and style) are assigned to different group sizes to solve social tasks, what are the differences in the performance of CPS ability? Based on this, through online experimental tasks, the present study examined the effect of problem-solving orientation and style on CPS ability in online social tasks. Meanwhile, it explored the role of group sizes as an environmental variable. The results showed that the more positive the problem-solving orientation, the better the performance of individual CPS ability. In addition, the more rational the problem-solving styles and the larger the group sizes, the higher the scores of participants’ CPS ability. This study provides a new theoretical perspective for the complex relationship between the characteristics of problem solvers and CPS ability, and also provides empirical support for the cultivation of the CPS ability of adolescents.

1. Introduction

Cooperation with others has been regarded as the core form of human activities [ 1 ], and cooperation is also one of the factors that promote social progress. The social division of labor makes people pay more and more attention to the cultivation of cooperative problem-solving (CPS) ability. The OECD (2017) [ 2 ] pointed out that CPS is an essential ability for people in education and work. It refers to the ability of an individual to effectively participate in the problem-solving process of two or more agents. In this process, individuals share the understanding and efforts needed to reach a solution to the problem, and at the same time, they combine their knowledge, skills, and efforts to achieve the solution reached.

In recent years, CPS ability has been widely studied in the field of education. It was found that students’ individual factors (including subject knowledge, personality, emotion, experience, motivation, and cognitive ability) will affect their cooperation and problem-solving process [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, these individual factors are mainly concentrated in the cognitive dimension, while the individual characteristics in the social dimension (orientation and style) have not been investigated yet. Previous studies have shown that problem situation, task characteristics, and groups composition can affect the type of cooperation and the process of problem solving [ 2 , 5 , 6 ]. At present, most CPS ability research uses “scientific tasks” as experimental tasks, while there is little research that uses “social tasks” in social fields. “Social tasks” is regarded as the basic task of solving social problems, which covers a wide area and has strong applicability, so the social tasks research should be increased.

General cognitive tasks (i.e., balance problems, memory tasks, conservation tasks, and mathematical problems) are usually used in problem-solving research. The relevant research focuses more on the individual, but research on the individual’s CPS ability in the groups is rarely involved. Group social creativity refers to the ability of group members to cooperate with each other in a specific way and jointly propose or solve social problems in personal life, interpersonal relationships, and social environments. It often shows unique, novel, appropriate, and effective problem-solving strategies. Compared with the independent thinking of individuals, the nature of CPS creativity can be shown in the study of groups accomplishing tasks together.

This study uses the method of an online cooperative problem-solving experiment to investigate the effect of an individual’s problem-solving orientation/style on their CPS ability, and effectively intervene in their CPS ability to find the best conditions to promote their CPS performance, to provide theoretical support for the cultivation of this ability.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. collaborative problem solving.

People pay more and more attention to the cultivation and promotion of CPS ability [ 7 ]. Cooperation is considered to be a kind of coordinated and synchronous activity to continuously establish and maintain a common idea about a certain problem [ 8 ]. Problem solving refers to the process in which an individual tries to find a way to achieve the goal based on the present situation in a problem situation where the solution is unclear [ 9 ]. With the improvement of the refined level of social division of labor, cooperation between two or more people has become the basic mode to solve problems in various fields, and cooperation and problem solving have gradually been integrated into CPS [ 10 ].

Compared with individual problem solving, the advantages of CPS are obvious: (1) CPS has a more effective division of labor, which makes the problem solved faster and better; (2) solutions to problems can include knowledge, opinions, and experience from various sources; (3) the ideas of other group members can improve the quality of individual solutions [ 11 ]. CPS includes two key dimensions: cognitive dimension and social dimension [ 9 , 12 ]. In the cognitive dimension, group members need to work together, exchange information, form a common understanding of problems, and discuss the most appropriate strategies to solve problems. Then, they should supervise and modify the strategies to solve problems until the group’s goals are achieved. In the social dimension, the main process is group communication, which can promote or hinder the progress of cooperation in the cognitive dimension.

Combined with previous studies, it is found that most of the empirical studies on the effect factors of adolescents’ CPS ability focus on students’ individual factors: gender and cooperative attitude; family factors: family socioeconomic status; school factors: teacher–student relationship and the teacher’s method of teaching [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. The effect of individual differences on students’ CPS ability is also very different.

2.2. Social Problem Solving

Social problem solving is defined as a self-oriented cognitive-behavioral process in which individuals try to identify special problems encountered in daily life and find effective solutions [ 18 ]. The structure of social problem-solving skills is multidimensional and multifaceted. D’Zurilla and Goldfried put forward the theoretical model of social problem solving, which was developed and modified by D’Zurilla and Nezu [ 19 ]. The theoretical model of social problem solving divides social problem solving into two relatively independent parts: (1) problem-solving orientation; (2) problem-solving styles. Problem-solving orientation includes two dimensions: positive problem-solving orientation and negative problem-solving orientation, while problem-solving styles consist of three dimensions: rational problem-solving styles, impulse/neglect problem-solving styles, and escape problem-solving styles.

Generally, the research on solving social problems can be divided into two categories: the first is theoretical model research [ 20 , 21 ]; the second is applied research [ 22 , 23 ]. The first type of research is represented by the research of D’Zurilla who put forward a five-factor model for solving social problems. In the second type of research, the researchers explored the effectiveness of social problem-solving ability and studied its relationship with specific behaviors and health. On this basis, the related factors of social problem-solving ability were investigated, followed by a series of intervention studies [ 24 , 25 ].

2.3. Group Sizes

Cooperation is everywhere, and most students’ learning activities in school need to be carried out through interaction with peers. When students solve a problem together, they need to adjust the differences in problem understanding among the members of the group by establishing a common understanding, and they should negotiate the behaviors of the members of the group. Then, they form a solution to the problem and reach a consensus to finally achieve the group goals [ 26 ]. Cooperation is the core of this process.

Previous studies have found that researchers mostly measure the scale of cooperative groups in the form of two-person groups or three-person groups, for example, the measurement of cooperative problem solving in PISA2015 [ 2 ]. Moreover, these studies pay more attention to the “problem solving” of cooperative problem-solving ability, but as one of the core dimensions of cooperative problem solving, “the size of the cooperative group” seems to have not been systematically explored by researchers.

3. Current Study

According to the analysis of the existing research, it was found that the individual will be different from person to person when solving social problems, which is mainly manifested in the differences in the characteristics of two problem solvers: problem orientation and problem style. Based on previous studies, this study explores the influence of different orientations/styles on teenagers’ CPS ability by two behavioral experiments, and finds ways to promote individuals’ CPS ability.

4. Experiment 1

4.1. hypotheses.

Previous studies have indicated that the performance of individual CPS ability is mainly focused on individual factors, family economic status, and the relationship between teachers and students [ 13 , 14 , 27 ]. Experiment 1 was intended to investigate the effect of problem-solving orientation (positive and negative) and the number of group sizes (small and large) on CPS ability. We proposed the following hypotheses:

Problem-solving orientation affects participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and participants with a positive problem-solving orientation have a higher CPS ability than those with a negative problem-solving orientation .

Group sizes affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and the CPS of individuals in tasks is significantly improved if they are provided with bigger groups .

There is a significant interaction effect between participants’ problem-solving orientation, size of the groups, and CPS ability; individuals show a higher level of CPS ability if they have a positive problem-solving orientation and are presented with large group sizes .

4.2. Method

4.2.1. participants and design.

A total of 238 copies of Social Problem-Solving Inventory were randomly distributed online to students at a high school in Shandong Province in China; 224 valid questionnaires were collected. All participants were aged 15 years old (100 female; 123 male). Social Problem-Solving Inventory scores were standardized using the method proposed by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. Thirty-six participants (22 female; 14 male) whose scores on positive problem-solving orientation and negative problem-solving orientation were higher than one standard deviation, were selected as the participants of experiment 1.

All participants had normal or corrected vision, had never participated in similar experiments before, and participated voluntarily. Participants were familiar with the use of Tencent QQ (PC version) and could type no less than 25 words per minute. Informed consent was obtained from participants and the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the university.

4.2.2. Apparatus and Stimuli

Measures of social problem-solving : The problem-solving orientation of participants was measured using the Social Problem-Solving Inventory compiled by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. The revised scale, from the original 52 questions that were reduced to 32 questions, adopted a five-point Likert scoring method, with “1” being representative of not being in complete conformity, and “5” being representative of character completely. Problem-solving orientation has two dimensions: positive tendency of four topics (i.e., When I have a problem, I believe it can be resolved); negative problem-solving orientation tends to be a total of five topics (i.e., when there is an important problem need to solve, I feel scared).

The social tasks : The social task in this study used a question compiled by PISA 2015. The question was: There are a group of foreign students who want to visit the area where the students take part in the test. The students who take part in the test need to make a visit plan with other students, negotiate the tour guide plan together, determine which students are the guides for which foreign students, and deal with emergencies during the visit. Because the testing system used in PISA 2015 is not open, this study adjusted the sample questions of PISA 2015, so the tasks and requirements of the questions remained unchanged while the tasks were adjusted in the context of Chinese culture.

Instruments : Tencent QQ and a timer. Tencent QQ is an internet-based instant messaging (IM) software developed by Tencent in 1999 based on ICQ, which allows communication in single and multiparticipant modes.

4.2.3. Procedure

Bringing the screened participants into the laboratory individually, according to the pre-divided two-person group or three-person group, the participants were invited to sit and wait quietly, and the main test introduced the experimental process before the experiment formally started.

The experiment was conducted in a quiet and network-stable laboratory. After arriving at the laboratory, the participants were asked to carefully read the online experiment rules of CPS; then, the subjects were asked to use the Tencent QQ to complete the experiment, and they could not open any other program interface unrelated to the experiment during the experiment.

Participants completed a consent form with their basic information. The researcher created a discussion group in Tencent QQ, and the researcher and participants were added. There were three members, one researcher and two participants in the discussion group, who participated in the two-person groups; there were four members, one researcher and three participants in the discussion group, who participated in the three-person group. The researcher introduced the procedure, rules, and specific instructions of the experiment to participants, informing them that they would complete the experiment with the other (two or three) participants.

The researcher sent the task materials of the experiment to the discussion group. The participants in both two-person groups as well as three-person groups had 20 min to complete the CPS task. After the experiment, the researcher saved the data produced by each individual, removing it from the chat history before the next group started to keep the data sorted into relevant groups.

4.2.4. Measurement

The social task of this study was formulated with reference to the sample questions of PISA 2015, and the evaluation of task results should also refer to the sample questions evaluation method of PISA 2015. PISA 2015 takes three core competencies of CPS and four problem-solving tasks at a personal level as the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the matrix, respectively, which constitutes 12 CPS-specific skills. According to the matrix of 12 CPS-specific skills, PISA divided the three dimensions of CPS ability (that is, to establish and maintain consensus; take appropriate actions to solve problems; establish and maintain group organization form) into three levels: low, medium, and high. Grading was performed using scores, where a low grade was one point, a medium grade was two points, and a high grade was three points. The three core competencies of CPS were obtained by adding the specific skill scores of the corresponding columns in the matrix.

The social tasks consisted of three specific tasks, including: (1) determine where foreign students are going to play, (2) determine who is the guide for foreign students, and (3) how to deal with emergencies. The three specific tasks were graded according to the grading standard of CPS core ability.

Both raters were asked to rate a common set of 25% of the ideas to establish reliability. The reliability was satisfactory (the ICC value for the CPS was 0.877). Then, one rater was asked to rate the remaining ideas for novelty [ 28 ].

4.3. Results

4.3.1. descriptive statistics.

Experimental data were sorted and coded in Microsoft Excel. IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 was used for data analysis including descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. In Experiment 1, the dependent variable index was the CPS ability of the participants. The results are shown in Table 1 .

CPS scores under different problem-solving orientations and group sizes (M ± SD).

Note. M = mean, SD = standard deviation.

As can be seen from Table 1 , regardless of whether the two-person group or the three-person group was considered, the CPS ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was clearly higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. For individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation, the performance of individuals in a three-person group was higher than that of individuals in a two-person group, while individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation were just the opposite, that is, the performance of individuals in a two-person group was higher than that of individuals in a three-person group.

4.3.2. Interaction Analysis

A one-way ANOVA of participants’ gender with problem-solving orientation and CPS found that when the gender of participants was taken as an independent variable, there were some significant differences in various dimensions of problem-solving orientation ( t (1, 34) = −2.319, p = 0.015 < 0.05).

To control for the effect of gender on the results, a 2 (problem-solving orientation: positive and negative) × 2 (sizes of groups: small and large) between-group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted, with problem-solving orientation and group sizes as independent variables, CPS ability as the dependent variable, and gender as a covariate. The results of ANCOVA are presented in Table 2 .

Variance analysis of CPS scores under different problem-solving orientations and team sizes.

Note. * p < 0.05.

Table 2 showed that after controlling for the gender of the participants, the main effect of problem-solving orientation on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 31) = 10.878, p = 0.002 < 0.05, η 2 p = 0.260. This suggests that problem-solving orientation can significantly affect the individual’s CPS ability. However, the main effect of group sizes on CPS ability was not significant: F (1, 31) = 0.021, p = 0.087 > 0.05. This suggests that group size does not affect the individual’s ability of CPS. The interaction effect between problem-solving orientation and group sizes was not significant on effectiveness: F (1, 31) = 0.890, p = 0.353 > 0.05. This suggests that problem-solving orientation had a direct effect on effectiveness and was moderated by group sizes.

Further analysis showed that the score of the CPS core ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was much higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. For individuals with a positive orientation, the three-person group produced better CPS scores than those in the two-person group, but the results of this phenomenon were inconsistent for individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. Therefore, in Experiment 1, the problem-solving orientation had a significant impact on the CPS ability scores of the participants, but there was no significant difference in group sizes.

4.4. Discussion

Experiment 1 investigated the CPS ability of participants under experimental conditions with different group sizes and different problem-solving orientations by controlling the size of groups presented in the experiment. We found that problem-solving orientation had a significant effect on CPS ability. The scores of individuals with a positive orientation were much higher than those with a negative orientation. However, in experiment 1, there was no significant effect of different group sizes on the ability of individual CPS.

Problem-solving orientation can promote the individual’s CPS ability, which accords with some expectations of Experiment 1 and supports existing research. The more positive the individual, the higher the score of their own CPS ability and the better the individual performance in the groups. This may be because individuals with a positive orientation believe more in their ability to solve problems in cooperation with others, so they are willing to put more effort into group work. However, individuals with a negative orientation do not think they have the ability to solve problems, so their mentality and cooperative attitude are negative, and they do not make a great effort in group cooperation. Wigfield and Eccles’ research in 2000 can confirm this view. They put forth the idea that the degree of individual effort depends on whether individuals think they have the ability to succeed [ 29 ]. The research of Dweck (2006) [ 30 ] also verifies that having a good growth mentality (affirmation of one’s own ability) has positive effects on efforts, persistence, and achievements.

However, experiment 1 did not find a significant effect of group size on the ability of an individual’s CPS. However, it can provide a reference for future research and design. This result can mainly be explained from two aspects. First, this study divided the group sizes into two-person groups and three-person groups with reference to several studies, such as the measurement of CPS in PISA 2015 and the measurement of He (2019) [ 31 ]. These studies both measured the individual’s CPS ability in a systematic way, which is different from the online experimental form of this study. This shows that if online experiments are used to measure the individual’s CPS ability, it is necessary to consider the size of the groups. Second, in this study, the online experiment of CPS was conducted online, and there was no real contact between the participants. It is precisely because there was no real contact that the participants could only find the support of group partners from their “cold words,” which, to a certain extent, limits the performance of the participants [ 32 ].

5. Experiment 2

Experiment 1 found that the interaction between problem-solving tendency and group size was not significant. This suggests that only manipulating the problem-solving orientation cannot affect the CPS ability of individuals in different groups and that it is necessary to consider the effect of other individual factors. Therefore, experiment 2 will explore the effect of problem-solving style and group size on CPS ability by manipulating another dimension of problem solving (problem-solving style) and controlling the scale of individual participation in team size.

5.1. Hypotheses

Experiment 2 was intended to investigate the effect of problem-solving styles (rational and impulsive/neglect and evasion) and the number of group sizes (small and large) on CPS ability. If individuals can look at problems from a more rational perspective when facing tasks, they are more willing to take actions in tasks. However, if the individual’s cognition becomes unreasonable, the individual’s emotion will become negative and their behavior will deviate. We proposed the following hypotheses:

Problem-solving styles affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and participants with more rational problem-solving styles have a higher CPS ability than those with irrational (impulsive/neglect and evasion) problem-solving styles .

Group sizes affect participants’ CPS ability in social tasks, and the CPS of individuals is significantly improved if they are provided with bigger group in tasks .

There is a significant interaction effect between participants’ problem-solving styles, the number of group sizes, and CPS ability; individuals show a higher level of CPS ability if they have a rational problem-solving orientation and are presented with large group sizes .

5.2. Method

5.2.1. participants and design.

A total of 238 copies of Social Problem-Solving Inventory were randomly distributed online to students at a high school in Shandong Province in China; 224 valid questionnaires were collected. All participants were aged 15 years old (100 female; 123 male). Social Problem-Solving Inventory scores were standardized using the method proposed by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. Fifty-seven participants (29 female; 28 male) whose scores on the rational problem-solving styles and impulsive/neglect problem-solving styles and evasion problem-solving styles were higher than one standard deviation, were selected as participants for experiment 2.

5.2.2. Apparatus and Stimuli

Measures of social problem solving: The problem-solving orientation of participants was measured using the Social Problem-Solving Inventory compiled by Wang and Gu (2009) [ 15 ]. The revised scale, from the original 52 questions that were reduced to 32 questions, adopted a five-point Likert scoring method, with “1” being representative of not being in complete conformity, and “5” being representative of character completely. The rational problem-solving style included 13 topics (i.e., when trying to solve problems, I often come up with a variety of methods and synthesize some of them to form better methods). There were six topics in the escaping from problem-solving style (i.e., when I encounter a problem in my life, I will delay solving it as much as possible) and the impulsive/negligent problem solving style consisted of four topics (i.e., when I need to make a decision, I will not consider the impact of each choice on others).

The social tasks: The same as in experiment 1.

Instruments : The same as in experiment 1.

5.2.3. Procedure

Experiment 2 followed the same procedure as Experiment 1.

5.2.4. Measurement

The measurement standard of CPS ability in experiment 2 was the same as that in experiment 1.

5.3. Results

5.3.1. descriptive statistics.

Experimental data were sorted and coded in Microsoft Excel. IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 was used for data analysis including descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. In Experiment 2, the dependent variable index was the CPS ability of the participants. The results are shown in Table 3 .

CPS scores under different problem-solving styles and group sizes (M ± SD).

As can be seen from Table 3 , whether it was a two-person group or a three-person group, the CPS ability scores of individuals with a rational problem-solving style were significantly higher than those with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style and an evasive problem-solving style. Compared with those who evade the problem-solving style, individuals with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style had higher CPS ability scores. For individuals with a rational problem-solving style and an evasive problem-solving style, the performance of individuals in the group-scale cooperative of two-person groups was higher than that of individuals in three-person groups. However, the impulsive/negligent problem-solving style was just the opposite; the performance of the individual in the group-scale cooperative of the three-person group was higher than that of the two-person group.

5.3.2. Interaction Analysis

A one-way ANOVA of participants’ gender with problem-solving styles and CPS found that when the gender of participants was taken as an independent variable, there were some significant differences in various dimensions of CPS scores ( F (1, 55) = 5.835, p = 0.019 < 0.05).

To control for the effect of gender on the results, a 3 (problem-solving styles: rational and impulsive/neglect and evasion) × 2 (sizes of groups: small and large) between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted, with problem-solving styles and group sizes as independent variables, CPS ability as the dependent variable, and gender as a covariate. The results of ANCOVA are presented in Table 4 .

Variance analysis of CPS scores under different problem-solving styles and team sizes.

Note. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

Table 4 shows that after controlling for the gender of the participants, the main effect of problem-solving styles on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 50) = 32.214, p < 0.001, η 2 p = 0.563. It suggests that problem-solving styles can significantly affect the individual’s CPS ability.

Based on Table 4 , the main effect of group sizes on CPS ability was significant: F (1, 50) = 4.634, p = 0.036 < 0.05, η 2 p = 0.085. This suggests that group size can also significantly affect the individual’s ability of CPS.

The interaction effect between problem-solving orientation and group sizes was not significant on effectiveness: F (1, 50) = 0.890, p = 0.094 > 0.05. This suggests that problem-solving style was not moderated by group size, and group size was not moderated by problem-solving style.

In sum, in Experiment 2, both problem-solving style and group size had an impact on the individual’s CPS ability, but one was not regulated by the other. In other words, problem-solving style was not regulated by group size, and group size was not regulated by problem-solving style.

Further analysis showed that the scores of rational-style individuals in CPS ability were much higher than those with an impulsive/negligent style and an evasive style. For individuals with a rational style and an evasive style, the three-person groups could produce better CPS scores than the two-person groups could, but this phenomenon was inconsistent in impulsive/negligent-style individuals. Therefore, in experiment 2, the problem-solving styles had a significant impact on the CPS ability scores of the subjects, and the group size could also significantly affect the CPS ability scores of individuals, but there was no moderating effect between them.

5.4. Discussion

Experiment 2 investigated the CPS ability of participants under experimental conditions with different group sizes and different problem-solving styles by controlling the size of groups presented in the experiment. We found that problem-solving styles had a significant effect on CPS ability. The scores of individuals with more rational problem-solving styles were much higher than those with irrational problem-solving styles. However, in experiment 2, there was no significant interactive effect of problem-solving styles and group sizes on CPS ability.

Based on experiment 2, we found that problem-solving style had a significant effect on the individual’s CPS ability, which is in line with some expectations of experiment 2 and is also a confirmation supplement to previous research results. Compared with the escapist problem-solving teenagers and impulsive/negligent problem-solving teenagers, the CPS ability of rational problem-solving teenagers was higher. Cognitive behavioral theory can help explain the results of this study. A series of emotional and behavioral problems caused by people are not caused by events themselves, but by people’s interpretation and evaluation of events. That is to say, excluding things themselves, if individuals can look at problems from a more rational perspective when facing tasks, they are more willing to take actions in tasks and try their best to solve problems in tasks. However, if the individual’s cognition becomes unreasonable (for example, the cognition of evasion and negligence appears), the individual’s emotion will become negative and their behavior will deviate, and they will be unwilling to cooperate with other members to solve problems in cooperative tasks.

Consistent with previous research results, experiment 2 found that group size significantly affected the performance of an individual’s CPS ability. As Dennis and Valacich reported in their research in 1993, large groups have more positive effects on individuals than small groups [ 33 ]. The advantage of a group is that the ideas shared by different members can be used as the knowledge reserve put forward by individuals for their ideas [ 34 ]. In addition, the ideas of group members can stimulate individuals to produce ideas that were not previously available in related fields [ 35 ]. This means that in large groups, individuals are more likely to have access to other people’s ideas, strengthen their ability to cooperate and solve problems, and enjoy the process of cooperation more fully, thus promoting their personal performance in the group. Furthermore, the research of Paulus and Yang (2000) [ 36 ] also showed that if individuals are motivated to pay attention to shared ideas or viewpoints, the effect of these existing ideas and answers on individuals will be enhanced. This study emphasizes the importance of cooperation and requires the participants and group members to complete the CPS task together. In this process, individuals should constantly communicate with others and think about other people’s ideas and viewpoints; it is this process that strengthens the positive effect of shared ideas on individual performance.

6. General Discussion

The present study explored the effect of problem-solvers’ characteristics and group sizes and their interaction effect on the CPS ability of individuals through two online experiments. The experiments were intended to answer two major questions: (1) How do problem-solvers’ characteristics affect participants’ CPS ability in a social task? (2) What is the role of group sizes in such a relationship?

In our results, problem-solvers’ characteristics (problem-solving orientation and problem-solving styles) were found to be conducive to the CPS ability of individuals. In addition, group size was found to have some effect on the CPS ability of individuals. However, an interaction effect between intrinsic motivation and the quantity and novelty of cues on CPS ability was not found.

This paper verified that better problem-solvers’ characteristics can promote individuals to perform better in CPS. In experiment 1, it was found that problem-solving orientation significantly promoted the CPS core ability of individuals, and the score of the CPS core ability of individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation was much higher than that of individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation. The explanation of “positive problem-solving orientation” and “negative problem-solving orientation” by D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] can help us confirm this. Individuals with a positive problem-solving orientation believe that they can solve problems even if they feel those problems are difficult. They believe that group members can solve tasks together, and they have a stronger sense of self-efficacy and positive behavior cognition. When they encounter problems, their emotions are optimistic and clear, instead of being passive and choosing to avoid problems. On the contrary, individuals with a negative orientation are more “complaining” in their attitude when they encounter things. Most of the time, they think they cannot solve problems. Even if the group cooperates, everyone cannot solve problems through cooperation. Individuals with a negative problem-solving orientation are more likely to have negative emotions and cognitive behavioral deviations.

In experiment 2, the problem-solving style significantly promoted the ability of an individual’s CPS. Individuals with a rational problem-solving style scored much higher in the ability of CPS than those with an impulsive/negligent problem-solving style or an evasive problem-solving style. D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] pointed out in their theoretical interpretation of “rational problem-solving style” that individuals with a rational style are more willing to adopt a comprehensive and systematic way to solve problems, which can encourage individuals to think deliberately, only immerse themselves in problems and discussions with group members, and aspire to obtain correct solutions through effort. The research of McGuire (2005) [ 38 ] also confirmed this view. When D’Zurilla and Nezu (2010) [ 37 ] mentioned the “impulsive/negligent problem-solving style,” they explained that most of these individuals would not seriously consider problems when they encountered them, and usually only chose the first scheme and did not consider whether the scheme was really feasible, which was prone to “perfunctory things.” Those individuals who like to avoid problems are the opposite of rational individuals; when they encounter problems, their first reaction is to escape. They do not want to solve the problem, and they even turn a blind eye and pretend that they do not have a task [ 37 ].

Although the effect of group size on individual CPS ability was not found in experiment 1, the main effect of group size on individual CPS ability was significant in experiment 2. When an individual is in a multi-crew group, their CPS ability is better. This is because the number of ideas members have increase in larger group sizes, and the ideas of other members can stimulate the remote nodes in the original semantic network of individuals [ 39 ]. According to the activation diffusion model, when an individual node is activated, other closely connected nodes will be activated accordingly [ 40 ]. In short, the more ideas the group members have, the more active the individual nodes will be, and the better their performance will be.

In summary, this study conducted two online experiments on CPS. The results show that better problem-solvers’ characteristics can result in individuals’ better CPS performance, and group size can also affect individuals’ CPS ability.

The above conclusions are of great practical significance to the improvement of middle school students’ CPS ability, especially the change in CPS attitude and thinking mode. In the future, educators can set different forms of cooperation for individuals with different problem-solvers’ characteristics and improve their CPS ability through training and practice.

7. Limitations and Future Directions

This research has a few limitations. First, the CPS task was conducted online, and the performance of CPS ability may be reduced due to “evaluation concerns.” In addition, the participants could only complete the experimental tasks through online cooperation instead of communication in real situations, which may lead to the phenomenon of “words fail to reach the meaning.” Compared with laboratory experiments, this experiment is closer to the real CPS task and has higher ecological validity, but future research needs to further balance the effect of ecological validity and interference factors on the experiment by perfecting experimental rules.

Second, this study divided the group sizes into two-person groups and three-person groups. Although it refers to the paradigm provided in previous research, no significant effect of group size on cooperative problem-solving ability was found in the first study, indicating that there may be other criteria for the division of group sizes. Group size has been a regular focus of research. In the research of the creative field, most researchers divide groups into three-person groups and nine-person groups. Previous studies found that the larger the number of participants in the group, the more creative ideas the participants produced [ 35 , 41 , 42 ]. Similarly, the number of members can affect the performance of an individual’s CPS, and group size and group type can be the focus of future research.

Third, this study refers to the age choice of participants in PISA, so only 15-year-old teenagers were selected as the research object. Due to the limitation of sampling, this study only conducted experiments from senior students in a certain area, so it may not be extended to other grades or sections. Future research can explore the effect of social problem solving and team size on adolescents’ cooperative problem-solving ability from multiple sections.

Finally, this study comprehensively provided an understanding of the effect of problem-solvers’ characteristics and group size on CPS ability. However, because of the relative independence of each index, we ultimately received the overall evaluation of CPS ability rather than a complete understanding of the cooperative process and the problem-solving process. Future research can consider a variety of task types or set different task difficulties in similar tasks. “Cooperation” and “problem solving” are two dimensions of CPS, and the thinking process of participants in these two processes and the generation of “cooperation” and “problem solving” can also be the focus of future research.

8. Conclusions

This study found that different groups have a different effect on CPS ability. Although this study only found the role of group size in the effect of problem-solving style and group size on teenagers’ CPS ability, it is probable that the larger the group size is for an individual, the better their performance of CPS will be. This study also enriches the research results of group size in the field of CPS. It provides a research direction on how to promote the improvement of an individual’s CPS ability, and underlines the necessity to cultivate an individual’s problem-solving characteristics. Educators can set different types of cooperation forms for individuals with different characteristics of problem solvers, and improve their CPS ability through training and practice.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by “Effects of Individual and Situational Characteristics on Creativity in Online Interaction” of National Education Science Planning Grant of China (grant number: BBA180080).

Author Contributions

Investigation, Q.L.; writing—original draft preparation, C.G.; writing—review and editing, X.M.; project administration, C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Qingdao University (protocol code QDU-IRB-202103-009 of approval).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Creative thinking facilitates perspective taking

Affiliations.

1 Department of Marketing, School of Management, Zhejiang University.
2 Department of Marketing, School of Management, Fudan University.
PMID: 33180544
DOI: 10.1037/pspa0000259

The authors propose that an individual's disposition for perspective taking may be facilitated by creative thinking, which involves a cognitive procedure with shifting angles and generating multiple solutions to a problem. Specifically, engaging in creative thinking in an incidental situation may activate a general procedure of changing perspectives, giving rise to a perspective-shifting mindset, which enhances an individual's tendency to take the perspective of targets described in a subsequently encountered, unrelated message, and this consequently affects the message's impact. A pilot study shows that creativity personality is positively correlated with the tendency toward spatial and conceptual perspective taking. In addition, in various persuasive contexts that involve real donations and brand evaluations, the present research demonstrates that participants who adopted creative thinking (vs. control) were more likely to take the perspective of a target described in (a) a charity appeal, and (b) commercial messages. They were more likely to (a) make a donation, (b) evaluate a brand more favorably, and (c) ascribe characteristics of the target to the self. The hypothesized effect is moderated by the nature of the context-whether or not a shift of perspective in processing the message is required. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Creativity*
Personality
Persuasive Communication
Pilot Projects
Social Perception*
Theory of Mind

Grants and funding

Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) Academic Research Fund (AcRF)
National Natural Science Foundation of China

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CTET Examination January 2021 Paper-1 Set-I Question Paper With Answer
CTET PAPER-I JANUARY PAPER SET-I. PART-I. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGY. ... Problem-solving abilities can be facilitated by (1) focusing on drill and practice. (2) encouraging fixed process of solving the problems. ... Students should be told to follow the prescribed steps of solving problems. Show Answer. Answer: (2) 43. Following are some ...
[Solved] Problem-solving abilities can be facilitated by
Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills.. Key Points. Problem-solving ability can be facilitated by ...
Child development and pedagogy important MCQs (40)
Question:- Sequence of development among children from birth to adolescence is. A. Concrete abstract sensory. B. Abstract century concrete. C. Sensory concrete abstract. D. Abstract concrete Sensory. Answer:- C. 2. Question:- Problem solving abilities can be facilitated by. A. Focusing on drill and practice.
7 Problem-Solving Skills That Can Help You Be a More ...
Although problem-solving is a skill in its own right, a subset of seven skills can help make the process of problem-solving easier. These include analysis, communication, emotional intelligence, resilience, creativity, adaptability, and teamwork. 1. Analysis. As a manager, you'll solve each problem by assessing the situation first.
Facilitating Students' Learning Through Problem-Solving in a Computer
From perspective of situated and constructivism learning theory, learning could be facilitated problem-solving contexts, ... The results indicate that students of the experimental group generally had superior problem-solving abilities than did those of the control group after the learning program. The differences in mean values between the ...
How to improve your problem solving skills and strategies
6. Solution implementation. This is what we were waiting for! All problem solving strategies have the end goal of implementing a solution and solving a problem in mind. Remember that in order for any solution to be successful, you need to help your group through all of the previous problem solving steps thoughtfully.
Frontiers
Introduction. Problem solving is ubiquitous in modern life and an essential skill for overcoming the problems we encounter daily. Problems can be overcome using problem-solving principles and creative inspiration from individuals (Hao et al., 2016).Thus, students' curiosity and thirst for knowledge should be cultivated to develop their problem solving and independent thinking abilities.
Facilitating Problem‐Based Learning
Facilitation of problem-based learning (PBL) activities is complex, yet central to the goals of this pedagogy. Productive facilitation that meets the goals of PBL is a skill that must be developed and practiced. This chapter reviews the epistemology underlying PBL and its facilitation, the goals of PBL facilitation, and characteristics of good ...
The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting
Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field ...
Facilitation for Creative Problem Solving: A Guide
Practicing facilitation for creative problem solving can be done by applying it to real or simulated issues, observing or participating in facilitated sessions, reading books or articles on ...
T/E design based learning: assessing student critical thinking and
The research presented is of an investigation into the critical thinking (CT) and problem solving (PS) abilities used by high school technology and engineering (T/E) students when attempting to achieve a viable solution for an authentic engineering design-no-make challenge presented outside the context of the classroom in which their STEM content was first learned. Five key abilities were ...
Developing critical thinking, collective creativity skills and problem
Critical thinking - as a major skill required in the '21st century workforce' - can be expertly facilitated by collaboration, however, 'many commentators argue that education systems have been slow to respond to the changing environment and still emphasise information transfer over the development of skills and capabilities' (Conneely ...
Social Constructivist Theory of Vygotsky with Diagram
According to Vygotsky's social constructivism theory, cognitive abilities are gained through social guidance and construction. The development and formation of abilities like memory, learning, problem-solving, and attention take place through the role of culture as a mediator. His approach to child development can be considered as a social ...
Problem-Solving Skills: What They Are and How to Improve Yours
Problem-solving skills defined. Problem-solving skills are skills that allow individuals to efficiently and effectively find solutions to issues. This attribute is a primary skill that employers look for in job candidates and is essential in a variety of careers. This skill is considered to be a soft skill, or an individual strength, as opposed ...
Cognitive control, intentions, and problem solving in skill learning
Cognitive control uses highly generalised representations and problem solving methods which are an inefficient means for producing the specialised responses of skill (Anderson, 1982 ). In other words, cognitive control is specialised for reasoning, not action control, and it is a clumsy tool to use for action control.
Lev Vygotsky's Social Constructivist And Sociocultural Theory Of
The development and formation of abilities like memory, learning, problem-solving, and attention take place through the role of culture as a mediator. His approach to child development can be considered a social constructivist form. ... This theory believes that cognitive functions are facilitated by social interactions due to which learners ...
Can the Effect of Problem Solvers' Characteristics on Adolescents
2.1. Collaborative Problem Solving. People pay more and more attention to the cultivation and promotion of CPS ability [].Cooperation is considered to be a kind of coordinated and synchronous activity to continuously establish and maintain a common idea about a certain problem [].Problem solving refers to the process in which an individual tries to find a way to achieve the goal based on the ...
How to Facilitate Team Problem-Solving: Six Key Principles
1. Define the problem. Be the first to add your personal experience. 2. Involve the right people. Be the first to add your personal experience. 3. Encourage divergent and convergent thinking. Be ...
Thinking and Learning: Top Twenty Principles 1-8 for Early Childhood
Place children in mixed-ability groups for learning allow for interaction with children who have different abilities and problem-solving approaches. Principle 4: Learning is based on context, so generalizing learning to new contexts is not spontaneous but instead needs to be facilitated.
6 Steps to Facilitate Brainstorming and Problem-Solving Sessions
3. Step 3: Invite the right people and prepare them. Be the first to add your personal experience. 4. Step 4: Facilitate the session and encourage participation. Be the first to add your personal ...
PAPER OPEN ACCESS Enhancement Students Problem-Solving Ability through
Figure 1. Comparison Average Score of Students' Problem Solving Ability. Figure 1 shows that the enhancement students' problem-solving ability in the two groups in the medium category with the average N-gain score in Group A is 52.3%, and Group B is 66.2%. This increase occurred because the application of the inquiry model integrated with the ...
How To Facilitate Decision Making and Problem Solving
Some basic steps you can take to Facilitate Problem Solving: Draft the problem statement and then facilitate a conversation with key stakeholders on refining the problem statement. Facilitate a ...
Creative thinking facilitates perspective taking
National Natural Science Foundation of China. The authors propose that an individual's disposition for perspective taking may be facilitated by creative thinking, which involves a cognitive procedure with shifting angles and generating multiple solutions to a problem. Specifically, engaging in creative thinking in an incidental situation may ac

Child development and pedagogy important MCQs (40)

1. Question:- Sequence of development among children from birth to adolescence is

2. Question:- Problem solving abilities can be facilitated by

3. Question:- During a task, a girl is talking to herself about ways she can proceed on the task. According to lev vygotsky’s ideas on language and thought; this kind of private speech is sign of

4. Question. After getting hurt during a play activity a boy started crying. Seeing this his father responded. Don’t behave like girls boys don’t cry this statement by the father

5. Question:- Individual differences in a progressive classroom should be treated as

6. Question:- In order to address the needs of students who are facing learning difficulties, a teacher should not

7. Question:- ________ is the primary identifying feature of creativity.

8. Question:- Shame_______ .

9. Question:- Motivation to learn can be sustained by

10. Question:- Theory of multiple intelligence emphasized that

11. Question:- Pre-oprational stage in Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development chracterizes

12. Question:- In a progressive classroom

13. Question:- In the theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget explain cognitive structure in terms of

14. Question:- Individual differences in development of children can be attributed to

15. Question:- In order to address learners from diverse backgrounds, a teacher should

16. Question:- According to Lawrence kohlberg’s theory, “performing an act and doing something because others aproved it”. Represents_______ stage of morality.

17. Question:- It is difficult for children to learn when

18. Question:- after observing that students are struggling to proceed further on an ongoing activity, a teacher decides to provide cues and hints in form of what, why, how. According to Lev Vygotsky’s this strategy of teacher will

19. Question:- Constructivist view of learning suggests that children ________ construction of their own knowledge.

20. Question:- In an inclusive classroom emphasize should be on

21. Question :- Lev Vygotsky’s social, cultural perspective of learning emphasize importance of________ in the learning process.

22. Question:- Which of the following statement is correct in context of development ?

23. Question:- According to right of person with disabilities act 2016. Which of the term is appropriate to use?

24. Question:- Conceptual understanding among students is likely to improve in the settings which emphasize on

25. Question:- Evaluation practices should aim at

26. Question:- A teacher should analyse the various errors made by students on a given task because

27. Question:- Best state of Learning is

28. Question:- Which of the following is most effective mode of teaching learning process?

29. Question:- Which of the following is correct in context of socialization of children?

30. Question:- Which of the following is not related to Child -centred teaching learning process ?

Question 31: What is the primary focus of the constructivist theory in child development?

Question 32: Which stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory is associated with the development of object permanence?

Question 33: In the context of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, what is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

Question 34: Which of the following is a key principle of behaviorism in pedagogy?

Question 35: What is the importance of scaffolding in the context of teaching and learning?

Question 36: According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which stage occurs during early childhood and involves developing a sense of autonomy versus shame and doubt?

Question 37: What does Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences propose?

Question 38: According to Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which level is characterized by making decisions based on social norms and laws?

Question 39: What is the primary goal of inclusion in education?

Question 40: According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what must be satisfied first before a student can focus on academic achievement?

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