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Citing Evidence

In this article, you will learn how to cite the most relevant evidence for your audience.

Writing for a specific audience is an important skill. What you present in your writing and how you present it will vary depending on your intended audience.

Sometimes, you have to judge your audience’s level of understanding. For example, a general audience may not have as much background knowledge as an academic audience.

The UNC Writing Center provides a general overview of questions about your audience that you should consider. Click here and read the section, “How do I identify my audience and what they want from me?”

Addressing Audience Bias

In addition to knowledge, values, and concerns, your audience may also hold certain biases , or judgments and prejudices, about a topic.

Take, for example, the topic of the Revolutionary War. Your intended audience may be British economists who see the American Revolution as a rebellion, which hindered British imperialism around the world.

When writing for this audience, you still want to present your claims, reasoning, and evidence to support your argument about the American Revolution, but you don’t want to alienate your British audience. You will need to be sensitive in how you explain American success and its impact on the British Empire.

Quotes, Paraphrases & Audience

Using quotes and paraphrases is a terrific way to both support your argument and make it interesting for the audience to read. You should tailor the use of these quotes and paraphrases to your audience.

Evidence Sources & Audience

Whether you’re quoting or paraphrasing, the source of your evidence matters to your audience . Readers want to see credible sources that they trust.

For example, military historians may feel reassured to see citations from the Journal of Military History (the refereed academic publication for the Society for Military History) in your writing about the American Revolution.

They may be less persuaded by a quote from a historical reenactor’s blog or a more general source like The History Channel . Historical fiction or historical films created for entertainment likely will not impress them at all, unless you are creating a critique of those sources.

It can sometimes be helpful to create an annotated bibliography before writing your paper since the annotations you write will help you to summarize and evaluate the relevance and/or credibility of each of your sources.

Quoting/Paraphrasing with Audience in Mind

Choosing ­ when to use quotes or paraphrases can depend on your audience as well.

If your audience wants details, if you want to grab the attention of your audience, or if audience bias may prevent acceptance of a more generalized statement, use a quote.

If your audience is new to the topic or a more general audience, if they will want to see your conclusions presented quickly, or if a quote would disrupt the reading of your text, a paraphrase is better.

Using Quotes and Paraphrases Effectively: Example

John Luzader, who has worked with the Department of Defense and the National Park Service, can be considered an expert who understands the technical aspects of military history.

Click here to read his “Thoughts on the Battle of Saratoga.” As you read, consider whether you would quote or paraphrase this text when using it as evidence for a school newspaper article explaining why the British surrendered.

Quotes and Paraphrases Example: Explained

A high school newspaper’s audience is usually intelligent and informed but not expert. Unless it is a military academy’s newspaper, it is unlikely that the audience has enough expertise to understand specific technical terms like “redoubt,” “intervisual,” or “British right and rear.”

For this audience, Luzader’s Thoughts on the Battle of Saratoga would work better as a paraphrase:

Military historian John Luzader (2010) argues that the British position on the field at Saratoga allowed the Americans to take the earthwork fort that protected the Redcoats and form a circle around the British, forcing their defeat.

Notice that the above paraphrase uses an in-text citation, which all paraphrases should. Because Luzader’s name is included in the sentence, we only need the year of publication (2010) in parentheses.

Relevant Evidence for Claims and Counterclaims

As a writer, you need to supply the most relevant evidence for claims and counterclaims based on what you know about your audience. Your claim is your position on the subject, while a counterclaim is a point that someone with an opposing view may raise.

Pointing out the strengths and limitations of your evidence in a way that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases helps you select the best evidence for your readers.

Relevant Evidence for Counterclaims: Example

Your audience’s concerns may include a counterclaim you must address. For example, your readers may think that the American Revolution cannot be considered a world war because it was a fight between one country and its colonies.

You should acknowledge these differences in beliefs with evidence, but be sure to return to your original claim, emphasizing why it is correct. Your acknowledgment may look like this (the counterclaim is in italics):

Although the American Revolution was primarily a battle between the British empire and its rebellious North American colonies , the foreign alliances made during the American Revolution helped the colonists survive the war and become a nation. The French Alliance of 1778 shows how foreign intervention was necessary to keep the United States going. As Office of the Historian for the U.S. State Department (2017) explains, “The single most important diplomatic success of the colonists during the War for Independence was the critical link they forged with France.” These alliances with other nations, who provided financial and military support to the colonists, expanded the scope of the Revolution to the point of being a world war.

Now you know how to select the best evidence to include in your writing! Remember to consider your audience, address counterclaims while not straying from your own claim, and use in-text citations for quotes and paraphrases.

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Using Evidence: Citing Sources Properly

Citing sources properly is essential to avoiding plagiarism in your writing. Not citing sources properly could imply that the ideas, information, and phrasing you are using are your own, when they actually originated with another author. Plagiarism doesn't just mean copy and pasting another author's words. Review Amber's blog post, "Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism," for more information! Plagiarism can occur when authors:

• Do not include enough citations for paraphrased information,
• Paraphrase a source incorrectly,
• Do not use quotation marks, or
• Directly copy and paste phrasing from a source without quotation marks or citations.

Read more about how to avoid these types of plagiarism on the following subpages and review the Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills video playlist on this page. For more information on avoiding plagiarism, see our Plagiarism Prevention Resource Kit .

Also make sure to consult our resources on citations to learn about the correct formatting for citations.

What to Consider

Citation issues can appear when writers use too much information from a source, rather than including their own ideas and commentary on sources' information. Here are some factors to consider when citing sources:

Remember that the cited material should illustrate rather than substitute for your point. Make sure your paper is more than a collection of ideas from your sources; it should provide an original interpretation of that material. For help with creating this commentary while also avoiding personal opinion, see our Commentary vs. Opinion resource.

The opening sentence of each paragraph should be your topic sentence , and the final sentence in the paragraph should conclude your point and lead into the next. Without these aspects, you leave your reader without a sense of the paragraph's main purpose. Additionally, the reader may not understand your reasons for including that material.

All material that you cite should contribute to your main argument (also called a thesis or purpose statement). When reading the literature, keep that argument in mind, noting ideas or research that speaks specifically to the issues in your particular study. See our synthesis demonstration for help learning how to use the literature in this way.

Most research papers should include a variety of sources from the last 3-5 years. You may find one particularly useful study, but try to balance your references to that study with research from other authors. Otherwise, your paper becomes a book report on that one source and lacks richness of theoretical perspective.

Direct quotations are best avoided whenever possible. While direct quotations can be useful for illustrating a rhetorical choice of your author, in most other cases paraphrasing the material is more appropriate. Using your own words by paraphrasing will better demonstrate your understanding and will allow you to emphasize the ways in which the ideas contribute to your paper's main argument.

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How To Cite Journal Article MLA

How to cite evidence.

Image: unsplash.com

Citing textual evidence is critical to academic writing, professional communications, and even everyday discussions where arguments need to be supported by facts. Your ability to reference specific parts of a text improves credibility and strengthens your arguments, allowing you to present a well-rounded and persuasive case. For this reason, we wanted to give you a quick overview of how to cite evidence effectively, using one method in particular – the RACE strategy .

Introduction to Citing Text Evidence

The core reason for citing evidence is to lend credibility to an argument , showing the audience that the points being made are not just based on personal opinion but are backed by solid references. This practice is foundational in academic settings. There, the questions that students need to respond to are often constructed in a way that requires citing of evidence to support their answers. However, how can we make this process more quick and effectice? The answer lies in the RACE strategy, which is a special framework called to streamlines the process of citing textual evidence.

What is the RACE Strategy?

The RACE strategy stands for Restate, Answer, Cite evidence, and Explain. It is a methodical approach designed to help individuals construct well-structured answers that include textual proof. Let’s break down this method a little bit so you have some kind of impression on what we are going to talk about further.

• Restating the question or prompt in the introduction of the answer helps the writer to set the stage for a clear response.
• The direct answer, taht follows afterwards, presents the key point or thesis of the question.
• After we’e given an answer, we can move on to citing evidence, where we will integrate specific examples from the text to support the answer.
• Finally, we can move on to explaining our evidence. Here, it’s important to elaborating on how the cited examples support the argument we made.

This structured approach not only helps in organizing thoughts but also makes sure that the necessary components of a well-supported argument are present. Just like how to cite the constitution you have to be precise and factual. Let’s explore each step with actual examples to better illustrate how this strategy can help you with the process of citing textual evidence.

Restating basically means paraphrasing the original question or statement within your answer. This step demonstrates your understanding of the question and sets the stage for your response.

By answering directly, you respond to the question and therefore briefly present your main argument or thesis. You should stay clear and concise here, providing a straightforward statement of your position or understanding.

Cite Evidence

Citing evidence is where you integrate specific examples from the text to support your answer. This involves quoting or paraphrasing passages and pointing out where in the text your evidence can be found. Don’t forget to use quotation marks appropriately for direct quotes and to provide context for your citations or let a legal citation machine handle it.

For instance, to support the theme of racial injustice, you might cite evidence by saying,

When explaining, you elaborat on how your cited evidence supports your answer. This step connects your evidence back to your main argument, demonstrating a deeper understanding of the text.

After citing evidence, an explanation could be structured the following way,

To put it all together, here’s how an integrated response using the RACE strategy might look:

Response : ⬇

“The novel ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ primarily explores themes such as racial injustice and the loss of innocence. One of the central themes is racial injustice, which is depicted through the trial of Tom Robinson and its impact on the town of Maycomb. Harper Lee illustrates this theme through the character of Atticus Finch, who states, ‘In our courts, when it’s a white man’s word against a black man’s, the white man always wins.’ (Lee, 1960, p. 295). This quote highlights the deeply ingrained racial biases within the judicial system of Maycomb, underscoring the novel’s critique of racial injustice and its effects on individuals and society as a whole.”

By following the RACE strategy and using actual examples, you can effectively structure clear and relevant responses that add depth to your argumentation. This method not only help in organizing thoughts but also in demonstrating a deep understanding of the text and its main topics.

However, there are a few nuances that you have to be aware of. The first one is the use of quotation marks. Don’t forget them when referencing direct quotes from a text, as they indicate that you took those words verbatim. Furthermore, you have to understand and use citation styles relevant to the discipline or context you write on. This will help you appropriately format your references and avoid unintentional plagiarizing. A quick tip: sentence starters and tags for dialogue can also help with introduction of quoted or paraphrased evidence effectively, as they let the reader or listener easily follow the argument’s progression.

Adapting the RACE Strategy for Distance Learning

Even in the case of distance learnign , the RACE strategy remains a valuable tool for teaching students how to cite evidence effectively. Digital resources such as Google Docs often offer collaborative platforms where teachers can share templates, sentence stems, and color-coded examples to guide students through the response building process.

Moreover, interactive activities facilitated through online tools, can further engage students in practicing citing evidence, with digital resources providing immediate feedback and opportunities for revision. This adaptation help develop the skill of citing textual evidence even in a remote learning setting.

It’s hard to argue that citing textual evidence is useful skill that can help you get far in your academic writing as well as in other more professional fields. Following the RACE strategy and using our tips on referencing, you, as students, can create well-structured and compelling responses (which no professor could argue with).

How can I use the RACE strategy to improve my essay writing?

You can use the RACE strategy to structure your paragraphs or entire essays by ensuring that each section includes a restatement of the question (if applicable), a clear answer or thesis statement, cited evidence from your sources, and an explanation of how this evidence supports your argument. This approach can enhance clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness.

What are some tips for effectively citing evidence in my writing?

Some tips for effectively citing evidence are: using direct quotes from the text with proper quotation marks, paraphrasing accurately while maintaining the original meaning, providing specific examples, and ensuring that your citations are relevant and support your argument. Always include page numbers or other locator information if available.

Is the RACE strategy useful for standardized tests or only for classroom assignments?

The RACE strategy is beneficial for a wide range of writing tasks, including standardized tests, classroom assignments, and even professional writing. Its structured approach to constructing responses makes it a valuable tool for any situation requiring evidence-based writing.

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Table of Contents

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process, citation guide – learn how to cite sources in academic and professional writing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Citation isn't just about adhering to prescribed rules or ensuring each dot and comma is in its rightful place. It's a rhetorical , fluid, intuitive process where writers must balance the authoritative voices of external sources with their own unique voice . Learn actionable strategies to weave sources into your writing .

For writers, learning how to cite sources in academic and professional writing is twofold: one aspect is rule-bound and procedural, while the other is open-ended and creative:

• Communities of practice — such as The APA – American Psychological Association or the MLA – The Modern Language Association — develop unique textual practices — including conventions for acknowledging, quoting , paraphrasing , and summarizing sources
• research the status of the scholarly conversation on any particular topic among domain experts (e.g., scholars, researchers and practitioners)
• engage in rhetorical analysis (especially audience analysis ) to determine the reader’s expectations regarding citation , media , genre , voice –and related matters
• realize, through drafting , what it is they want to say — and, consequently, whom they need to cite.

Key Concepts: Academic Dishonesty ; Attribution; Evidence ; Information, Data ; Archive ; Epistemology ; Plagiarism ; Textual Research ; Symbol Analyst ; The CRAAP Test

Introduction

Citation — the act of informing your audience when you integrate material into your work that originates from another source — is both (1) a procedural, rule-bound process and (2) a creative act.

Citation as a Procedural, Rule-bound Process

First and foremost, citation functions as a methodical, rule-driven process, where adhering to the conventions of specific citation styles is paramount. For instance, if you are a scientist attempting to publish an article in The New England Journal of Medicine , you would need to follow the ICMJE Recommendations or the Vancouver system to ensure your references are correctly formatted and accepted by the journal’s editors.

This procedural aspect of citation can be broken down into four main steps:

• Determine the Citation Style: Understand the specific citation style your assignment or publication demands, be it APA, MLA, Chicago, or others.
• Choose Your Citation Strategy or Tool: Opt for a strategy or citation tool to systematically track and organize your citations.
• Compose Citations: Ensure accurate representation for all material borrowed from other sources, be it summarized , paraphrased , or quoted .
• Review and Revise: As your work develops, rigorously verify that your citations — in-text (parenthetical, numbered, or note citations, and in the reference list — conform to the requirements of the required citation style.

For a deeper understanding of these basic steps, consult the following:

• Citation – When & Why You Must Cite Sources in Academic & Professional Writing
• Paraphrase – Definition & Examples – How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision
• Quotation – When & How to Use Quotes in Your Writing
• Summary – How to Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

Citation as a Creative Act

Beyond the specific conventions dictated by formats like APA or MLA , citation is fundamentally about joining an ongoing dialogue with fellow scholars, past and present. Thus, beyond being rule-bound, citation is also a rhetorical, creative act.

When writers summarize , paraphrase , or quote others, they’re not just borrowing words or thoughts. Instead, they’re actively positioning themselves within a broader, dynamic conversation that encompasses centuries of human thought and inquiry. Take, for instance, the act of referencing Michelle Alexander’s “The New Jim Crow” . Citing Alexander’s work is akin to stepping into an expansive auditorium, catching Alexander’s eye, and confidently contributing to a resounding, layered discussion. Happily, in attendance at the auditorium are all of the writers that Alexander quoted — and all of the authors those writers cited. And, streaming in the door are new authors who are eager to add their two cents to the conversation .

Here’s the bottom line: human nature instinctively pushes us toward collaboration and the sharing of knowledge . Across history, great thinkers have acknowledged and celebrated this collective instinct.

The Association of College and Research Libraries reinforces this through their “Scholarship as a Conversation ” framework. They posit that knowledge isn’t just a treasure waiting to be discovered but an ongoing dialogue to be engaged with. Within this context, citation isn’t just a formality; it’s an essential tether, anchoring our ideas to the vast mosaic of scholarly exchange.

Historical reflections affirm this communal approach to knowledge. Bernard of Chartres, in 1159, coined the metaphor of “dwarves perched on the shoulders of giants,” emphasizing our continuous build on the foundational work of predecessors. Similarly, Isaac Newton, in 1675, noted that his groundbreaking discoveries were possible due to the insights of those before him. In turn, Kenneth Burke’s ‘parlor metaphor’ offers a vivid portrayal of this timeless academic exchange. He likens it to a conversation that’s been underway long before we join in and will continue long after we’ve departed, with new voices continually enriching the discourse.

Today, platforms like Google Scholar echo this enduring philosophy, with its motto, “Stand on the shoulders of Giants.” It serves as a reminder that as we wade through the extensive realm of human understanding, citation acts as our guiding star – enabling us to both find our way and add our unique insights to humanity’s unending scholarly conversation.

How Can I Determine Which Citation Style to Use?

Each community of practice adopts its own discourse conventions for citation. For instance, a paper written for an English course might expect citations to follow the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, while a psychology research article would typically utilize the American Psychological Association (APA) format. Similarly, a historian might lean towards the Chicago Manual of Style. Thus, there isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach to incorporating sources into your writing.

Thus, your first step when endeavoring to weave the ideas and words of others into your writing is to engage in rhetorical analysis :

• What citation format does your audience anticipate? This often hinges on the academic discipline, publication venue, or even a specific instructor’s preference.
• Do your readers prefer direct quotations , paraphrases , or a mix of both?
• How frequently do they expect sources to be cited?
• Are primary sources prioritized over secondary ones?

Is Using a Citation Tool a Good Idea?

Yes! Utilizing a citation tool scugh as Zotero can greatly benefit students and professionals alike for several reasons:

• Efficiency and Consistency: These tools automate the creation of citations and ensure consistency across all references, which is especially beneficial when handling multiple sources.
• Accuracy: Many citation tools extract data directly from journals, databases, or websites, which minimizes potential human errors in capturing details such as authors, publication dates, or titles.
• Adaptability: One of the notable benefits of citation tools is their ability to quickly switch between various citation styles. This is invaluable if you’re writing assignments for different courses or if you’re publishing in diverse venues with distinct citation requirements.
• Archival and Organizational Benefits: Citation tools store and organize references, providing a valuable archive of your reading history. This not only helps you keep track of sources you’ve read but also leverages your reading history to aid in future research or writing projects. The ability to categorize, tag, and annotate references can be a game-changer for extensive research projects.
• Cross-Platform Synchronization: Many citation tools synchronize across devices and platforms. This means you can access, add to, or edit your library from any device, ensuring seamless integration into your workflow.

When Should I Directly Quote a Source Versus Paraphrasing or Summarizing It?

Use a Direct Quote :

• When Original Phrasing is Important : Some authors have a unique way of expressing thoughts that can’t be recreated without losing its essence. If a particular turn of phrase or specific words are crucial, retain them.
• When It Supports Your Point Strongly : If a quote directly aligns with your argument and bolsters it more than a paraphrase or summary would, opt for a direct quote .
• For Credibility : Quoting renowned experts or primary sources can lend your work credibility . Direct quotes serve as evidence that your claims are rooted in established research or authoritative opinions.

Paraphrase :

• To Personalize Information : Paraphrasing allows you to present information in your voice . This not only showcases your understanding but ensures the information seamlessly blends with your narrative.
• To Simplify Complex Content : Some original texts may be laden with jargon or complex structures. Paraphrasing can distill these intricate concepts into more accessible language. It’s an opportunity to break down and explain content, making it easier for your audience to grasp.

Summarize :

• Providing an Overview : When you need to touch upon the general themes or major points of a large body of work without diving deep into specifics, summarizing is your go-to tool.
• Condensing Information : Summarizing is especially useful when dealing with lengthy sources. It allows you to present the core ideas succinctly, giving readers a snapshot of the content without overwhelming them with details.

How Can I Distinguish My Ideas from Those of My Sources?

It’s essential that writers neither claim others’ ideas as their own (which is plagiarism ) nor allow their original thoughts to be overshadowed by external sources. To ensure clarity for your readers, you must differentiate between your ideas and those of your sources.

Readers, moving from left to right, shouldn’t have to double back to figure out the origin of the information in a paragraph or section. Take Theresa Lovins’s essay, “Objectionable Rock Lyrics”, as an instance:

“Many Americans fear government intervention when it comes to human rights. They fear that government censorship of rock lyrics might lead to other restrictions. Then too, what would the guidelines be, who would make these decisions, and how might it affect our cherished constitutional rights? Questions like these should always be approached with serious consideration. We have obligations as parents to protect our children and as Americans to uphold and protect our rights. Therefore, it’s important to ask what effects proposals like Tipper Gore’s, president of PMRC, might have on our freedoms in the future. She recommends that the record companies utilize a rating system: X would stand for profane or sexually explicit lyrics, V for violence, O for occultism, and D/A for drugs/alcohol. The PMRC also suggest that the lyrics be displayed on the outside cover along with a general warning sticker which perhaps might read “Parental Guidance: Explicit Lyrics.” To date, record companies have not agreed to all these demands but some have decided to put warning labels on certain questionable albums (Morthland).”

While Lovins provides complete documentation for her source (i.e., Morthland), she doesn’t clearly delineate what precisely she’s borrowing from him. This ambiguity could be effortlessly addressed with a transitional phrase, such as, “In a recent examination of this controversy, John Morthland’s essay in High Fidelity notes that Tipper Gore has proposed…”. By doing so, Lovins ensures her audience knows exactly where her own thoughts conclude and Morthland’s begin.

First-time Introductions:

• MLA Style Example : “Before exploring the intricacies of cultural hybridity, it’s valuable to understand Homi Bhabha’s viewpoint. In The Location of Culture , he notes that mimicry often renders “the colonial subject… as a ‘partial’ presence” (Bhabha 123).”
• APA Style Example : “When assessing cultural hybridity, Bhabha (1994) in his seminal work, The Location of Culture , suggests that mimicry can make “the colonial subject… a ‘partial’ presence” (p. 123).”

Subsequent References:

• After the initial introduction, you can frequently refer just to the author’s last name. Only revert to the full reference if there’s ambiguity or if you’re switching to another work by the same author.
• Example : “As the discussion progresses, Bhabha (1994) further unpacks the intricate dynamics of post-colonial identities, emphasizing the transformative potential of hybrid cultures.”

Key Points to Remember:

• Clarity is Essential : Your audience should always be aware of whose perspective is being presented: yours or a cited source. Proper introductions and references prevent any mix-ups.
• Signposting is Beneficial : Using verbs like “claims,” “asserts,” or “proposes” acts as indicators that the ensuing information is from a cited work.
• Your Voice is Vital : Although external sources bolster your content’s credibility , your personal interpretations , analysis, and synthesis are what set your work apart. Make sure to regularly interject with your perspectives or evaluations of the cited material.

Why Should I End a Paragraph in My Own Voice Instead of a Quote or Paraphrase?

Your paper’s primary voice should be yours, highlighting your unique perspective and contributions. While it’s essential to support your claims with reliable evidence, the primary voice guiding the conversation should be yours. Each paragraph should start and conclude with your insights, ensuring your narrative remains central.

So, how can you, as a writer, effectively conclude a paragraph in your own voice?

• Echo key terms from the quotation or paraphrase in your concluding sentences.
• Identify connections between your viewpoint and the cited content.
• Align the quotation or paraphrase with the overarching aim of the paragraph or your main thesis.
• Draw from the source to craft a smooth transition to the subsequent paragraph.

Illustrative Example :

Main Point : The presence of plastics is ubiquitous in America, yet only a fraction are recycled.

Quotation : “In 2023, merely 8% of the entire plastic waste was redirected for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Initial Paragraph :

Every day, recyclable plastic items surround us. Found in shopping malls, restaurants, offices, schools, or homes, these plastics come as shopping bags, packaging, containers, and more. The choice arises: trash or recycle? The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) underscores, “only 8% of the total plastic waste generated in 2023 was recovered for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Drawback : The paragraph halts suddenly with the EPA’s statement.

Improved Conclusion :

This figure indicates that most of the plastic waste in 2023 remained unrecycled in America. Addressing this sizable non-recycling demographic with targeted campaigns might be the next strategic step.

Citations :

MLA: “Plastics.” EPA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Apr. 2023. Web. 26 Apr. 2023.

APA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Plastics. www.epa.gov/plastics.

What’s the Difference Between a Primary and a Secondary Source, and How Might I Approach Integrating Each Into My Writing?

Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary sources is foundational for both academic and professional writing . These sources form the underpinning of our arguments and narratives . For instance, while a comprehensive report may state thousands are affected by an issue, often it’s the personal account of an individual that resonates profoundly with readers.

1. Definitions:

• Examples : Original documents (e.g., diaries, letters), raw data, artworks, and interviews.
• Examples : Articles, books, or documentaries that critique or comment on primary sources; literature reviews.

2. Strengths of Each Source:

Primary Sources:

• They offer firsthand, unvarnished insights.
• Allow readers to engage directly with raw evidence.
• Provide an authentic voice to a narrative.

Secondary Sources:

• They are part of the written archive, allowing other researchers to validate and engage with the information.
• Provide synthesized views, amalgamating various primary sources.
• Offer expert interpretations, shedding light on complexities and nuances.

3. Approaching Integration:

• Contextualize : Describe the broader setting or circumstances of the primary source. For a diary entry, detail the societal backdrop and key events of that time to anchor readers.
• Analyze : Examine the material’s themes, biases, and underlying messages, and explain its relevance to your argument.
• Reference Correctly : Given their place in the written archive, ensure bibliographic information is accurate so others can trace back to the original source.
• Discuss Specific Interpretations : When using a secondary source, highlight its unique perspective or analytical approach. For instance, if referencing a book review that offers a novel interpretation of a classic work, explain this viewpoint and its significance.

4. Balancing the Two:

The manner in which you integrate primary and secondary sources is influenced by the genre of your writing and the rhetorical strategies you’re employing:

• Purpose and Genre : If you’re writing a case study or ethnography , the genre itself dictates a heavier reliance on primary data, giving voice to firsthand experiences. Contrastingly, a literature review or meta-analysis would lean more on secondary sources to map out existing scholarship on a topic.
• Rhetorical Impact : Primary sources, with their raw and unmediated essence, can be powerful tools for ethos and pathos , grounding your narrative in authenticity and evoking emotional responses. Secondary sources, on the other hand, can bolster logos , providing scholarly depth, breadth, and validation to your claims .
• Crafting a Cohesive Narrative : Seamlessly weaving in primary and secondary sources isn’t just about juxtaposing raw data with textual research . It’s about crafting a narrative where each type of source complements the other. A quote from an individual might be the heart of your argument , but the scholarly discussions surrounding that quote give it context and broader significance.

How Can I Effectively Connect My Claims with Sourced Evidence?

Connecting your claims with sourced evidence is pivotal in academic and professional writing . It not only fortifies your arguments but also ensures that your readers understand the relevance of the evidence you’re providing.

1. Avoid Assumptions: Many writers think the relationship between their claim and the evidence is obvious. However, readers might not see the link as clearly. Hence, after presenting sourced material, always explain its significance to your point, purpose, and thesis.

2. Make Direct Connections: Consider the reader as someone who isn’t familiar with your topic. This means after introducing a quote or data, bridge it to your argument.

• Example: Palin suggests most of our oil is sourced from unstable regions. While this concern is valid, we believe offshore drilling poses a bigger economic risk.
• Example: Although Palin’s viewpoint underscores the significance of domestic oil production, it doesn’t consider the environmental risks associated with offshore drilling.
• Example: Despite arguments favoring offshore drilling, our stance is that its potential hazards far outweigh the benefits.

3. Engage with the Source:

• Explain the importance: Clarify why the sourced material is vital to your argument. Don’t assume the reader grasps its significance.
• Talk back to the source: Showcase your understanding and use it to bolster your stance.
• Discuss the implications: Dive into the consequences of your argument in light of the sourced material.

Ultimately, the goal is to ensure the reader comprehends how the evidence supports, complicates, or even challenges your claims. Remember, you’re not just citing sources; you’re weaving them into your narrative, making your arguments robust and nuanced.

APA Example: Flower and Hayes (1981) argue that many writers view writing as a “serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (p. 286). This notion underscores the unpredictable nature of the writing process and suggests that exploring various writing methods can be a journey of discovery in itself.

MLA Example: According to Flower and Hayes, many authors perceive writing as “a serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (286). This perspective highlights the evolving nature of writing, emphasizing the need to embrace diverse writing techniques.

How Can I Show the Relevance or Credibility of a Source to My Readers?

When you’re crafting an argument or presenting information , the strength and credibility of your sources are paramount. Especially in an academic or professional setting, readers seek evidence that’s not only compelling but also credible . Here’s how you can underscore the relevance and credibility of your sources:

• Highlight the Author’s Expertise: When referring to a notable author, highlight their qualifications and achievements in the relevant field. If you’re discussing the topic of grit and perseverance in writing and citing Angela Duckworth , an esteemed psychologist and author known for her work on this topic, leverage her credentials. Example: “Angela Duckworth, a celebrated psychologist and the author of Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance , argues that grit is a more significant predictor of success than talent.”
• Publication Type: University presses, often associated with established academic institutions, are generally held in higher regard compared to trade presses or self-publishing platforms like Amazon. This is because university presses often undergo rigorous peer- review processes .
• Journal Credibility: Is the journal you’re citing from peer-reviewed? Peer-reviewed journals maintain a stringent evaluation process where experts in the field review articles before publication. Journals published by professional societies, like the American Psychological Association, often carry weight due to their association with established experts in the field.
• Journal Rankings: In many professions, journals are ranked based on factors like citation rates and impact factor. Quoting from a top-tier journal can add gravitas to your argument. Example: “A recent study published in The Journal of Positive Psychology , a peer-reviewed journal ranked among the top 10 in the field, supports Duckworth’s theory…”
• Prioritize Recent Sources (When Applicable): In rapidly evolving subjects like technology or health, the currency of your source can attest to its relevance. Example: “In her 2023 Ted Talk, Duckworth updated her theory on grit by introducing…”
• Demonstrate How the Source Augments Your Argument: Seamlessly connect your source’s assertions to the point you’re underscoring. Example: “Duckworth’s emphasis on sustained effort aligns with studies on successful writers who, despite initial setbacks, persisted and improved over time.”
• Address Potential Bias: By identifying any inherent bias in your source, you enhance your credibility as a discerning researcher. Example: “Although the research was funded by the National Writers’ Association , its findings resonate with independent studies conducted at institutions like Yale and Cambridge.”
• Cross-reference with Other Credible Sources: Support from multiple authoritative sources reinforces the credibility of a point. Example: “This perspective on grit isn’t limited to Duckworth. Both The Journal of Educational Psychology and articles from the British Psychological Society have echoed similar findings.”
• Recognize Limitations: Accepting and indicating the limitations of a source showcases a balanced approach. Example: “Duckworth’s research, while pioneering, focuses mainly on students and educators. It’s essential to consider its applicability to writers from diverse backgrounds and experiences.”

Can I Ever Integrate a Source Without Directly Citing It in the Text? If So, How?

It’s essential to give credit to sources to maintain the integrity of your work and avoid plagiarism. While in-text citations are a direct way to do this, there are other methods to reference sources more discreetly:

• Endnotes or Footnotes: Some documentation styles permit the use of endnotes or footnotes instead of in-text citations. This method prevents the main body of your text from being disrupted by citations. Instead, you’d insert a superscript number that leads to a note at the end of your paper (endnote) or the bottom of the page (footnote) with the source’s full details. Example : You might write, “Grit, a combination of passion and perseverance, plays a significant role in achieving long-term goals[^1].” The corresponding note would provide the full citation for Angela Duckworth’s work on grit.
• General Bibliography/Works Cited: If you’ve integrated overarching ideas from a source, like Duckworth’s foundational theories on grit, but haven’t quoted or paraphrased a specific section, you might not need an in-text citation. Instead, Duckworth’s work would appear in a general bibliography or works cited page, signaling its influence on your understanding.
• Indirect Citations: There may be times when you encounter a perspective on Duckworth’s work cited in another author’s study. If you can’t access Duckworth’s original material, you can reference the intermediary source. Your citation method will vary depending on the documentation style. Example (in APA style): A recent interpretation of Duckworth’s theory, as discussed by Thompson (2022), suggests…
• Paraphrasing Broad Ideas: If you’re referring to widespread knowledge, like the basic definition of grit, you might not need an in-text citation. However, if you’re diving into detailed theories or unique interpretations specific to Duckworth, a citation is essential.

What about Newspapers & Magazines?

Mainstream publications, such as The New York Times or renowned magazines, adopt a different approach to referencing than scholarly or professional works. In these outlets, formal citation methods typical of academic journals aren’t always employed. Instead, there’s a general assumption that these publications have undergone a comprehensive editorial process, ensuring the information’s credibility. A key component of this process is the understanding that if readers or other stakeholders have questions regarding the sources of specific information, they can reach out to the author or publication directly to request these details. Thus, when you use information from such outlets in your writing, it’s essential to maintain this practice: always be prepared to direct readers to your primary source if questioned.

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide about Their Research Methods?

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide About Their Research Methods?

When reviewing another’s research, especially in academic or professional settings, it’s essential to strike a balance. You want to provide enough detail so readers can assess the study’s validity and relevance without overwhelming them with minutiae. The amount of detail needed can depend on your audience, the nature of the study, and the context in which you’re discussing it.

Consider the Purpose of Your Review :

• For Broad Overviews : When discussing the general findings of a study for a more general audience, a brief mention of the methods might suffice. E.g., “In her research on grit, Angela Duckworth conducted extensive surveys across diverse groups, finding a significant correlation between grit and long-term success.”
• For In-depth Analyses or Critiques : If you’re critiquing the study’s methodology or comparing methodologies across studies, you’ll need to delve deeper. E.g., “Duckworth’s study used a five-point Likert scale to measure respondents’ perseverance and passion for long-term goals, a decision that some researchers have debated due to potential response biases.”
• For Replication or Further Studies : If the aim is to allow others to replicate the study or to build upon it, every detail becomes vital, from the sample size to the statistical tests used.

Tips for Detailing Research Methods :

• Highlight Key Components : Describe the research design (e.g., longitudinal, experimental), the participants (sample size, demographics), the tools used (e.g., surveys, interviews), and the analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests, coding procedures).
• Address Potential Biases : For more critical reviews, discuss any potential sources of bias or limitations in the study. Was the sample representative? Were there any confounding variables?
• Compare with Other Studies : If relevant, compare the methods used in the research you’re reviewing with those of other similar studies. This can help readers gauge the study’s uniqueness or reliability.
• Use Visual Aids : Charts, tables, or diagrams can be beneficial in summarizing complex methods or when comparing methods across multiple studies.

For most college-level papers or articles, it’s advisable to include a clear and concise description of the research methods, allowing readers to gauge the study’s reliability and relevance to your discussion or argument. As you become more familiar with your audience and their expectations, you’ll develop a sense for the right level of detail to include.

How Do I Handle Sources From Non-Traditional Mediums, Like Podcasts, Tweets, or YouTube Videos?

In the digital age, research isn’t limited to books, journals, or articles. Multimedia platforms offer rich content that can be invaluable for your work. However, citing these non-traditional mediums can feel a bit daunting. Here’s a guide on how to navigate this terrain:

1. Podcasts:

• Host(s) of the episode.
• “Title of the episode.”
• Name of the podcast ,
• Production company or publisher,
• Date of publication.
• Platform (if applicable).

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela, host. “The Power of Grit.” Character Lab , Character Lab, 6 June 2021, characterlab.org/podcast/.

• Host(s) of the episode (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the episode (No. episode number) [Audio podcast episode].
• In Name of the podcast .
• Production company or publisher.

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (Host). (2021, June 6). The Power of Grit (No. 23) [Audio podcast episode]. In Character Lab . Character Lab.

• Author (individual or organization).
• Full text of the tweet.
• Twitter, Date of the tweet.

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela [@angeladuckw]. “Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination…” Twitter, 15 February 2022, twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx.

• Author (Year, Month Day of tweet).
• Full text of the tweet (up to the first 20 words) [Tweet].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. [@angeladuckw]. (2022, February 15). Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination… [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx

3. YouTube Videos:

• Author(s) or creator(s) (individual, group, or organization).
• “Title of the video.”

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela. “Exploring Grit in Education.” YouTube , 1 September 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx .

• Author (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the video [Video].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (2021, September 1). Exploring Grit in Education [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx

• Citation formats might slightly change based on specific style guide versions or nuances. Always consult the relevant style guide.
• While MLA traditionally doesn’t include URLs, modern editions have adapted to the digital age by including them. Check with your instructor or publication’s preference.

How Do I Cite a Source That Was Quoted by Another Author I’m Reading?

When you come across a situation where you want to cite a quotation or idea that your primary source (the source you’re reading) has taken from another source (the original source), this is known as a secondary or indirect citation. It’s always preferable to locate the original source and cite from it directly; however, there are instances where this may not be feasible. In such cases, you’ll need to provide a citation that acknowledges both the primary and the original sources.

Here’s how you can handle secondary or indirect citations in both APA and MLA styles:

APA : When citing a source you found in another source, name the original author within your sentence, but follow it with “as cited in” and then immediately use the author, publication date, and page number (if available) of the secondary source in your parenthetical citation.

Example : Let’s say you’re reading a book by Thompson (2022) in which he quotes Duckworth (2007). You want to use Duckworth’s quote, but you can’t access her original work. Your in-text citation would look something like this:

Duckworth (2007, as cited in Thompson, 2022, p. 56) asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance.”

In your reference list, you would only include the secondary source, Thompson’s book, since that’s the source you actually read.

MLA : In MLA style, you’ll indicate the quote’s indirect nature in the in-text citation by using the phrase “qtd. in” (short for “quoted in”).

Example : Using the same scenario, your in-text citation would look like this:

Duckworth asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance” (qtd. in Thompson 56).

On your Works Cited page, you would only include a full citation for Thompson’s book, the secondary source you consulted.

Remember, using secondary citations should be an exception rather than the rule. Whenever possible, always try to consult and cite the original source directly to ensure the accuracy and context of the information.

Related Articles:

Citation - how to connect evidence to your claims, citation & voice - how to distinguish your ideas from your sources.

Citation Conventions - What is the Role of Citation in Academic & Professional Writing?

Citation Conventions - When Are Citations Required in Academic & Professional Writing?

Paraphrasing - How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision

Quotation - When & How to Use Quotes in Your Writing

Summary - Learn How To Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

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How To Do In-Text Citations in MLA Format: A Quick Guide for Students

An in-text citation is a reference to information originating from another source. In-text citations must be used when you summarize, quote, paraphrase or refer to another source within a written document, such as academic literature. 

In-text citations are essential in academic writing. Without them, how would readers verify the information is reliable and accurate? Trustworthy authors include their sources for verifiable information rather than opinions so readers know where the evidence for claims can be explored further.

The Modern Language Association manages MLA style standards with the purpose to “strengthen the study and teaching of language and literature” and standardize how information sources are credited in scholarly writing. Not only does the MLA recommend proper citation format, but it also suggests proper general formatting, including document spacing, margins and font size.

As you begin authoring scholarly works, you’ll find the need to credit sources. Use this quick guide to learn how to do in-text citations in MLA format.

What is MLA format?

How to do in-text citations in mla, how to do a works cited page in mla, common challenges and solutions, tips for effective in-text citations.

MLA citation style is a system for crediting sources in scholarly writing and has been widely used in classrooms, journals and the press since 1931. What began with a three-page style sheet for the MLA’s scholarly journal became a uniform writing style preferred by academics and the editorial media everywhere.

Since its inception, the in-text citation style has changed from a recommended combination of footnotes and in-text citations in MLA format. The 1951 style guide suggested : “If the reference is brief, insert it, within parentheses, in the text itself . . . ; if it is lengthy, put it in a [foot]note.” As technology and society changed, so did the MLA style. In 1995, the document added recommendations for citing CD-ROMs and online databases. In 2016, the MLA published one of the most modern versions of the MLA Handbook , wherein in-text citations in MLA style should now be written according to a template of core elements.

The modern-day components of an in-text citation in MLA format, as of the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook , include:

• Author’s name
• Page numbers (if applicable)

These short in-text citations serve as references to a Works Cited list, which should follow a written piece of work and list all sources used in detail.

Authors who correctly use in-text citations in MLA style will prove their credibility, integrity and responsibility to share accurate and reliable information and simultaneously protect themselves from stealing sources and ideas from other writers, also known as plagiarism. Plagiarism is a severe offense , and many institutions have strict rules against the practice .

Now that you understand the importance of citations let’s review how to use in-text citations in MLA style. When referring to another author’s work in your own written text, you must use parenthetical citations, including the source in parentheses within the sentence that refers to the work. 

If a source does not have page numbers, use another numbering system, such as chapters, sections, scenes or articles that are explicitly numbered. If there are no numbered divisions within the work, simply cite the author’s name.

The basic format for in-text citations in MLA writings is as follows:

• The pail of water was at the top of the hill, which Jack and Jill decided to climb (Mother Goose 1) .

If including a direct quote from a source, enclose the entire quote within quotation marks to avoid confusing the reader. The in-text citation should fall outside the quotation marks at the end of the sentence before the sentence’s period. Paraphrased information does not need quotation marks but does need proper in-text citation.

It should be noted that any information included in your in-text citations must refer to the source information on the Works Cited page listed at the end of your document.

If you’re wondering how to list the references on the Works Cited page, the format varies depending on the type, such as a book or a website.

How to cite a book in MLA

• Author last name, first name. Title. Publisher, year.

How to cite an article in MLA

• Author last name, first name. “Article title.” Publication, volume/issue, publication month. Year, page numbers. Database, reference URL.

How to cite a website in MLA

• Author last name, first name. “Title.” Publication, publication month. Year, web page URL.

While constructing your paper, you may encounter a few citation challenges, such as a source with multiple authors or no known author. Though this can be confusing, this is how to use in-text citations in MLA style for challenging situations.

How to cite multiple authors in MLA

To write an in-text citation in MLA format for a source with multiple authors , simply list each author’s last name before the page number. Sources with more than two authors should cite the first author, followed by “et al.” For example:

• 2 authors: (Hall and Oates 1)
• 3+ authors: (Hall et al. 1)

How to cite sources with no author in MLA

Sources with no author must match the first listed element within its Works Cited entry. For example:

• In-text citation: (Baa, Baa, Black Sheep 0:15)
• Works Cited entry: “Baa, Baa, Black Sheep.” Spotify . https://open.spotify.com/track/1Zpe8ef70Wx20Bu2mLdXc1?si=7TlgCyj1SYmP6K-uy4isuQ

How to cite indirect or secondary sources in MLA

A secondary source is a publication that provides second-hand information from other researchers. You may use secondary sources in your research, though it’s best practice to search for the primary source that supplied the first-hand information, so cite it directly.

If you don’t have access to the original source, include the original author and the author of the secondary source , with the abbreviation “qtd. in” indicating where you accessed the secondary quote. “Qtd. in” stands for “quoted in.” For example:

• (qtd. in Baa, Baa, Black Sheep 0:15)

Using et al. in MLA citations

As described above, et al. is used instead of listing all names of three or more authors, editors or contributors within your citations. It can also cite collections of essays, stories or poems with three or more contributors. When using et al., you should always use the last name of the first writer listed on the source. For example:

• (Earth et al. “September” 0:15)
• Contributors: Earth, Wind and Fire

The most crucial part of in-text citations in MLA style is to keep a consistent and accurate format within the entire body of work. Always use the same punctuation within the in-text citations and the same formatting for sources of the same type. Ensure that double-checking citations is part of your overall proofreading process. All citations, like the written work, should be precise and error-free.

Various tools exist to help you collect and manage your sources and citations. Popular tools include Zotero , EndNote and RefWorks . These tools can create citations for you and keep track of your research documents so you can reference them again if needed. It’s wise to track your sources as they’re included in your writing rather than compiling and citing them when finished.

More resources for writing in MLA format

For the most up-to-date in-text citation information, refer to the MLA Handbook , which can be found online, in bookstores and libraries. The most recent edition of the MLA Handbook is the 9th edition, published in spring 2021.

The MLA also operates the MLA Handbook Plus , a subscription-based digital platform that offers all of the content included in the print edition, plus annual updates and valuable resources, and can be accessed anywhere, whether you’re traveling, at home or in the classroom.

The MLA Style Center offers free online sources on the official MLA style, including templates, questions and answers and advice.

Furman University offers trained consultants for students on campus to provide one-on-one or small-group assistance for writing projects at the Writing & Media Lab (WML). You can make an appointment with a WML Consultant or stop by the James B. Duke Library in the Center for Academic Success (room 002) for on-demand help (subject to scheduling).

The Writing & Media Lab can help with many tasks related to student writing and multimedia projects, including:

• Brainstorming a paper or project
• Outlining your ideas
• Reading through your writing
• Creating a presentation or poster
• Helping you practice your presentation
• Planning a video or podcast
• Revising, proofreading, or editing

Mastering the art of in-text citations in MLA format will ensure that you, as an academic author, will portray yourself as a serious, responsible and factual writer who uses accurate and reliable sources.

The perspectives and thoughts shared in the Furman Blog belong solely to the author and may not align with the official stance or policies of Furman University. All referenced sources were accurate as of the date of publication.

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Referencing | Cite Your Sources Correctly

Referencing means acknowledging the sources you have used in your writing. Including references helps you support your claims and ensures that you avoid plagiarism .

There are many referencing styles, but they usually consist of two things:

• A citation wherever you refer to a source in your text.
• A reference list or bibliography at the end listing full details of all your sources.

The most common method of referencing in UK universities is Harvard style , which uses author-date citations in the text. Our free Harvard Reference Generator automatically creates accurate references in this style.

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Table of contents

Referencing styles, citing your sources with in-text citations, creating your reference list or bibliography, harvard referencing examples, frequently asked questions about referencing.

Each referencing style has different rules for presenting source information. For in-text citations, some use footnotes or endnotes , while others include the author’s surname and date of publication in brackets in the text.

The reference list or bibliography is presented differently in each style, with different rules for things like capitalisation, italics, and quotation marks in references.

Your university will usually tell you which referencing style to use; they may even have their own unique style. Always follow your university’s guidelines, and ask your tutor if you are unsure. The most common styles are summarised below.

Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end.

Harvard Referencing Guide

Vancouver referencing, used in biomedicine and other sciences, uses reference numbers in the text corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end.

Vancouver Referencing Guide

APA referencing, used in the social and behavioural sciences, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical reference list at the end.

APA Referencing Guide APA Reference Generator

MHRA referencing, used in the humanities, uses footnotes in the text with source information, in addition to an alphabetised bibliography at the end.

MHRA Referencing Guide

OSCOLA referencing, used in law, uses footnotes in the text with source information, and an alphabetical bibliography at the end in longer texts.

OSCOLA Referencing Guide

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

In-text citations should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source (e.g. a book, article, image, website, or video).

Quoting and paraphrasing

Quoting is when you directly copy some text from a source and enclose it in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your own writing.

Paraphrasing is when you rephrase the original source into your own words. In this case, you don’t use quotation marks, but you still need to include a citation.

In most referencing styles, page numbers are included when you’re quoting or paraphrasing a particular passage. If you are referring to the text as a whole, no page number is needed.

In-text citations

In-text citations are quick references to your sources. In Harvard referencing, you use the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets.

Up to three authors are included in a Harvard in-text citation. If the source has more than three authors, include the first author followed by ‘ et al. ‘

The point of these citations is to direct your reader to the alphabetised reference list, where you give full information about each source. For example, to find the source cited above, the reader would look under ‘J’ in your reference list to find the title and publication details of the source.

Placement of in-text citations

In-text citations should be placed directly after the quotation or information they refer to, usually before a comma or full stop. If a sentence is supported by multiple sources, you can combine them in one set of brackets, separated by a semicolon.

If you mention the author’s name in the text already, you don’t include it in the citation, and you can place the citation immediately after the name.

• Another researcher warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’ (Singh, 2018, p. 13) .
• Previous research has frequently illustrated the pitfalls of this method (Singh, 2018; Jones, 2016) .
• Singh (2018, p. 13) warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’.

The terms ‘bibliography’ and ‘reference list’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Both refer to a list that contains full information on all the sources cited in your text. Sometimes ‘bibliography’ is used to mean a more extensive list, also containing sources that you consulted but did not cite in the text.

A reference list or bibliography is usually mandatory, since in-text citations typically don’t provide full source information. For styles that already include full source information in footnotes (e.g. OSCOLA and Chicago Style ), the bibliography is optional, although your university may still require you to include one.

Format of the reference list

Reference lists are usually alphabetised by authors’ last names. Each entry in the list appears on a new line, and a hanging indent is applied if an entry extends onto multiple lines.

Different source information is included for different source types. Each style provides detailed guidelines for exactly what information should be included and how it should be presented.

Below are some examples of reference list entries for common source types in Harvard style.

• Chapter of a book
• Journal article

Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

• Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
• MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
• APA , used in the social sciences.
• Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
• OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

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Writing Tutorial Services

Using evidence.

Like a lawyer in a jury trial, a writer must convince her audience of the validity of her argument by using evidence effectively. As a writer, you must also use evidence to persuade your readers to accept your claims. But how do you use evidence to your advantage? By leading your reader through your reasoning.

The types of evidence you use change from discipline to discipline--you might use quotations from a poem or a literary critic, for example, in a literature paper; you might use data from an experiment in a lab report.

The process of putting together your argument is called analysis --it interprets evidence in order to support, test, and/or refine a claim . The chief claim in an analytical essay is called the thesis . A thesis provides the controlling idea for a paper and should be original (that is, not completely obvious), assertive, and arguable. A strong thesis also requires solid evidence to support and develop it because without evidence, a claim is merely an unsubstantiated idea or opinion.

This Web page will cover these basic issues (you can click or scroll down to a particular topic):

• Incorporating evidence effectively.
• Integrating quotations smoothly.
• Citing your sources.

Incorporating Evidence Into Your Essay

When should you incorporate evidence.

Once you have formulated your claim, your thesis (see the WTS pamphlet, " How to Write a Thesis Statement ," for ideas and tips), you should use evidence to help strengthen your thesis and any assertion you make that relates to your thesis. Here are some ways to work evidence into your writing:

• Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
• Present evidence that contradicts your stance, and then argue against (refute) that evidence and therefore strengthen your position.
• Use sources against each other, as if they were experts on a panel discussing your proposition.
• Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.

Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence

In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your essay by following this pattern:

• State your claim.
• Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
• Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

To see the differences between strong and weak uses of evidence, here are two paragraphs.

Weak use of evidence

Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn't explain the connection.

The same evidence can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the evidence cited.

Stronger use of evidence

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment (Gleick 148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim.

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

One effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want.

This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much any more as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster . "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.

The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into an essay. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster ") to introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas. Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

REMEMBER: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Citing Your Sources

Evidence appears in essays in the form of quotations and paraphrasing. Both forms of evidence must be cited in your text. Citing evidence means distinguishing other writers' information from your own ideas and giving credit to your sources. There are plenty of general ways to do citations. Note both the lead-in phrases and the punctuation (except the brackets) in the following examples:

Quoting: According to Source X, "[direct quotation]" ([date or page #]).

Paraphrasing: Although Source Z argues that [his/her point in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([citation]).

Summarizing: In her book, Source P's main points are Q, R, and S [citation].

Your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and are the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

• Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
• Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
• Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
• Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper's main claims?
• Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
• Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

Produced by Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN

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A Guide to Evidence Synthesis: 7. Citation Management

• Meet Our Team
• Our Published Reviews and Protocols
• What is Evidence Synthesis?
• Types of Evidence Synthesis
• Evidence Synthesis Across Disciplines
• Finding and Appraising Existing Systematic Reviews
• 0. Develop a Protocol
• 1. Draft your Research Question
• 2. Select Databases
• 3. Select Grey Literature Sources
• 4. Write a Search Strategy
• 5. Register a Protocol
• 6. Translate Search Strategies
• 7. Citation Management
• 8. Article Screening
• 9. Risk of Bias Assessment
• 10. Data Extraction
• 11. Synthesize, Map, or Describe the Results
• Evidence Synthesis Institute for Librarians
• Open Access Evidence Synthesis Resources

Video: Tools for screening and organization (4:34 minutes)

Citation Management Background

Citation management .

A citation management program will save you a lot of time when doing your  evidence synthesis .  Programs like Endnote, Zotero or Mendeley will store and organize the citations collected during your screening, de-duplicate the results and automatically format in-text citations and bibliographies in your manuscript.

Visit Cornell's citation management webpage for a good overview of these programs.  You may download Zotero and Mendeley for free, while Endnote is freely available to members of the College of Human Ecology and the College of Agriculture & Life Sciences . For a very detailed comparison of these three major citation management tools, see this University of Maryland guide .

Citation Management Tips

Once you've finished translating your search strategy to the syntax of each database you're searching, you will then: 

1. Run the search in each database.

2. Export the results as a BibTeX, MEDLINE, RIS, or XML file and save those files.

3. Import those files into a citation management program.

Exporting Citations from PubMed to EndNote

1. In your search results, click “Send to” in the upper right corner of the page, then “File”.

2. Under “Format” select “MEDLINE” and “Create File”.

3. Save the MEDLINE.txt file to your desktop.

4. In Endnote, Go to “File” and “Import” and then select “Import Option – PubMed (NLM)” and choose the MEDLINE file from your desktop.

De-duplication

You will likely retrieve multiple versions of the same study as you search many databases and will need to de-duplicate your results before article screening. After you've performed your searches and imported the results into your citation management software:

• In Endnote, from the menu select References -> "Find Duplicates".  Select which duplicate record to keep by selecting "Keep This Record".
• In Zotero, click on the "Duplicate Items" collection in your library. You can resolve duplicates by merging the files. 
• In Mendeley, select your folder of interest. Go to your Tools menu and select "Check for Duplicates". Select the details that you would like to keep from each of the documents. Click merge to create one entry containing the complete document details.
• Covidence also automatically de-duplicates your results.  Click here for more information about Covidence de-duplication. 
• << Previous: 6. Translate Search Strategies
• Next: 8. Article Screening >>
• Last Updated: Apr 22, 2024 2:24 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/evidence-synthesis

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How to Introduce Evidence in an Essay

December 28, 2023

Introducing evidence in an essay serves a crucial purpose – it strengthens your arguments and adds credibility to your claims. Without proper evidence, your essay may lack substance and fail to convince your readers. Evidence helps support your statements, providing solid proof of the validity of your ideas. It demonstrates that you have thoroughly researched your topic and have a strong basis for your arguments. Moreover, evidence adds depth to your writing and allows you to present a persuasive case. By including evidence in your essay, you show that you have considered various perspectives and have made informed conclusions. It is essential to understand the importance of evidence and its role in constructing a well-rounded and convincing essay. In the following sections, we will explore different types of evidence and learn how to effectively incorporate them into your writing.

Types of Evidence

When it comes to introducing evidence in an essay, it is important to consider the types of evidence available to you. Here are some commonly used types:

Statistical Evidence

Introducing evidence in an essay is crucial to support your ideas and arguments. One effective way of doing so is by utilizing statistical evidence. Statistics have the power to provide concrete facts and figures, making your essay more objective and credible.

By incorporating statistical evidence, you can back up your claims with well-researched data, lending an air of authority to your work. Whether you’re discussing social issues, scientific phenomena, or economic trends, statistics can showcase patterns, trends, and correlations that further strengthen your arguments.

Additionally, statistical evidence provides a numerical representation of information, making complex ideas more accessible to readers. It can engage your audience and facilitate their understanding, ensuring that your message resonates effectively.

However, it is important to ensure that your statistical evidence is reliable and obtained from reputable sources. This will boost the credibility of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling. Remember, statistics add substance and impact to your writing, elevating it from a mere collection of words to a well-supported and convincing piece.

Expert Testimony

Introducing expert testimony in an essay can greatly enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of your arguments. Expert testimony involves quoting or referencing professionals, scholars, or individuals knowledgeable in a specific field to support your claims.

By incorporating the opinions and insights of experts, you can lend authority to your essay. Expert testimony adds a layer of validation to your arguments, demonstrating that your ideas are supported by those who possess extensive knowledge and experience in the subject matter.

Citing experts also strengthens your work by showcasing that you have done thorough research and have sought out trusted authorities in the field. This can establish your expertise as a writer and further establish your credibility with the readers.

When utilizing expert testimony, make sure to reference credible sources and provide proper attribution. This will ensure the integrity of your essay and bolster the confidence readers have in your arguments. Remember, expert testimony can provide valuable insights and earn the trust of your audience, making your essay more persuasive and impactful.

Anecdotal Evidence

Introducing anecdotal evidence in an essay allows you to connect with readers on a personal level while still conveying a persuasive message. Anecdotes are brief, relatable stories that provide real-life examples to support your arguments.

Anecdotal evidence adds a human touch to your essay, capturing the attention and interest of your audience. By sharing personal experiences, or those of others, you can create an emotional connection that resonates with readers.

These stories can be used to illustrate the impact of a particular phenomenon or to provide a compelling argument for your thesis. Anecdotes often invoke empathy and can help readers relate to the topic on a deeper level.

However, it’s crucial to use anecdotal evidence selectively and consider its limitations. While it can engage readers and appeal to their emotions, anecdotal evidence is subjective and may not represent the broader picture. Pairing anecdotal evidence with other types of evidence can strengthen your argument and ensure a more balanced and persuasive essay.

Empirical Evidence

Introducing empirical evidence in an essay involves utilizing observation, experimentation, and scientific data to support your arguments. Empirical evidence relies on systematic methods of data collection and analysis, making it a strong and reliable form of evidence.

By incorporating empirical evidence, you can establish a solid foundation for your essay. It allows you to present findings derived from thorough research, ensuring objectivity and credibility. Whether you’re discussing the effects of a medication, the impact of climate change, or the outcomes of a social program, empirical evidence provides tangible results and measurable outcomes.

Empirical evidence also lends itself to replicability, as others can evaluate and reproduce the research to validate the findings. This further strengthens the validity and persuasiveness of your essay.

When including empirical evidence, it is essential to cite the original studies or research articles, ensuring transparency and acknowledging the sources of your data. By incorporating empirical evidence in your essay, you build a persuasive argument supported by scientific rigor, enhancing the impact and credibility of your work.

Utilizing these different types of evidence allows for a well-rounded and convincing essay. It is important to select the type of evidence that best suits your argument and topic. In the following sections, we will delve into how to evaluate the credibility of evidence and effectively incorporate it into your essay.

Evaluating the Credibility of Evidence

When introducing evidence in an essay, it is crucial to evaluate its credibility to ensure the soundness of your arguments. Here are key factors to consider when assessing the reliability of evidence:

• Source credibility: Determine the expertise and authority of the source. Is it from a reputable organization, expert in the field, or peer-reviewed journal?
• Relevance: Assess the relevance of the evidence to your topic. Does it directly address your thesis or support your main points?
• Currency: Consider the recency of the evidence. Is it up-to-date or outdated? Depending on your topic, it may be necessary to prioritize recent information.
• Consistency: Look for consistency among multiple sources. Does the evidence align with other reliable sources, or is it an outlier?
• Sample size: If using statistical evidence, examine the sample size. Larger samples generally provide more representative results.
• Methodology: Evaluate the rigor of the research methods used to gather the evidence. Was it conducted using scientifically accepted practices?
• Bias: Be aware of potential bias in the evidence. Consider the funding sources, ideological leanings, or conflicts of interest that might impact the objectivity of the information.

By critically evaluating the credibility of evidence, you can ensure that your essay is well-supported and persuasive. Remember to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of different types of evidence to create a balanced and convincing argument.

Incorporating Evidence into the Essay

When writing an essay, incorporating evidence is essential to support your arguments and provide credibility to your claims. By seamlessly integrating evidence into your essay, you can enhance its overall quality and convince your readers of the validity of your ideas.

Here are some key strategies to effectively introduce evidence in your essay:

• Provide context: Start by giving your readers contextual information about the evidence. Explain the source, its significance, and how it relates to your argument. This helps your readers understand its relevance and establishes a solid foundation for your evidence.
• Use signal phrases: Use appropriate signal phrases to introduce your evidence. These phrases can indicate that you are about to present evidence, such as “According to,” “For example,” or “As evidence suggests.” Signal phrases create a smooth transition between your own ideas and the evidence you are presenting.
• Blend it into your sentence structure: Rather than dropping evidence abruptly, integrate it seamlessly into your sentence structure. This allows your evidence to flow naturally and become an integral part of your argument. This technique helps avoid the trap of using evidence as standalone sentences or paragraphs.
• Explain the significance: After presenting the evidence, take some time to explain its significance in relation to your argument. Analyze and interpret the evidence, showing your readers how it supports your main thesis and strengthens your overall stance.

By skillfully introducing evidence, you can effectively enhance the credibility and impact of your essay, making it more persuasive and compelling to your readers.

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Quoting and paraphrasing are essential techniques when introducing evidence in an essay. Quoting involves directly using the words of a source to provide support for your argument. It is important to surround the quote with proper punctuation and to cite the source accurately. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, involves restating the information from a source in your own words. This technique allows you to maintain the original meaning while integrating it seamlessly into your essay. When paraphrasing, it is crucial to avoid plagiarism by properly attributing the source. Whether you choose to quote or paraphrase, it is important to select evidence that strengthens your argument and provides credibility to your claims. By mastering the art of quoting and paraphrasing, you can introduce evidence effectively and enhance the overall quality of your essay.

Citing Sources

Citing sources is an essential step when introducing evidence in an essay, as it helps to validate your claims and avoid plagiarism. Here are some key points to keep in mind when citing sources:

• Choose the appropriate citation style: Different disciplines and academic institutions often have specific citation styles they prefer, such as MLA, APA, or Chicago. Understand the requirements and guidelines of the chosen citation style.
• Include all necessary information: When citing a source, provide all relevant details, including the author’s name, title of the work, publication date, and page numbers. The specific requirements may vary depending on the citation style.
• Use in-text citations: Whenever you include evidence or information from a source, make sure to include an in-text citation. This helps your reader identify the source and locate it in the bibliography or works cited page.
• Create a bibliography or works cited page: Compile a list of all the sources you used in your essay, following the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style. This page should include full bibliographic information for each source.
• Double-check accuracy: Accuracy is crucial when citing sources. Make sure to double-check all the details, such as spelling, dates, and page numbers, to ensure they are correct.

By following these steps, you can effectively cite your sources and provide your essay with the necessary credibility and integrity.

Remember, effectively incorporating evidence into your essay not only adds weight to your arguments but also illustrates your ability to engage critically with the subject matter. By following these guidelines, you will be able to seamlessly integrate evidence and produce a well-supported and persuasive essay.

Connecting Evidence to Main Arguments

Connecting evidence to your main arguments is a crucial aspect of introducing evidence in an essay. It helps to strengthen your claims and provide a clear and logical flow to your work. Here are some strategies to effectively connect evidence to your main arguments:

• Establish relevance: Clearly explain how the evidence you are presenting connects directly to your main argument. Clearly state the relationship between the evidence and the point you are trying to make.
• Provide context: Before introducing the evidence, provide some background or context to help the reader understand its significance. Explain why this particular piece of evidence is relevant to your argument and how it supports your overall thesis.
• Use transitional phrases: Utilize transitional phrases or words to smoothly introduce your evidence. For example, phrases like “according to,” “for example,” or “research has shown” can guide the reader from your argument to the evidence.
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just present evidence without analysis. Take the time to explain how the evidence supports your argument and what conclusions can be drawn from it. Show the reader how the evidence reinforces your main point.
• Use topic sentences and paragraphs: Dedicate specific paragraphs or topic sentences to introduce and discuss each piece of evidence. This helps to clearly organize your essay and ensure that the evidence is effectively connected to your main arguments.

By following these strategies, you can successfully connect evidence to your main arguments, making your essay more convincing and compelling.

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How to Write Evidence in Essays or cite argumentative claims

How to Write Evidence in Essay

An academic essay is a detailed type of writing that aims at developing a student’s idea through the use of analysis and evidence. You will likely encounter different types of academic essays in your degree course or PhD voyage.

They range from argumentative, descriptive, and persuasive to narrative essays written in the first person.

The level of education defines the length and content of your writing. Other factors, such as the subject of study and requirements, of course, can also determine the essay you will write. At university levels, students usually write argumentative essays.

All types of essay writing involve the stages of preparation, writing then the revision part.

In preparation, a student will choose the topic to write and come up with a good outline. The student’s argument is set out in the essay introduction. With credible evidence, nurture it clearly, then do the winding in the conclusion.

The revision part is very critical to avoid presenting an essay that is full of spelling and grammar issues.

 What Is Evidence in an Essay                                                                  

Essays and research papers need credible and stronger evidence for the purposes of supporting all claims made. You cannot overlook the significance of evidence.

An essay that does not have strong evidence appears weak and uninformed.

In essence, evidence offers integrity to all arguments and claims made in the essay. If you present the foundation of your essay improperly, the entire essay will not move your professor.

Readers of your essay do not want to believe statements made without attached evidence that is substantial and credible.

For your evidence to be considered strong, it must be extracted from a trustworthy source. Also, ensure that you collect the evidence from multiple sources .

You create a good essay when the evidence is specific and not general. In addition, it must be relevant to the subject of discussion in the paper so that your essay has a consistent flow.

Needless to say, it must be evidence that is not outdated and presented to support your argument. For an essay argument to appear strong in your essay, explain all sections of the evidence.

A writer must outline to the audience how the evidence is connected to the respective claims.

Strong evidence in your academic essay should include studies, statistics, good examples, and quotes that a writer can obtain from updated articles or reports.

A good source can be:

• Academic journals
• School Library
• Verified news reports

There are also reliable internet websites that can yield good evidence, but you ought to verify if the information is true.

How to Write Evidence in an Essay

1. evidence set up.

Writing your evidence starts with its introduction, where you will create an idea at the beginning of the first paragraph of your essay. Afterward, you bring in your evidence to support the idea you introduced.

Analyze the evidence properly so that your audience will understand. A maximum of two sentences is enough for you to set up your evidence because it has to be precise and summarized. Below are more detailed steps on how to write the evidence:

• Bring in a declaration explaining to the reader what you make of the main idea. Bear in mind that this declaration or argument to bring in ought to bond with the evidence.
• Another option is to focus on a specific idea related to your essay and bring in the evidence. This is considered a less direct methodology for introducing your evidence and is more applicable in explorative types of essays and not argumentative.

2. Putting in the Evidence

To put in the evidence, start with an initial item and ensure it fits effortlessly into the text. This important item should be placed at the start of the phrase that you are using as evidence.

With a good argument, bring in the evidence. However, you can also opt to use your own claim in introducing the evidence so that it appears more emphatic. For a smooth and more natural flow, place the evidence of your essay in a short sentence.

Ensure to write the name of the author and the reference title especially if you are introducing the evidence for the first time in the essay.

This means that the next time you present your evidence there will be no need to mention the title again.

When it comes to the use of direct quotes in your evidence, make use of quotation marks. This helps to indicate that these are not another person’s words.

3. Evidence Citation

As usual, evidence needs proper citation . Place the citation in the comments appearing at the end of your evidence. A good citation consists of the number of the page where you can trace the quote in the primary source.

The last name of the author should also be included. Citations need to include charts, all quotes, graphs and relevant resources.

The inclusion of citation is very important as it portrays the author as a writer who is not only responsible but also able to support his stated points with actual evidence.

In addition to this, select the right citation style too use. MLA, APA and Harvard referencing are among the leading styles you can use to cite. However, consult your professor if you are not sure in order to get further clarification.

It is important to know that evidence needs to be analyzed one piece at a time for the readers to understand them seamlessly. Therefore, analyze the piece of evidence fully before embarking on the next so that they do not appear sloppy.

Finally, analyze your evidence with detailed discussion on how the different pieces of evidence support the arguments.

How to Explain Your Evidence

The stage of explaining different pieces of evidence can be an uphill task. Give this explanation as soon as you state the evidence. The explanation must be thorough with the main idea clearly analyzed to avoid confusing the audience.

The description you give should include the means through which your statements are supported by this evidence. Let the reader comprehend the relationship between the essay’s main idea and the evidence you are presenting.

If there is any confusion in the quotes you have included, give an in-depth clarification to ensure the readers will have a good understanding. 

The Importance of Evidence in Essay Writing

An essay written without good evidence can be compared to a building built without proper foundation. Evidence makes your essay credible by backing up and supporting all arguments made.

Essays backed up with strong evidence will have authority and give the audience easy time in evaluating the assertions. Without evidence, an author will not be able to substantiate any claims made in the essay.

As a good researcher, always go for strong evidence that comes from credible sources. If the evidence you have does not emanate from trustworthy sources, it cannot be considered as strong.

There is need for a thorough scrutiny, if you are using internet websites or social media, to get accurate and reliable source.

Fortunately, you can make use of available search engines or academic databases to help you in screening sources so that you settle for those that are trustworthy. This also helps you to compare the various sources and know if they are all conveying same information and statistics.

James Lotta

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Reference List: Textual Sources

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Basic Format for Books

Edited book, no author, edited book with an author or authors, a translation.

Note : When you cite a republished work, like the one above, in your text, it should appear with both dates: Plato (385-378/1989)

Edition Other Than the First

Article or chapter in an edited book.

Note : When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers. List any edition number in the same set of parentheses as the page numbers, separated by a comma: (2nd ed., pp. 66-72).

Multivolume Work

Articles in periodicals.

APA style dictates that authors are named with their last name followed by their initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized. If a DOI has been assigned to the article that you are using, you should include this after the page numbers for the article. If no DOI has been assigned and you are accessing the periodical online, use the URL of the website from which you are retrieving the periodical.

Article in Print Journal

Note: APA 7 advises writers to include a DOI (if available), even when using the print source. The example above assumes no DOI is available.

Article in Electronic Journal

Note :  This content also appears on Reference List: Online Media .

As noted above, when citing an article in an electronic journal, include a DOI if one is associated with the article.

DOIs may not always be available. In these cases, use a URL. Many academic journals provide stable URLs that function similarly to DOIs. These are preferable to ordinary URLs copied and pasted from the browser's address bar.

Article in a Magazine

Article in a newspaper.

Citing Text Evidence in 6 Steps

AP ® Lang teachers: looking to help your students improve their rhetorical analysis essays?

Coach Hall Writes

clear, concise rhetorical analysis instruction.

How to Cite Sources in a Synthesis Essay

November 15, 2022 by Beth Hall

When taking AP ® Lang, you might wonder how to cite sources in a synthesis essay. The good news is that it isn’t difficult. In fact, including proper citations in a research paper is an important academic skill for high school and college.

What is a Synthesis Essay?

A synthesis essay is like a mini research paper. You use provided sources to support your argument. For more information about how to write a synthesis essay, check out this blog post.

Synthesis Sources

For the AP ® Lang exam, your prompt will have 6-8 provided sources. You MUST cite at least 3 of the sources.

Here’s a couple things to remember:

• Citing the same source more than once only counts as one source.
• You do not get extra credit for citing all the sources.
• While it isn’t required, citing 2-3 sources in a paragraph helps create a conversation–just be sure you are not summarizing the sources.

Synthesis essay citations are similar parenthetical citations in MLA or APA format.

A parenthetical citation is when you reference the name of the source in parenthesis at the end of a sentence. The period goes outside the second parenthesis.

On the AP ® Lang exam, the sources will be listed on the cover page. You can refer to the sources as “Source A” or by the author’s last name. Both options are provided for you. Just be sure to be consistent. If you cite your first source as “Source A,” then continue that method throughout your essay.

While both “Source A” and the author’s last name are allowed, for timed synthesis essays, as a teacher, I find listing the source and letter a bit easier to remember. However, if you’re writing an MLA or APA format research paper, you’ll want to be sure that you’re using the correct citation method for that format.

How to Add Evidence in an Essay

When writing a synthesis essay, you’ll want to include embedded evidence. This means that you’ll “embed” or “integrate” the evidence into a sentence of your own.

For synthesis essays, there are two options for evidence: direct quotes or a paraphrase.

Selecting Evidence for Synthesis Essays

When annotating the sources, be sure to look for facts, statistics, expert testimony, or real-world examples, as these are excellent evidence to help you construct a logical argument.

As you read, look for short quotes: approximately 3-8 words. Shorter quotes are easier to embed in a sentence of your own.

If you select a quote that is 12-15 words long, you can often “scale back” by selecting the key words or breaking the quote into two quotes.

Be mindful of long quotes. Not only are the more difficult to embed but also they take time to write and throw off your evidence to commentary ratio.

In a synthesis essay, you want to have more commentary than evidence.

ICE Method for Embedded Evidence

Use the ICE method to help you remember how to embed evidence. ICE stands for introduce, cite, explain.

In academic writing, one should not have freestanding quotes, meaning that the quote should not just be “dropped” into the paragraph. It requires a “lead in.”

That’s what the “I” in ICE is for: introduce.

The most effective way to embed evidence is to integrate it into a sentence of your own. If done correctly, the quotes will be seamlessly embedded. If the sentence were read aloud, someone listening wouldn’t know the sentence contained a quote because the sentence would flow well.

Check out the example of embedded evidence with a parenthetical citation in the image below.

Analyzing Visual Texts

On the AP ® Lang exam, at least one of the synthesis sources will be a visual text, which can include photos, charts, graphs, comics, etc.

For more information about how to analyze a visual text, check out this video.

For comics, charts, graphs, schedules, you can quote or paraphrase the information.

For photographs, you’ll want to reference an element of the image and include the citation.

Visual texts can be helpful because they don’t take as long to “read” or analyze. However, sometimes they can be difficult to include in an essay. Don’t force it. Remember that you only need 3 different sources.

If you encounter a visual text early on in the sources and you’re not sure how to interpret it, skip it and come back to it. Chances are, the visual text might make more sense after you’ve read the other sources.

Can You Cite a Source in the Introduction?

Technically, yes, you can cite a source in the introduction. If you have a fact, statistic, or example that you think would help you introduce the topic, feel free to include it.

It is not required to cite a source in the introduction, and honestly, most students don’t do it.

If you are considering citing a source in the intro of your synthesis essay, make sure the intro is the best place for that information.

Remember that you’ll need to include layers of evidence and commentary in your body paragraphs as well. For the AP ® Lang exam, the bulk of the points on the rubric are for evidence and commentary, which is why 2-3 strong body paragraphs is important.

For more information about writing a synthesis essay introduction, check out this video.

Can You Cite Two Sources in One Sentence?

Yes, you can. You’ll include both sources in your parenthetical citation in the order in which they appear in the sentence. For example, if you have a quote from Source A and later on in the same sentence you have a quote from Source D, the citation would look like this: (Sources A and D) or (Source A; Source D). Either option is fine.

What to Avoid

When citing a source in a synthesis essay, it can be tempting to start the sentence with “According to Source A.” While this is allowed, it’s not the most nuanced way to introduce a source.

Instead, try to include the information from the original source. For example, “According to a 2017 New York Times article” or “According to chart from the Pew Research Center.”

You can also cite the author (or an expert quoted in the article) and their credentials. That would look like this: Daniel Shepherd, senior lecturer at the University of Technology in Auckland, claims…

Noting the person’s name and credentials sounds better than “According to Source A…”

Want more tips about how to cite sources in a synthesis essay? Then, check out this video.

AP® Lang Teachers

Looking to help your students improve their rhetorical analysis essays?

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Harvard announces return to required testing

Leading researchers cite strong evidence that testing expands opportunity

Students applying to Harvard College for fall 2025 admission will be required to submit standardized test scores, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences announced on Thursday. This new policy will be applied to the Class of 2029 admissions cycle and will be formally assessed at regular intervals.

For the Class of 2029 admissions cycle, Harvard will require submission of scores for the SAT or ACT. In exceptional cases in which applicants are unable to access SAT or ACT testing, other eligible tests will be accepted.

In a message to the FAS community on Thursday, Edgerley Family Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences Hopi Hoekstra foregrounded “a number of factors” that underscored the decision.

“Standardized tests are a means for all students, regardless of their background and life experience, to provide information that is predictive of success in college and beyond,” she said. “Indeed, when students have the option of not submitting their test scores, they may choose to withhold information that, when interpreted by the admissions committee in the context of the local norms of their school, could have potentially helped their application. In short, more information, especially such strongly predictive information, is valuable for identifying talent from across the socioeconomic range.”

In research published last year, Harvard Professors Raj Chetty and David J. Deming and co-author John N. Friedman used data from more than 400 institutions and about 3.5 million undergrads per year to better understand socioeconomic diversity and admissions. Standardized tests emerged as an important tool to identify promising students at less-well-resourced high schools, particularly when paired with other academic credentials.

“Critics correctly note that standardized tests are not an unbiased measure of students’ qualifications, as students from higher-income families often have greater access to test prep and other resources,” said Chetty, the William A. Ackman Professor of Public Economics and director of Opportunity Insights . “But the data reveal that other measures — recommendation letters, extracurriculars, essays — are even more prone to such biases. Considering standardized test scores is likely to make the admissions process at Harvard more meritocratic while increasing socioeconomic diversity.”

Deming, the Kennedy School’s Isabelle and Scott Black Professor of Political Economy and a professor of education and economics at the Ed School, pointed to access as a key issue.

“The virtue of standardized tests is their universality,” he said. “Not everyone can hire an expensive college coach to help them craft a personal essay. But everyone has the chance to ace the SAT or the ACT. While some barriers do exist, the widespread availability of the test provides, in my view, the fairest admissions policy for disadvantaged applicants.”

In June 2020, as the pandemic severely limited access to standardized testing, Harvard began a test-optional policy under which students could apply to the College without submitting scores. The admissions cycle for the Class of 2028 was the fourth for which students were able to apply without submitting test scores. However, admissions has welcomed applicants to submit test scores, and the majority of those who matriculated during the past four years did so.

“Test scores can provide important information about a student’s application,” said William R. Fitzsimmons, dean of admissions and financial aid. “However, they representonly one factor among many as our admissions committee considers the whole person in making its decisions. Admissions officers understand that not all students attend well-resourced schools, and those who come from modest economic backgrounds or first-generation college families may have had fewer opportunities to prepare for standardized tests.”

In recent years, nonprofits such as Khan Academy have offered robust test-prep tools at no charge. In her message, Hoekstra said that access to testing should never prevent a student from applying to Harvard, and included information for those who may not be able to access the SAT or ACT, as well as tools such as Schoolhouse.world and other sources for no-cost tutoring and no-cost test preparation.

“We recognize that in parts of the United States there may be fewer students than in the past taking SAT or ACT for their state universities — and international applicants can also face barriers to testing,” said Joy St. John, director of admissions. “We hope that promising students faced with such challenges will still apply, using alternative forms of testing.”

Said Hoekstra: “Fundamentally, we know that talent is universal, but opportunity is not. With this change, we hope to strengthen our ability to identify these promising students, and to give Harvard the opportunity to support their development as thinkers and leaders who will contribute to shaping our world.”

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Opinion Here’s why Uri Berliner couldn’t stay at NPR

Uri Berliner is offended.

In an April 9 essay in the Free Press, Berliner, who worked at NPR for 25 years, raps his employer for allegedly running a newsroom fueled by progressive sensibilities that seep into a skewed on-air product. Stories on Trump-Russia, Hunter Biden and covid-19 have all suffered from acute NPRitis, he writes. And racial and identity considerations — as well as affinity groups — shape workplace culture.

The essay triggered a bona fide media drama that concluded on Wednesday with Berliner’s resignation. On his way out, he delivered a parting shot at CEO Katherine Maher. “I cannot work in a newsroom where I am disparaged by a new C.E.O. whose divisive views confirm the very problems at NPR I cite in my Free Press essay,” Berliner wrote on X .

Just what had Maher done to deserve such a diss? She had published a statement pushing back against Berliner’s essay : “Questioning whether our people are serving our mission with integrity, based on little more than the recognition of their identity, is profoundly disrespectful, hurtful, and demeaning.” As NPR’s own David Folkenflik reported, Berliner took exception to that commentary.

Which is to say, Berliner is now an expert in disparagement and umbrage. In his Free Press essay, he deplores his colleagues’ “advocacy” and alleges that it had “veered toward efforts to damage or topple [Donald] Trump’s presidency.”

Now that is disparagement. Even in the rough-and-tumble world of journalism, slamming your colleagues for their published work — especially in another outlet — is a rare undertaking. As Berliner suggests in his essay, it was something of a last resort, considering that he had raised his concerns internally to little effect. He invited people to sample NPR’s coverage and “make their own judgment.”

Invitation accepted. Over the past several days, I have sifted through roughly three years’ worth of NPR’s coverage of Russiagate, the effort by federal investigators and the media to discover the truth about the Trump campaign’s connections to Russia. Since NPR’s alleged tilt on this story serves as Exhibit No. 1 in Berliner’s onslaught — and since it’s central to the claim that the network sought to topple Trump — I chose to limit my efforts to this portion of the essay.

And what a portion it is! The NPR Russia-Trump coverage plume under fire from Berliner consists of thousands of articles, podcasts, segments and so on. Berliner links to one . His serious allegations, accordingly, are backed by scant evidence, if any at all. It’s a lazy, summary approach to evaluating a large body of work — a feelings-based critique of the sort that passes for media reporting these days. Too often, essayists write their conclusory broadsides against this or that outlet, confident in the knowledge that their fellow ideological travelers will applaud no matter how threadbare the supporting material.

Berliner’s opus was published by the Free Press , an outlet dedicated to covering stories “ignored or misconstrued in the service of an ideological narrative” — and not by NPR, which requires infinitely greater substantiation for its media reporting, whether the crisis lies in its own newsroom or somewhere else.

The irony there: Berliner has edited many of the stories carrying the byline of Folkenflik, NPR’s media correspondent. He knows better.

Here’s how Berliner supports his conclusions on NPR’s Russia work: Rep. Adam “Schiff, who was the top Democrat on the House Intelligence Committee, became NPR’s guiding hand, its ever-present muse. By my count, NPR hosts interviewed Schiff 25 times about Trump and Russia. During many of those conversations, Schiff alluded to purported evidence of collusion. The Schiff talking points became the drumbeat of NPR news reports.”

Yes, Schiff is a recurring presence in the broadcasts. “Like many broadcast news organizations, NPR interviewed Rep. Schiff often during the Trump administration, as he was a principal figure in the Russian interference investigation — a story we covered with caution and perspective,” says an NPR spokesperson in a statement. “Rep. Schiff’s perspective was only one element of our coverage of the Russian interference story, in no way did he commandeer the reporting of NPR.” According to the spokesperson, NPR did 900 interviews with congressional lawmakers between January 2017 and December 2019 — including Paul Ryan , Jim Jordan , Eric Swalwell and others.

Numbers matter less than the content of those Schiff interviews, which tend toward procedural mishmash, recitation of previously reported revelations and the centrality of oversight. In this interview , Schiff says that if former Trump campaign chairman Paul Manafort cooperates with authorities, “we could learn a lot more.” In this one , the congressman speaks to his committee’s investigative imperatives: “I think we need to use subpoenas, and we need to stand up and say, we’re going to get the answers here.” In this one , Schiff is asked whether Trump gets “especially agitated” when the topic turns to Russia. “Well, absolutely,” he responds.

Is this the prejudicial poison of which Berliner writes? I asked him to supply instances in which Schiff’s talking points suffused NPR’s independent reporting. After several emails and a phone call, Berliner hasn’t responded with supporting material.

Had NPR wished to addle its lefty audience with suggestive reporting about Trump’s alleged criminality regarding Russia, it had a tool at its disposal. The so-called Steele dossier, published in early January 2017 by BuzzFeed News, contained explosive allegations presented by a former British intelligence officer. Various news outlets and commentators bathed the dossier in credibility it didn’t deserve, as noted in an extensive thread by Drew Holden and a series in this space . Top offenders include McClatchy, which ran stories bolstering the dossier’s claims that former Trump lawyer Michael Cohen had traveled to Prague for collusive business; and dossier believer in chief Rachel Maddow of MSNBC, who cheered for the document throughout Russiagate.

NPR’s dossier work was by no means perfect. “Fresh Air” host Terry Gross, for example, occasionally failed to properly smack down dossier boosters during interviews. Yet the outlet was careful to avoid McClatchy’s “scoops” on Cohen and otherwise to cordon off its descriptions of the dossier with police tape. “NPR has never detailed the document because so much of it remains unproved,” reads a 2019 NPR story . The NPR spokesperson said in a statement: “We were not able to find any examples of NPR corroborating unconfirmed elements of the Trump dossier."

As further evidence of his employer’s errant ways, Berliner argues that after the Mueller report found “no credible evidence of collusion, NPR’s coverage was notably sparse. Russiagate quietly faded from our programming.” It’s an immutable law of media physics, of course, that coverage peters out when a story comes to an end. Who, after all, is doing continuing coverage of Abscam these days?

But there’s more flimsiness afoot here. Berliner’s dismissal of Robert S. Mueller III’s findings — technically misguided, because the special counsel’s investigation didn’t apply the “concept of 'collusion’” in its work — leaves the impression that the media’s pursuit of the various Russiagate strands was a fool’s errand. In fact, journalists as well as official investigations documented a spreadsheet’s worth of scandalous activity that didn’t amount to an international conspiracy, in Mueller’s view. Trump will have you believe that the absence of criminality signifies the absence of wrongdoing, a logical atrocity abetted by Berliner’s essay.

Ditching the nitty-gritty, Berliner’s claim of an NPR campaign to “topple” Trump grinds against the measured claims in NPR’s day-to-day coverage. Examples abound. In this segment , NPR correspondents struggle to wrap their heads around the just-released Mueller report. In this one , NPR’s Mary Louise Kelly interviews a former CIA official who presciently shoots down liberal fever dreams related to Russia and Trump. In this piece , published months before the Mueller report, an NPR editor argues that the Russia case is “weakening” and even attributes an “important kernel of truth” to the famous tweet by Trump citing “No Smocking Gun … No Collusion.” This piece highlights Trump’s point of view regarding the Mueller investigation. And this one bears the headline “Trumps Exult Following Reports Of No Phone Contact Ahead Of 2016 Russia Meeting.”

After the Russia experience, writes Berliner, NPR compounded its mistakes by moving on with “no mea culpas, no self-reflection.” By all means, self-reflect — it’s a good step for any news organization after a big story. Presumably, Berliner would have supplied various URLs for such a review, but he didn’t share any with me. After skulking around in the NPR search box, I’d nominate the Gross interviews on the dossier and other pieces that faced challenges or turned out to be inconsistent with other reporting.

With his tendentious claims, however, Berliner doesn’t merely overstep the paltry evidence in his piece. He positions his now-former workplace as a hive of ideologues driven by political outcomes instead of the facts — basically a left-wing analogue to Fox News. That salvo appeared to diminish his appeal as a newsroom collaborator.

NPR, as it turns out, is an analogue to nothing — a sui generis outlet driven by old-fashioned journo-principles, an aversion to offending anyone and a steady propensity to annoy listeners. Surely, it has many things to apologize for, though an on-air campaign to oust a president isn’t among them.

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China’s Swimmers Tested Positive. What Happens to Their Medals?

The short answer may be nothing. The world’s top doping regulator said there was “no credible evidence” to take further action.

By Andrew Das ,  Joe Ward and Matthew Cullen

Whenever a suspicion of doping arises in an Olympics, attention can shift quickly from the athletes who won gold, silver and bronze medals to the ones who missed out.

On Saturday, The New York Times published an investigation into an unreported case in which 23 top Chinese swimmers tested positive for a powerful banned drug in 2021, only months before the Tokyo Olympics. The swimmers — who made up about half of the Chinese swimming team at those Games — were cleared by China’s antidoping authorities and the World Anti-Doping Agency and allowed to compete.

The episode has not only alarmed experts in the antidoping community, but also raised other questions about athletes who tested positive, and what comes next: Which athletes? Which races?

And what about the medals they won in them?

For now, the answer — both for the Chinese athletes and the dozens of swimmers who finished behind them, on and off the medals stand — is that nothing has changed.

By comparing the names of the 23 swimmers who tested positive with results from the Games, The Times identified five events in which Chinese swimmers who had tested positive for a banned substance won medals:

Women’s 100-meter butterfly

The third day of the Tokyo Games opened with the first of four medals for Zhang Yufei, a silver. Torri Huske of the United States was fourth, missing out on the first Olympic medal of her career by one-hundredth of a second.

Margaret Mac Neil, Canada

Zhang Yufei, China

Emma Mckeon, Australia

Torri Huske, United States

Louise Hansson, Sweden

Marie Wattel, France

Sarah Sjostrom, Sweden

Anastasiya Shkurdai, Belarus

Source: Tokyo 2020

Women’s 200-meter butterfly

Three days later, Zhang claimed her second medal — and first gold — with an Olympic-record time. The Americans Regan Smith and Hali Flickinger touched the wall more than a second behind to claim silver and bronze.

Regan Smith, United States

Hali Flickinger, United States

Boglarka Kapas, Hungary

Svetlana Chimrova, Russian Olympic Comm.

Yu Liyan, China

Alys Margaret Thomas, Britain

Brianna Throssell, Austrailia

Svetlana Chimrova, Russian O.C.

Women’s 200-meter freestyle relay

Just over an hour after winning an individual gold, Zhang helped China win a relay gold. China’s time, a world record, was nearly half a second faster than that of the United States team. The Americans also broke the previous world record but went home with the silver.

United States

Russian Olympic Committee

Men’s 200-meter individual medley

Wang Shun became only the second Chinese man to win an individual swimming gold.

Wang Shun, China

Duncan Scott, Britain

Jeremy Desplanches, Switzerland

Daiya Seto, Japan

Michael Andrew, United States

Kosuke Hagino, Japan

Laszlo Cseh, Hungary

Lewis Clareburt, New Zealand

Mixed 4x100-meter medley relay

Britain set a world record in winning the mixed event, which was being held at the Olympics for the first time. But China’s team edged Australia to win the silver, delivering Zhang’s fourth and final medal of the Tokyo Games.

Netherlands

Chinese antidoping officials and the World Anti-Doping Agency, the global authority that oversees national drug-testing programs, defended their actions in handling the case of the pre-Olympic doping positives in statements to The Times this week.

China said it had acknowledged the positive tests and notified WADA. But in a report created by China’s antidoping agency and quietly submitted weeks before the Olympics, the Chinese authorities said their investigators concluded that the swimmers had ingested the banned substance unwittingly and in tiny amounts, and that no action was warranted.

WADA, citing “a lack of any credible evidence” to challenge China’s version of events, defended its decision not to take further action. It called any criticism unsubstantiated, even though it took a far harder line in a case involving a Russian figure skater only months later.

In that case, Russia was eventually stripped of a team gold medal , and multiple countries have appeals, seeking to upgrade their own finishes.

On Friday, the International Olympic Committee declined to comment on the positive tests, saying only that “anti-doping matters have been made independent from the I.O.C.,” and referring questions to WADA.

But with the antidoping agency adamant that it acted correctly and within its rules, there is no indication that any of the results of races will be affected, or any the medals reallocated.

Andrew Das is an editor for the International section of The Times, focusing primarily on the ways sports intersect with power, money, business, media and culture. More about Andrew Das

  More about Joe Ward