teaching critical thinking and problem solving skills snyder

• Corpus ID: 51173686

Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills

• L. Snyder , Mark Snyder
• Published 2008
• Business, Education
• The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal

490 Citations

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Critical thinking is a learned skill that requires instruction and practice. Business education instructors at both the secondary and post-secondary levels can enhance students' critical thinking skills by (1) using instructional strategies that actively engage students in the learning process rather than relying on lecture and rote memorization, (2) focusing instruction on the process of learning rather than solely on the content, and (3) using assessment techniques that provide students with an intellectual challenge rather than memory recall. Several barriers can impede critical thinking instruction. Lack of training, limited resources, biased preconceptions, and time constraints conspire to negate learning environments that promote critical thinking. However, actively engaging students in project-based or collaborative activities can encourage students' critical thinking development if instructors model the thinking process, use effective questioning techniques, and guide students' critical thinking processes. The examples provided challenge instructors to think of students as users of information rather than receivers of information.

"It is possible to store the mind with a million facts and still be entirely uneducated. "

-Alec Bourne

Introduction

What is critical thinking, and why is it so important? The Critical Thinking Community defined critical thinking as "the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1). Critical thinking has also been referred to as metacognition (Tempelaar, 2006) or the process of "thinking about thinking" as defined and originally purposed by Flavell (1979). Critical thinking skills are important because they enable students "to deal effectively with social, scientific, and practical problems" (Shakirova, 2007, p. 42). Simply put, students who are able to think critically are able to solve problems effectively. Merely having knowledge or information is not enough. To be effective in the workplace (and in their personal lives), students must be able to solve problems to make effective decisions; they must be able to think critically.

Critical thinking is not a new concept. "Throughout nearly 300 years of policymaking in the United States, educators have promoted eight broad goals of schooling: basic academic skills, critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health, emotional health,...

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Snyder, L.G. & Snyder, M.J. 2008. Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 1 (2). 90-99.

has been cited by the following article:

The Development of Critical Thinking for Students in Vietnamese Schools: From Policies to Practices

1 Faculty of Psychology and Education, Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam

2 Institute for Educational Research, Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam

3 Faculty of Primary Education, Hanoi National University of Education, Hanoi, Vietnam

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Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills to Healthcare Professionals

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Medical Education, Paul L Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso, El Paso, TX USA.
• PMID: 34457878
• PMCID: PMC8368273
• DOI: 10.1007/s40670-020-01128-3

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Conflict of InterestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills

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Definitions and Uses: Case Study of Teachers Implementing Project-Based Learning.

The effects of problem-based learning on pre-service teachers' critical thinking dispositions and perceptions of problem-solving ability, standard-based science education and critical thinking, ricosre: a learning model to develop critical thinking skills for students with different academic abilities., developing critical thinking skills using the science writing heuristic in the chemistry laboratory, metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry., critical thinking: what it is and why it counts, critical thinking assessment, asking the right questions : a guide to critical thinking, introduction to critical thinking, related papers (5), instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: a stage 1 meta-analysis, teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains: dispositions, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring., critical thinking: a statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction, thought and knowledge: an introduction to critical thinking.

Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills Lisa Gueldenzoph Snyder Mark J

Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills Lisa Gueldenzoph Snyder Mark J. Snyder

Abstract Critical thinking is a learned skill that requires instruction and practice. Business education instructors at both the secondary and post-secondary levels can enhance students’ critical thinking skills by (1) using instructional strategies that actively engage students in the learning process rather than relying on lecture and rote memorization, (2) focusing instruction on the process of learning rather than solely on the content, and (3) using assessment techniques that provide students with an intellectual challenge rather than memory recall . Several barriers can impede critical thinking instruction. Lack of training, limited resources, biased preconceptions, and time constraints conspire to negate learning environments that promote critical thinking. However, actively engaging students in project-based or collaborative activities can encourage students’ critical thinking development if instructors model the thinking process, use effective questioning techniques, and guide students’ critical thinking processes. The examples provided challenge instructors to think of students as users of information rather than receivers of information.

“It is possible to store the mind with a million facts and still be entirely uneducated.” ~ Alec Bourne

Introduction What is critical thinking, and why is it so important? The Critical Thinking Community defined critical thinking as “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication , as a guide to belief and action” (Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1). Critical thinking has also been referred to as metacognition (Tempelaar, 2006) or the process of “thinking about thinking” as defined and originally purposed by Flavell (1979). Critical thinking skills are important because they enable students “to deal effectively with social, scientific, and practical problems” (Shakirova, 2007, p. 42). Simply put, students who are able to think critically are able to solve problems effectively. Merely having knowledge or information is not enough. To be effective in the workplace (and in their personal lives), students must be able to solve problems to make effective decisions; they must be able to think critically. Critical thinking is not a new concept . “Throughout nearly 300 years of policymaking in the United States, educators have promoted eight broad goals of schooling: basic academic skills, critical thinking and problem solving, social skills and work ethic, citizenship, physical health , emotional health, the

Dr. Lisa Gueldenzoph Snyder is an associate professor of Business Education in the School of Business and Economics at North Carolina A&T State University in Greensboro, NC.

Mark J. Snyder is an adjunct professor of Business Administration in the Love School of Business at Elon University in Elon, North Carolina.

90 The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills arts and literature, and preparation for skilled employment” (Rothstein, Wilder, & Jacobsen, 2007, p. 8). Business education directly addresses work ethic and the preparation for skilled employment as well as critical thinking and problem solving. Yet many teachers continually struggle to engage students in critical thinking activities (Tempelaar, 2006), and students seldom use critical thinking skills to solve complex, real-world problems (Bartlett, 2002; Rippin, Booth, Bowie, & Jordan, 2002). Why? The answer may be in our instructional methods. Two quotes that are often cited together reflect this supposition (as cited by Schafersman, 1991). First, Clement (1979) stated that “we should be teaching students how to think. Instead, we are teaching them what to think” (p. 1). Second, Norman (1981) noted that “it is strange that we expect students to learn, yet seldom teach them anything about learning” (p. 1). Although content is important, the process of how students learn the material is equally important. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to analyze and synthesize secondary research to provide best practices for incorporating critical thinking instructional methods into business education classrooms at both the secondary and post-secondary levels. First, critical thinking is described as it relates to instructional design . Then barriers to critical thinking are outlined. Finally, instructional strategies for enhancing students’ critical thinking skills are provided as well as examples of critical thinking in business education. How Critical Thinking Relates to Instructional Design Those who have the ability to hear, do not always actively listen. Similarly, those who have the ability to know, do not always critically think.

The premise that critical thinking is to knowing as listening is to hearing implies that critical thinking is a learned skill that must be developed, practiced, and continually integrated into the curriculum to engage students in active learning. To support this premise, focused attention needs to be placed on the application of content, the process of learning, and methods of assessment. In terms of the application of content, teaching techniques that promote memorization (often temporary knowledge) do not support critical thinking. Although some content, such as vocabulary definitions, do require memory, it is the application of the content that stimulates thinking. Instruction that supports critical thinking uses questioning techniques that require students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information to solve problems and make decisions (think) rather than merely to repeat information (memorize). Because critical thinking is a mental habit that requires students to think about their thinking and about improving the process, it requires students to use higher-order thinking skills – not memorize data or accept what they read or are told without critically thinking about it (Scriven & Paul, 2008; Schafersman, 1991; Templeaar, 2006). Therefore, critical thinking is a product of education, training, and practice. To link critical thinking skills to content, the instructional focus should be on the process of learning. How will the students get the information? Research supports the premise that lecture and memorization do not lead to long-term knowledge

Volume L, No. 2, Spring/Summer, 2008. 91 LISA GUELDENZOPH SNYDER and Mark J. Snyder or the ability to apply that knowledge to new situations (Celuch & Slama, 1999; Daz-Iefebvre, 2004; Kang & Howren, 2004). Traditional instructional methods use too many facts and not enough conceptualization; too much memorizing and not enough thinking. Therefore, lecture and rote memorization do not promote critical thinking. Instructional strategies that employ students’ higher-order thinking skills lead to improved critical thinking skills ( Duplass & Ziedler, 2002; Hemming, 2000; Wong, 2007). Additionally, assessments should emphasize thinking rather than facts (Ennis, 1993). Graded assignments, quizzes, or tests should become intellectual challenges rather than memory recall (Schafersman, 1991). Subjective tools such as essay questions and case studies require students to apply their knowledge to new situations and are better indicators of understanding than objective true/false or standardized multiple-choice assessments. However, instructors can create multiple-choice questions that require critical thinking. For example, a question that asks students to identify the example that best applies a specific concept requires more critical thinking and analysis than a question that asks students to identify the correct term for a given definition. Ennis stated that although they are more labor intensive to create than equally effective open-ended critical thinking assessments, multiple-choice tests are easier to grade. To enhance students’ processing skills, it is important to review test questions and explain correct answers by modeling the critical thinking process (Brown & Kelly, 1986; Duplass & Ziedler, 2002; Schafersman, 1991). Barriers to Critical Thinking Several researchers (Landsman & Gorski, 2007; Sandholtz, Ogawa, & Scribner, 2004; Sheldon & Biddle, 1998; Wong, 2007) suggest that the current educational trend to standardize curricula and focus on test scores undermines instructors’ ability to address critical thinking in the classroom. The emphasis on “teaching to the test” distracts the learning process from student-centered instruction and places the emphasis on the content. If the focus is on learning, students should be given the freedom (and responsibility) to explore content, analyze resources, and apply information. Unfortunately, students are not typically taught to think or learn independently, and they rarely “pick up” these skills on their own (Ladsman & Gorski, 2007; Lundquist, 1999; Rippen, Booth, Bowie, & Jordan, 2002). Critical thinking is not an innate ability. Although some students may be naturally inquisitive, they require training to become systematically analytical, fair, and open-minded in their pursuit of knowledge. With these skills, students can become confident in their reasoning and apply their critical thinking ability to any content area or discipline (Lundquist, 1999). Critical thinking is often compared to the scientific method ; it is a systematic and procedural approach to the process of thinking (Scriven & Paul, 2007). Just as students learn the process of the scientific method, they must also learn the process of critically thinking. Four barriers often impede the integration of critical thinking in education: (1) lack of training, (2) lack of information, (3) preconceptions, and (4) time

92 The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills constraints. First, teachers often are not trained in critical thinking methodology (Broadbear, 2003). Elementary and secondary teachers know their content and receive training in the methods of instruction, but little if any of their training is devoted specifically to how to teach critical thinking skills. Post-secondary instructors pursue additional content-based instruction during graduate school, but often have no formal methodological training, much less skill-based instruction. Second, few instructional materials provide critical thinking resources (Scriven & Paul, 2007). Some textbooks provide chapter-based critical thinking discussion questions, but instructional materials often lack additional critical thinking resources. Third, both teachers and students have preconceptions about the content that blocks their ability to think critically about the material. Preconceptions such as personal bias partiality prohibit critical thinking because they obviate analytical skills such as being fair, open-minded, and inquisitive about a topic (Kang & Howren, 2004). For example, many business educators still continue using two spaces after ending punctuation even though typeface experts have documented that today’s proportional fonts are designed for one space (American Psychological Association, 2001, pp. 290–291; Chicago Manual of Style Online, 2007). A critical analysis of the information provided on this typesetting topic would support the use of a single space; however, strong biases for two spaces preclude many business teachers (predominantly typing teachers) from changing their opinion and adopting the acceptable procedure. Finally, time constraints are barriers to integrating critical thinking skills in the classroom. Instructors often have a great deal of content to cover within a short time period. When the focus is on content rather than student learning, shortcuts such as lectures and objective tests become the norm. Lecturing is faster and easier than integrating project-based learning opportunities. Objective tests are faster to take (and grade) than subjective assessments. However, research indicates that lecturing is not the best method of instruction, and objective tests are not the best method of assessment (Broadbear, 2003; Brodie & Irving, 2007). Instructional Strategies for Integrating Critical Thinking Skills Even when the typical barriers are overcome, critical thinking requires more than simple engagement. It involves students’ personal discovery of information. In a study investigating students’ learning (Nokes, Dole, & Hacker, 2007), students who used heuristic techniques to solve problems consistently scored higher on content-based assessments than students who learned by traditional textbook and lecture methods. Heuristic teaching methods encourage students to “learn, discover, understand, or solve problems on [their] own, as by experimenting, evaluating possible answers or solutions, or by trial and error” (Dictionary.com, 2007, p. 1). A similar study suggested that problem-based learning activities promoted “critical thinking and problem-solving skills; active participation in the learning process including self-direction, identification of own learning needs, teamwork, creative discussion, and learning from peers; and the integration and synthesis

Volume L, No. 2, Spring/Summer, 2008. 93 LISA GUELDENZOPH SNYDER and Mark J. Snyder of a variety of knowledge” (Gurses, Acikyildiz, Dogar, & Sozbilir, 2007, p. 1). Kumar and Natarajan (2007) also found problem-based learning environments to increase students’ thinking skills and knowledge acquisition. A comparable concept is work-based learning. As noted by Brodie and Irving (2007), work- based learning (WBL) “is based on the inter-relationship and inter-dependency between understanding learning, critical reflection and the identification and development of capability within a WBL context” (p. 11). Many business education researchers have addressed critical thinking. Rippin et al. (2002) investigated the use of case study methods in undergraduate business education courses. Braun (2004) focused on improving critical thinking methods in business education curriculum development. Celuck and Slama (1999) identified methods of integrating critical thinking skills into business courses. Other researchers (Catanach, Croll, & Grinaker, 2000; Saraoghu, Yobaccio, & Louton, 2000) studied hands-on activities that required students to think critically and apply their knowledge to specific tasks. In nearly all studies that suggested methods for integrating critical thinking skills, the elements of modeling, questioning, and guiding student practice were emphasized.

Modeling Critical Thinking Skills Although business education students perceive critical thinking as an important skill (Davis, Riley, & Fisher, 2003), they typically do not know how to think critically. Students are not born with the ability to think critically, and their prior learning experiences often do not require them to think critically. Therefore, instructors who wish to integrate this skill in their classroom experiences must first model the behavior (Hemming, 2000). Students must learn how tothink critically before they can apply the skill to content scenarios. Modeling can be demonstrated in a discussion setting by asking a question and “walking students through” the process of critically thinking. Further, critical thinking activities should be based on a structure that includes four elements: “ill-structured problems, criteria for assessing thinking, student assessment of thinking, and improvement of thinking” (Broadbear, 2003, p. 7). Ill-structured problems are questions, case studies, or scenarios that do not have a definite right or wrong answer; they include debatable issues that require “reflective judgment.” For example, asking students to evaluate comparable websites, such as Wal-Mart and Target, requires them to think about the content of the websites, their format, and their usability. Right and wrong answers do not exist as long as the student’s choice is supported by logical reasoning. The second element, criteria for assessing thinking, provides students with a framework for thinking about their thinking. Why do you think Target’s navigational menus are easier to use than Wal-Mart’s? Why do you like one’s color scheme over the other? What is your perspective based upon? Providing students with individualized feedback based on their responses allows them to address specific criteria upon which they can assess their thinking, which is the third element. If instructors model the criteria for assessing thinking and provide a framework, students will eventually apply these techniques on their own (Lundquist, 1999).

94 The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills

Finally, the process concludes with improvement of thinking. By creating a culture of inquiry where students can think about their thinking processes and practice logical constructs, students will become more willing to reconsider and revise their thinking (Duplass & Ziedler, 2002).

Questioning Techniques In their research, Haynes and Bailey (2003) emphasized the importance of asking the right questions to stimulate students’ critical thinking skills. Other researchers (Brown & Kelley, 1986; Hemming, 2000) also focused on integrating questioning techniques into class discussions to support an educational environment where students can demonstrate and practice critical thinking skills. Brown and Kelley’s book, Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, documented the premise that students’ critical thinking is best supported when instructors use critical questioning techniques to engage students actively in the learning process. Sample questions from all these studies include the following:  What do you think about this?  Why do you think that?  What is your knowledge based upon?  What does it imply and presuppose?  What explains it, connects to it, leads from it?  How are you viewing it?  Should it be viewed differently? These questions require students to evaluate the clarity and accuracy of their thinking as well as the depth and breadth of their thinking. Have they considered all the alternatives? Do they know why they think the way they do? Students need to determine whether the content they are using is relevant and if their thinking process is logical. By questioning their thought process, students can begin thinking about their thinking. Research on questioning methodology also suggests that instructors should wait for student responses (Brown & Kelley, 1986; Hemming, 2000). Too often, the students’ silence is filled by the instructor re-wording the question or asking a different student for a response. However, most students need at least 8 to 12 seconds to process and formulate their response, especially in critical thinking situations (Schafersman, 1991). If a question is based on rote memory recall, speed may be relevant; however, thinking requires time and patience. Give students the time they need to think critically. Research also provides strategies for using questioning methods in online learning environments (Astleitner, 2002; MacKnight 2000). Discussion boards, virtual chat rooms, and instant messages provide forums for questioning and critical thinking. In synchronous environments, instructors can question students as they construct their responses. Although this is not possible with asynchronous communication, instructors can model the critical thinking process and assign activities that utilize questioning techniques and critical thinking responses. In all learning environments, it is important to guide students through the critical thinking process.

Volume L, No. 2, Spring/Summer, 2008. 95 LISA GUELDENZOPH SNYDER and Mark J. Snyder

Guiding Students’ Critical Thinking When students are accustomed to being passive learners by merely memorizing and recalling information, it may be difficult at first to engage them in active learning situations that require critical thinking skills (Brown & Kelley, 1986). Instructors should be aware of students’ initial resistance and guide them through the process to create a learning environment where students feel comfortable thinking through an answer rather than simply having an answer. For example, peer coaching techniques can engage students in active learning and critical thinking opportunities (Ladyshewsky, 2006). Assign students to two-person teams; one student is the problem-solver, and the other is the peer coach. Using the Six Steps to Effective Thinking and Problem Solving, or “IDEALS” (Facione, 2007), the problem-solver works through a case study or activity by responding to questions from the peer coach. The IDEALS are to Identify, Define, Enumerate, Analyze, List, and Self-Correct: i identify the Problem: What is the real question we are facing? D Define the Context: What are the facts that frame this problem? E Enumerate the Choices: What are plausible options? A Analyze Options: What is the best course of action? l list Reasons Explicitly: Why is this the best course of action? s self-Correct: Look at it again … What did we miss? This problem-solving technique guides students through the critical thinking process and utilizes learner collaboration . Similar strategies include integrating project-based learning activities that require students to apply their knowledge by constructing a real-world product. As a final guide to student practice, use peer assessments to facilitate students’ critical thinking and meta-cognitive skills (Hou, Chang, & Sung, 2007). Examples of Critical Thinking in Business Education Many critical thinking strategies have been used successfully in business education courses at all levels. At the secondary level, Bartlett (2002) found that high school business students ranked critical thinking as the highest cognitive strategy. Shakirova (2007) analyzed the use of technology to support upper-grade students’ critical thinking skills. At the university level, Tempelaar (2006) investigated the role of critical thinking in business education programs and found a positive correlation between critical thinking (identified as a subset of metacognition skills) and course performance. Hannon, McBride, and Burns (2004) developed a critical thinking module in an undergraduate business studies program that used experiential exercises to enhance students’ decision-making and conflict resolution skills. Most research focused on collaborative learning activities to develop students’ critical thinking skills (Yazici, 2004). For example, Ngai (2007) documented using a project-based team approach for an undergraduate e-commerce activity. Results from both student surveys and assessments indicated that students gained critical thinking skills based on the practical application of “learning-by-doing” and the collaborative effort required by the project. Dudley, Davis, and McGrady (2001)

96 The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills also reported students’ use of critical thinking skills when accounting students completed a group project involving the hypothetical creation of stock portfolios. A similar result was found when Whatley and Dyck (2000) applied International Monetary Fund development scenarios to international business topics with MBA students. The case method was also used by Rippen, et al. (2002) to provide students with the experience of practicing intervention skills and solving complex problems. With a little investigation and creativity , instructors can find resources that facilitate the integration of critical thinking activities into their courses. Conclusion The goal for business educators who want to instill critical thinking skills in their classrooms is to think of their students not as receivers of information, but as users of information. Learning environments that actively engage students in the investigation of information and the application of knowledge will promote students’ critical thinking skills. However, as with any skill, critical thinking requires training, practice, and patience. Students may initially resist instructional questioning techniques if they previously have been required only to remember information and not think about what they know. They may struggle with assessment questions that are not taken verbatim from the book. However, by encouraging students throughout the process and modeling thinking behaviors, students’ critical thinking skills can improve. The effort is worth the reward: students who can critically think for themselves and solve real-world problems. References American Psychological Association (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition. Washington, DC: American Psycho- logical Association. Astleitner, H. (2002). Teaching critical thinking online. Journal of Instructional Psychology , 29(2), 53–77. Bartlett, J. E. (2002). Analysis of motivational orientation and learning strategies of high school business students. Business Education Forum, 56(4), 18–23. Braun, N. M. (2004). Critical thinking in the business curriculum. Journal of Education for Business, 70(4), 232–236. Broadbear, J. T. (2003). Essential elements of lessons designed to promote critical thinking. Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 3(3), 1–8. Brodie, P., & Irving, K. (2007). Assessment in work-based learning: Investigating a pedagogical approach to enhance student learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education , 32(1), 11–19. Brown, M. N., & Kelley, S. M. (1986). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking, 7th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Catanach, A. H., Croll, D. B., & Grinaker, R. L. (2000). Teaching intermediate financial accounting using a business activity model. Issues in Accounting Education, 15(4), 583.

Volume L, No. 2, Spring/Summer, 2008. 97 LISA GUELDENZOPH SNYDER and Mark J. Snyder

Celuch, K., & Slama, M. (1999). Teaching critical thinking skills for the 21st century: An advertising principles case study. Journal of Education for Business, 74(3), 134. Chicago Manual of Style Online (2007). Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http:// www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html Clement, J. (1979). Introduction to research in cognitive process instruction. In Lochhead, J. and Clement, J. (Eds.), Cognitive process instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Davis, L., Riley, M., & Fisher, D. J. (2003). Business students’ perceptions of necessary skills. Business Education Forum, 57(4), 18–21. Daz-Iefebvre, R. (2004). Multiple intelligences , learning for understanding, and creative assessment: Some pieces to the puzzle of learning. Teachers College Record, 106(1), 49–57. Dictionary.com (2007). Lexico Publishing Group, LLC, Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.dictionary.com Dudley, L. W., Davis, H. H., & McGrady, D. G. (2001). Using an investment project to develop professional competencies in introduction to financial accounting. Journal of Education for Business, 76(3), 125–131. Duplass, J. A., & Ziedler, D. L. (2002). Critical thinking and logical argument. Social Education, 66(5), 10–14. Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory Into Practice, 32(3), 179–186. Facione, P. A. (2007). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/ cthinking7.htm Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-development inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. Gurses, A., Acikyildiz, M., Dogar, C., & Sozbilir, M. (2007). An investigation into the effectiveness of problem-based learning in a physical chemistry laboratory course. Research in Science & Technological Education, 25(1), 99–113. Hannon, S., McBride, H., & Burns, B. (2004). Developing creative and critical thinking abilities in business graduates: The value of experiential learning techniques. Industry and Higher Education, 18(2), 95–100. Haynes, T., & Bailey, G. (2003). Are you and your basic business students asking the right questions? Business Education Forum, 57(3), 33–37. Hemming, H. E. (2000). Encouraging critical thinking: “But…what does that mean?” Journal of Education, 35(2), 173. Hou, H., Chang, K., & Sung, Y. (2007). An analysis of peer assessment online discussions within a course that uses project-based learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 15(3), 237–251. Kang, N., & Howren, C. (2004). Teaching for conceptual understanding. Science and Children, 42(1), 28–32. Kumar, M., & Natarajan, U. (2007). A problem-based learning model: Showcasing an educational paradigm shift. Curriculum Journal, 18(1), 89–102.

98 The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills

Ladyshewsky, R. K. (2006). Peer coaching: A constructivist methodology for enhancing critical thinking in postgraduate business education. Higher Education Research and Development, 25(1), 67–84. Landsman, J., & Gorski, P. (2007). Countering standardization. Educational Leadership, 64(8), 40–41. Lundquist, R. (1999). Critical thinking and the art of making good mistakes. Teaching in Higher Education, 4(4), 523–530. MacKnight, C. B. (2000). Teaching critical thinking through online discussions. Educause Quarterly, 23(4), 38–41. Ngai, E. W. T. (2007). Learning in introductory e-commerce: A project-based teamwork approach. Computers and Education, 48(1), 17–29. Nokes, J. D., Dole, J. A., & Hacker, D. J. (2007). Teaching high school students to use heuristics while reading historical texts. Journal of Educational Psychology , 99(3), 492–504. Norman, D. A. (Ed.) (1981). Perspectives on cognitive science . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Rippen, A., Booth, C., Bowie, S., & Jordan, J. (2002). A complex case: Using the case study method to explore uncertainty and ambiguity in undergraduate business education. Teaching in Higher Education, 7(4), 429. Rothstein, R., Wilder, T., & Jacobsen, R. (2007). Balance in the balance. Educational Leadership, 52(8), 8–14. Sandholtz, J. H., Ogawa, R. T., & Scribner, S. P. (2004). Standards gaps: Unintended consequences of local standards-based reform. Teachers College Record, 106(6), 1177–1202. Saraoghu, H., Yobaccio, E., & Louton, D. (2000). Teaching dynamic processes in finance: How can we prepare students for an age of rapid and continual change? Financial Practice & Education, 10(2), 231. Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (2007). Defining critical thinking. The Critical Thinking Community: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_thinking.cfm Schafersman, S. D. (1991). An introduction to critical thinking. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://www.freeinquiry.com/critical-thinking.html Shakirova, D. M. (2007). Technology for the shaping of college students’ and upper-grade students’ critical thinking. Russian Education & Society, 49(9), 42–52. Sheldon, K. M., & Biddle, B. J. (1998). Standards, accountability, and school reform: Perils and pitfalls. Teachers College Record, 100(1), 164–180. Tempelaar, D. T. (2006). The role of metacognition in business education. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 291–297. Whatley, A., & Dyck, L. (2000). A postmodern framework for developing critical thinking skills: The international monetary fund as a live case. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 11(4), 23–38. Wong, D. (2007). Beyond control and rationality: Dewey, aesthetics, motivation , and educative experiences. Teachers College Record, 109(1), 192–220. Yazici, H. J. (2004). Student perceptions of collaborative learning in operations management classes. Journal of Education for Business, 80(2), 110–118. Volume L, No. 2, Spring/Summer, 2008. 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

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(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

• Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
• SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

• If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
• Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
• If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

• To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Snyder, L. G., & Snyder, M. J. (2008). Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Skills. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 50, 90-99.

has been cited by the following article:

TITLE: Barriers in Teaching Critical Thinking in Islamic Education

KEYWORDS: Critical Thinking , Teaching Critical Thinking Barriers , Teaching Critical Thinking , Islamic Education , Islamic Education Teacher

JOURNAL NAME: Creative Education , Vol.9 No.14 , October 31, 2018

ABSTRACT: Critical thinking helps the discovery of the meaning of a concept about something that being learnt. Accordantly, critical thinking should be infused in teaching Islamic education (IE) for the potential to an effective teaching. Yet, there are some flaws in the teaching of critical thinking in IE among the secondary schools in Malaysia. Therefore, this qualitative study purposely, designed to discover the barriers that being encountered by the Islamic education teachers (IET) in conducting lessons with critical thinking in IE. Data werecollected through interviews, lesson observations, and document analysis on six IETs. The finding shows that there are five main themes of barriers that have been faced by the IETs which are:time constraint, limited of teachers’ knowledge and skills, students related problems, limited facilities and physical surrounding of the classroom which less supporting the thinking activities.

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