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Narrative Analysis – Types, Methods and Examples

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Narrative Analysis

Definition:

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology that involves examining and interpreting the stories or narratives people tell in order to gain insights into the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie them. Narrative analysis can be applied to various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

In narrative analysis, researchers typically examine the structure, content, and context of the narratives they are studying, paying close attention to the language, themes, and symbols used by the storytellers. They may also look for patterns or recurring motifs within the narratives, and consider the cultural and social contexts in which they are situated.

Types of Narrative Analysis

Types of Narrative Analysis are as follows:

Content Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the content of a narrative in order to identify themes, motifs, and other patterns. Researchers may use coding schemes to identify specific themes or categories within the text, and then analyze how they are related to each other and to the overall narrative. Content analysis can be used to study various forms of communication, including written texts, oral interviews, and visual media.

Structural Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the formal structure of a narrative, including its plot, character development, and use of literary devices. Researchers may analyze the narrative arc, the relationship between the protagonist and antagonist, or the use of symbolism and metaphor. Structural analysis can be useful for understanding how a narrative is constructed and how it affects the reader or audience.

Discourse Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the language and discourse used in a narrative, including the social and cultural context in which it is situated. Researchers may analyze the use of specific words or phrases, the tone and style of the narrative, or the ways in which social and cultural norms are reflected in the narrative. Discourse analysis can be useful for understanding how narratives are influenced by larger social and cultural structures.

Phenomenological Analysis

This type of narrative analysis focuses on the subjective experience of the narrator, and how they interpret and make sense of their experiences. Researchers may analyze the language used to describe experiences, the emotions expressed in the narrative, or the ways in which the narrator constructs meaning from their experiences. Phenomenological analysis can be useful for understanding how people make sense of their own lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

This type of narrative analysis involves examining the political, social, and ideological implications of a narrative, and questioning its underlying assumptions and values. Researchers may analyze the ways in which a narrative reflects or reinforces dominant power structures, or how it challenges or subverts those structures. Critical analysis can be useful for understanding the role that narratives play in shaping social and cultural norms.

Autoethnography

This type of narrative analysis involves using personal narratives to explore cultural experiences and identity formation. Researchers may use their own personal narratives to explore issues such as race, gender, or sexuality, and to understand how larger social and cultural structures shape individual experiences. Autoethnography can be useful for understanding how individuals negotiate and navigate complex cultural identities.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying themes or patterns that emerge from the data, and then interpreting these themes in relation to the research question. Researchers may use a deductive approach, where they start with a pre-existing theoretical framework, or an inductive approach, where themes are generated from the data itself.

Narrative Analysis Conducting Guide

Here are some steps for conducting narrative analysis:

• Identify the research question: Narrative analysis begins with identifying the research question or topic of interest. Researchers may want to explore a particular social or cultural phenomenon, or gain a deeper understanding of a particular individual’s experience.
• Collect the narratives: Researchers then collect the narratives or stories that they will analyze. This can involve collecting written texts, conducting interviews, or analyzing visual media.
• Transcribe and code the narratives: Once the narratives have been collected, they are transcribed into a written format, and then coded in order to identify themes, motifs, or other patterns. Researchers may use a coding scheme that has been developed specifically for the study, or they may use an existing coding scheme.
• Analyze the narratives: Researchers then analyze the narratives, focusing on the themes, motifs, and other patterns that have emerged from the coding process. They may also analyze the formal structure of the narratives, the language used, and the social and cultural context in which they are situated.
• Interpret the findings: Finally, researchers interpret the findings of the narrative analysis, and draw conclusions about the meanings, experiences, and perspectives that underlie the narratives. They may use the findings to develop theories, make recommendations, or inform further research.

Applications of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a versatile qualitative research method that has applications across a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and history. Here are some examples of how narrative analysis can be used:

• Understanding individuals’ experiences: Narrative analysis can be used to gain a deeper understanding of individuals’ experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. For example, psychologists might use narrative analysis to explore the stories that individuals tell about their experiences with mental illness.
• Exploring cultural and social phenomena: Narrative analysis can also be used to explore cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity. Sociologists might use narrative analysis to examine how individuals understand and experience their gender identity.
• Analyzing historical events: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze historical events, including those that have been recorded in literary texts or personal accounts. Historians might use narrative analysis to explore the stories of survivors of historical traumas, such as war or genocide.
• Examining media representations: Narrative analysis can be used to examine media representations of social and cultural phenomena, such as news stories, films, or television shows. Communication scholars might use narrative analysis to examine how news media represent different social groups.
• Developing interventions: Narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions to address social and cultural problems. For example, social workers might use narrative analysis to understand the experiences of individuals who have experienced domestic violence, and then use that knowledge to develop more effective interventions.

Examples of Narrative Analysis

Here are some examples of how narrative analysis has been used in research:

• Personal narratives of illness: Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine the personal narratives of individuals living with chronic illness, to understand how they make sense of their experiences and construct their identities.
• Oral histories: Historians have used narrative analysis to analyze oral histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of historical events and social movements.
• Children’s stories: Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze children’s stories to understand how they understand and make sense of the world around them.
• Personal diaries : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine personal diaries to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of significant life events, such as the loss of a loved one or the transition to adulthood.
• Memoirs : Researchers have used narrative analysis to analyze memoirs to understand how individuals construct their life stories and make sense of their experiences.
• Life histories : Researchers have used narrative analysis to examine life histories to gain insights into individuals’ experiences of migration, displacement, or social exclusion.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

The purpose of narrative analysis is to gain a deeper understanding of the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, identities, and beliefs. By analyzing the structure, content, and context of these stories, researchers can uncover patterns and themes that shed light on the ways in which individuals make sense of their lives and the world around them.

The primary purpose of narrative analysis is to explore the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences. This involves examining the different elements of a story, such as the plot, characters, setting, and themes, to identify the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the story. By analyzing these elements, researchers can gain insights into the ways in which individuals construct their identities, understand their relationships with others, and make sense of the world.

Narrative analysis can also be used to identify patterns and themes across multiple stories. This involves comparing and contrasting the stories of different individuals or groups to identify commonalities and differences. By analyzing these patterns and themes, researchers can gain insights into broader cultural and social phenomena, such as gender, race, and identity.

In addition, narrative analysis can be used to develop interventions that address social and cultural problems. By understanding the stories that individuals tell about their experiences, researchers can develop interventions that are tailored to the unique needs of different individuals and groups.

Overall, the purpose of narrative analysis is to provide a rich, nuanced understanding of the ways in which individuals construct meaning and make sense of their lives. By analyzing the stories that individuals tell, researchers can gain insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of human experience.

When to use Narrative Analysis

Here are some situations where narrative analysis may be appropriate:

• Studying life stories: Narrative analysis can be useful in understanding how individuals construct their life stories, including the events, characters, and themes that are important to them.
• Analyzing cultural narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze cultural narratives, such as myths, legends, and folktales, to understand their meanings and functions.
• Exploring organizational narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining the stories that organizations tell about themselves, their histories, and their values, to understand how they shape the culture and practices of the organization.
• Investigating media narratives: Narrative analysis can be used to analyze media narratives, such as news stories, films, and TV shows, to understand how they construct meaning and influence public perceptions.
• Examining policy narratives: Narrative analysis can be helpful in examining policy narratives, such as political speeches and policy documents, to understand how they construct ideas and justify policy decisions.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Here are some key characteristics of narrative analysis:

• Focus on stories and narratives: Narrative analysis is concerned with analyzing the stories and narratives that people tell, whether they are oral or written, to understand how they shape and reflect individuals’ experiences and identities.
• Emphasis on context: Narrative analysis seeks to understand the context in which the narratives are produced and the social and cultural factors that shape them.
• Interpretive approach: Narrative analysis is an interpretive approach that seeks to identify patterns and themes in the stories and narratives and to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Iterative process: Narrative analysis involves an iterative process of analysis, in which the researcher continually refines their understanding of the narratives as they examine more data.
• Attention to language and form : Narrative analysis pays close attention to the language and form of the narratives, including the use of metaphor, imagery, and narrative structure, to understand the meaning that individuals and communities attach to them.
• Reflexivity : Narrative analysis requires the researcher to reflect on their own assumptions and biases and to consider how their own positionality may shape their interpretation of the narratives.
• Qualitative approach: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases rather than large-scale quantitative studies.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some advantages of narrative analysis:

• Rich and detailed data : Narrative analysis provides rich and detailed data that allows for a deep understanding of individuals’ experiences, emotions, and identities.
• Humanizing approach: Narrative analysis allows individuals to tell their own stories and express their own perspectives, which can help to humanize research and give voice to marginalized communities.
• Holistic understanding: Narrative analysis allows researchers to understand individuals’ experiences in their entirety, including the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which they occur.
• Flexibility : Narrative analysis is a flexible research method that can be applied to a wide range of contexts and research questions.
• Interpretive insights: Narrative analysis provides interpretive insights into the meanings that individuals attach to their experiences and the ways in which they construct their identities.
• Appropriate for sensitive topics: Narrative analysis can be particularly useful in researching sensitive topics, such as trauma or mental health, as it allows individuals to express their experiences in their own words and on their own terms.
• Can lead to policy implications: Narrative analysis can provide insights that can inform policy decisions and interventions, particularly in areas such as health, education, and social policy.

Limitations of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the limitations of narrative analysis:

• Subjectivity : Narrative analysis relies on the interpretation of researchers, which can be influenced by their own biases and assumptions.
• Limited generalizability: Narrative analysis typically involves in-depth analysis of a small number of cases, which limits its generalizability to broader populations.
• Ethical considerations: The process of eliciting and analyzing narratives can raise ethical concerns, particularly when sensitive topics such as trauma or abuse are involved.
• Limited control over data collection: Narrative analysis often relies on data that is already available, such as interviews, oral histories, or written texts, which can limit the control that researchers have over the quality and completeness of the data.
• Time-consuming: Narrative analysis can be a time-consuming research method, particularly when analyzing large amounts of data.
• Interpretation challenges: Narrative analysis requires researchers to make complex interpretations of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming.
• Limited statistical analysis: Narrative analysis is typically a qualitative research method that does not lend itself well to statistical analysis.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Narrative Analysis 101

Everything you need to know to get started

By: Ethar Al-Saraf (PhD)| Expert Reviewed By: Eunice Rautenbach (DTech) | March 2023

If you’re new to research, the host of qualitative analysis methods available to you can be a little overwhelming. In this post, we’ll  unpack the sometimes slippery topic of narrative analysis . We’ll explain what it is, consider its strengths and weaknesses , and look at when and when not to use this analysis method. 

Overview: Narrative Analysis

• What is narrative analysis (simple definition)
• The two overarching approaches  
• The strengths & weaknesses of narrative analysis
• When (and when not) to use it
• Key takeaways

What Is Narrative Analysis?

Simply put, narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experiences and motivations by looking closely at the stories (the narratives) people tell in a particular context.

In other words, a narrative analysis interprets long-form participant responses or written stories as data, to uncover themes and meanings . That data could be taken from interviews, monologues, written stories, or even recordings. In other words, narrative analysis can be used on both primary and secondary data to provide evidence from the experiences described.

That’s all quite conceptual, so let’s look at an example of how narrative analysis could be used.

Let’s say you’re interested in researching the beliefs of a particular author on popular culture. In that case, you might identify the characters , plotlines , symbols and motifs used in their stories. You could then use narrative analysis to analyse these in combination and against the backdrop of the relevant context.

This would allow you to interpret the underlying meanings and implications in their writing, and what they reveal about the beliefs of the author. In other words, you’d look to understand the views of the author by analysing the narratives that run through their work.

The Two Overarching Approaches

Generally speaking, there are two approaches that one can take to narrative analysis. Specifically, an inductive approach or a deductive approach. Each one will have a meaningful impact on how you interpret your data and the conclusions you can draw, so it’s important that you understand the difference.

First up is the inductive approach to narrative analysis.

The inductive approach takes a bottom-up view , allowing the data to speak for itself, without the influence of any preconceived notions . With this approach, you begin by looking at the data and deriving patterns and themes that can be used to explain the story, as opposed to viewing the data through the lens of pre-existing hypotheses, theories or frameworks. In other words, the analysis is led by the data.

For example, with an inductive approach, you might notice patterns or themes in the way an author presents their characters or develops their plot. You’d then observe these patterns, develop an interpretation of what they might reveal in the context of the story, and draw conclusions relative to the aims of your research.

Contrasted to this is the deductive approach.

With the deductive approach to narrative analysis, you begin by using existing theories that a narrative can be tested against . Here, the analysis adopts particular theoretical assumptions and/or provides hypotheses, and then looks for evidence in a story that will either verify or disprove them.

For example, your analysis might begin with a theory that wealthy authors only tell stories to get the sympathy of their readers. A deductive analysis might then look at the narratives of wealthy authors for evidence that will substantiate (or refute) the theory and then draw conclusions about its accuracy, and suggest explanations for why that might or might not be the case.

Which approach you should take depends on your research aims, objectives and research questions . If these are more exploratory in nature, you’ll likely take an inductive approach. Conversely, if they are more confirmatory in nature, you’ll likely opt for the deductive approach.

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Strengths & Weaknesses

Now that we have a clearer view of what narrative analysis is and the two approaches to it, it’s important to understand its strengths and weaknesses , so that you can make the right choices in your research project.

A primary strength of narrative analysis is the rich insight it can generate by uncovering the underlying meanings and interpretations of human experience. The focus on an individual narrative highlights the nuances and complexities of their experience, revealing details that might be missed or considered insignificant by other methods.

Another strength of narrative analysis is the range of topics it can be used for. The focus on human experience means that a narrative analysis can democratise your data analysis, by revealing the value of individuals’ own interpretation of their experience in contrast to broader social, cultural, and political factors.

All that said, just like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has its weaknesses. It’s important to understand these so that you can choose the most appropriate method for your particular research project.

The first drawback of narrative analysis is the problem of subjectivity and interpretation . In other words, a drawback of the focus on stories and their details is that they’re open to being understood differently depending on who’s reading them. This means that a strong understanding of the author’s cultural context is crucial to developing your interpretation of the data. At the same time, it’s important that you remain open-minded in how you interpret your chosen narrative and avoid making any assumptions .

A second weakness of narrative analysis is the issue of reliability and generalisation . Since narrative analysis depends almost entirely on a subjective narrative and your interpretation, the findings and conclusions can’t usually be generalised or empirically verified. Although some conclusions can be drawn about the cultural context, they’re still based on what will almost always be anecdotal data and not suitable for the basis of a theory, for example.

Last but not least, the focus on long-form data expressed as stories means that narrative analysis can be very time-consuming . In addition to the source data itself, you will have to be well informed on the author’s cultural context as well as other interpretations of the narrative, where possible, to ensure you have a holistic view. So, if you’re going to undertake narrative analysis, make sure that you allocate a generous amount of time to work through the data.

When To Use Narrative Analysis

As a qualitative method focused on analysing and interpreting narratives describing human experiences, narrative analysis is usually most appropriate for research topics focused on social, personal, cultural , or even ideological events or phenomena and how they’re understood at an individual level.

For example, if you were interested in understanding the experiences and beliefs of individuals suffering social marginalisation, you could use narrative analysis to look at the narratives and stories told by people in marginalised groups to identify patterns , symbols , or motifs that shed light on how they rationalise their experiences.

In this example, narrative analysis presents a good natural fit as it’s focused on analysing people’s stories to understand their views and beliefs at an individual level. Conversely, if your research was geared towards understanding broader themes and patterns regarding an event or phenomena, analysis methods such as content analysis or thematic analysis may be better suited, depending on your research aim .

Let’s recap

In this post, we’ve explored the basics of narrative analysis in qualitative research. The key takeaways are:

• Narrative analysis is a qualitative analysis method focused on interpreting human experience in the form of stories or narratives .
• There are two overarching approaches to narrative analysis: the inductive (exploratory) approach and the deductive (confirmatory) approach.
• Like all analysis methods, narrative analysis has a particular set of strengths and weaknesses .
• Narrative analysis is generally most appropriate for research focused on interpreting individual, human experiences as expressed in detailed , long-form accounts.

If you’d like to learn more about narrative analysis and qualitative analysis methods in general, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach blog here . Alternatively, if you’re looking for hands-on help with your project, take a look at our 1-on-1 private coaching service .

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Thanks. I need examples of narrative analysis

Here are some examples of research topics that could utilise narrative analysis:

Personal Narratives of Trauma: Analysing personal stories of individuals who have experienced trauma to understand the impact, coping mechanisms, and healing processes.

Identity Formation in Immigrant Communities: Examining the narratives of immigrants to explore how they construct and negotiate their identities in a new cultural context.

Media Representations of Gender: Analysing narratives in media texts (such as films, television shows, or advertisements) to investigate the portrayal of gender roles, stereotypes, and power dynamics.

Where can I find an example of a narrative analysis table ?

Please i need help with my project,

how can I cite this article in APA 7th style?

please mention the sources as well.

My research is mixed approach. I use interview,key_inforamt interview,FGD and document.so,which qualitative analysis is appropriate to analyze these data.Thanks

Which qualitative analysis methode is appropriate to analyze data obtain from intetview,key informant intetview,Focus group discussion and document.

I’ve finished my PhD. Now I need a “platform” that will help me objectively ascertain the tacit assumptions that are buried within a narrative. Can you help?

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Narrative Reviews: Flexible, Rigorous, and Practical

Javeed sukhera.

Javeed Sukhera, MD, PhD, FRCPC , is Chair/Chief, Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Living and Hartford Hospital

Introduction

Narrative reviews are a type of knowledge synthesis grounded in a distinct research tradition. They are often framed as non-systematic, which implies that there is a hierarchy of evidence placing narrative reviews below other review forms. 1 However, narrative reviews are highly useful to medical educators and researchers. While a systematic review often focuses on a narrow question in a specific context, with a prespecified method to synthesize findings from similar studies, a narrative review can include a wide variety of studies and provide an overall summary, with interpretation and critique. 1 Examples of narrative review types include state-of-the-art, critical, and integrative reviews, among many others.

Foundations

Narrative reviews are situated within diverse disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Most forms of narrative reviews align with subjectivist and interpretivist paradigms. These worldviews emphasize that reality is subjective and dynamic. They contrast with the positivist and post-positivist worldviews that are the foundations of systematic reviews: a single reality can be known through experimental research. Unlike systematic reviews, narrative reviews offer researchers the ability to synthesize multiple points of view and harness unique review team perspectives, which will shape the analysis. Therefore, insights gained from a narrative review will vary depending on the individual, organizational, or historical contexts in which the review was conducted. 1 - 5

Why Choose a Narrative Review?

Narrative reviews allow researchers to describe what is known on a topic while conducting a subjective examination and critique of an entire body of literature. Authors can describe the topic's current status while providing insights on advancing the field, new theories, or current evidence viewed from different or unusual perspectives. 3 Therefore, such reviews can be useful by exploring topics that are under-researched as well as for new insights or ways of thinking regarding well-developed, robustly researched fields.

Narrative reviews are often useful for topics that require a meaningful synthesis of research evidence that may be complex or broad and that require detailed, nuanced description and interpretation. 1 See Boxes 1 and 2 for resources on writing a narrative review as well as a case example of a program director's use of a narrative review for an interprofessional education experience. This Journal of Graduate Medical Education (JGME) special review series will continue to use the Case of Dr. Smith to consider the same question using different review methodologies.

Box 1 The Case of Dr. Smith

Dr. Smith, a program director, has been tasked to develop an interprofessional education (IPE) experience for the residency program. Dr. Smith decides that conducting a literature review would be a savvy way to examine the existing evidence and generate a publication useful to others. Using PubMed and a general subject search with “interprofessional education,” Dr. Smith identifies 24 000 matches. Dr. Smith begins to randomly sample the papers and notes the huge diversity of types and approaches: randomized trials, qualitative investigations, critical perspectives, and more.

Dr. Smith decides to do a meta-narrative review, because she notes that there are tensions and contradictions in the ways in which IPE is discussed by different health professions education communities, such as in nursing literature vs in medical journals.

Box 2 Resources

Ferrari R. Writing narrative style literature reviews. Med Writing . 2015;24(4):230-235. doi: 10.1179/2047480615Z.000000000329

Green BN, Johnson CD, Adams A. Writing narrative literature reviews for peer-reviewed journals: secrets of the trade. J Chiropr Med . 2006;5(3):101-117. doi: 10.1016/S0899-3467(07)60142-6

Gregory AT, Denniss AR. An introduction to writing narrative and systematic reviews—tasks, tips and traps for aspiring authors. Heart Lung Circ . 2018;27(7):893-898. doi: 10.1016/j.hlc.2018.03.027

Murphy CM. Writing an effective review article. J Med Toxicol . 2012;8(2):89-90. doi: 10.1007/s13181-012-0234-2

Process and Rigor

While each type of narrative review has its own associated markers of rigor, the following guidelines are broadly applicable to narrative reviews and can help readers critically appraise their quality. These principles may also guide researchers who wish to conduct narrative reviews. When engaging with a narrative review as a reader or a researcher, scholars are advised to be conversant with the following 5 foundational elements of narrative reviews.

Rationale for a Narrative Review

First, scholars should consider the framing of the research question. Does the topic being studied align with the type of knowledge synthesis performed through a narrative review? Authors should have a clear research question and a specific audience target. Authors should also provide a rationale for why a narrative review method was chosen. 6 The manuscript should include the initial research question as well as details about any iterative refinements to the question.

Clarity of Boundaries, Scope, and Definitions

Second, although narrative reviews do not typically involve strict predetermined inclusion or exclusion criteria, scholars should explicitly demarcate the boundaries and scope of their topic. They should also clearly define key terms related to the topic and research question and any definitions used. Authors should elaborate why they chose a particular definition if others were available. As narrative reviews are flexible, the initial scope may change through the review process. In such circumstances, authors should provide reasonable justification for the evolution of inclusion and exclusion criteria and a description of how this affected the literature search.

Justification for Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Third, authors of narrative reviews should explain which search terms and databases were included in the synthesis and why. For example, did authors include research studies from a particular database, time frame, or study design? Did they include commentaries or empirical articles? Did they include grey literature such as trade publications, reports, or digital media? Each of the authors' choices should be outlined with appropriate reasoning. 7 Narrative reviews tend to be iterative and involve multiple cycles of searching, analysis, and interpretation. High-quality narrative reviews usually include pivotal or seminal papers that address the phenomenon of interest and other manuscripts that are relevant to the research question.

Reflexivity and a Saturation/Sufficiency Statement

Fourth, narrative reviews should clearly specify any factors that may have shaped the authors' interpretations and analysis. One fundamental distinction between narrative and non-narrative reviews is that narrative reviews explicitly recognize that they may not include all relevant literature on a topic. Since narrative reviews do not aim to be inclusive of all literature addressing the phenomenon of interest, a justification for the selection of manuscripts must be included. Authors should carefully outline how researchers conducted analyses and how they determined that sufficient analysis and interpretation was achieved. This latter concept is similar to considerations of saturation or thematic sufficiency in primary qualitative research. 8

Details on Analysis and Interpretation

Lastly, since several different categories of reviews fall under the narrative review umbrella, the analysis conducted in a narrative review varies by type. Regardless of the type of narrative review carried out, authors should clearly describe how analyses were conducted and provide justification for their approach. Narrative reviews are enhanced when researchers are explicit about how their perspectives and experiences informed problem identification, interpretation, and analysis. Given that authors' unique perspectives shape the selection of literature and its interpretation, narrative reviews may be reproduced, but different authors will likely yield different insights and interpretations.

Distinctive Methods and Subtypes

The narrative review has been commonly framed as an umbrella term that includes several different subtypes of reviews. These narrative medicine subtypes share the goals of deepening an understanding of a topic, while describing why researchers chose to explore and analyze the topic in a specific way.

There are several subtypes of narrative reviews with distinctive methodologies; each offers a unique way of approaching the research question and analyzing and interpreting the literature. This article will describe some common narrative review types that will also be discussed in upcoming JGME special articles on reviews: state-of-the-art , meta-ethnographic , critical , and theory integration reviews.

A state-of-the-art review attempts to summarize the research concerning a specific topic along a timeline of significant changes in understanding or research orientations. By focusing on such turning points in the history of evolving understandings of a phenomenon, state-of-the-art reviews offer a summary of the current state of understanding, how such an understanding was developed, and an idea of future directions. A state-of-the art review seeks to offer a 3-part description: where are we now in our understanding, how did we get here, and where should we go next?

A meta-ethnographic review involves choosing and interpreting qualitative research evidence about a specific topic. Working exclusively with qualitative data, this type of knowledge synthesis aims to generate new insights or new conclusions about a topic. It draws together insights and analyses from existing publications of qualitative research to construct new knowledge that spans across these individual, and often small scale, studies.

A meta-narrative review seeks to explore and make sense of contradictions and tensions within the literature. A meta-narrative review maps how a certain topic is understood in distinct ways, conducts a focused search to describe and compare narratives, and then seeks to make sense of how such narratives are interpreted across different disciplines or historical contexts, as part of the analysis. 9

A critical review is a narrative synthesis of literature that brings an interpretative lens: the review is shaped by a theory, a critical point of view, or perspectives from other domains to inform the literature analysis. Critical reviews involve an interpretative process that combines the reviewer's theoretical premise with existing theories and models to allow for synthesis and interpretation of diverse studies. First, reviewers develop and outline their interpretive theoretical position, which is informed by individual knowledge and experience. Next, a noncomprehensive search is completed to capture and identify dominant themes focused on a research question. 8 , 10

An integrative review typically has 1 of 2 different orientations. Empirical integrative reviews analyze and synthesize publications of evidence-based studies with diverse methodologies. In contrast, theoretical integrative reviews conduct an analysis of the available theories addressing a phenomenon, critically appraise those theories, and propose an advancement in the development of those theories. Both types of integrative reviews follow a multistage approach including problem identification, searching, evaluation, analysis, and presentation. 11

Strengths and Weaknesses

Narrative reviews have many strengths. They are flexible and practical, and ideally provide a readable, relevant synthesis of a diverse literature. Narrative reviews are often helpful for teaching or learning about a topic because they deliver a general overview. They are also useful for setting the stage for future research, as they offer an interpretation of the literature, note gaps, and critique research to date.

Such reviews may be useful for providing general background; however, a more comprehensive form of review may be necessary. Narrative reviews do not offer an evidence-based synthesis for focused questions, nor do they offer definitive guideline statements. All types of narrative reviews offer interpretations that are open to critique and will vary depending on the author team or context of the review.

Conclusions

Well-done narrative reviews provide a readable, thoughtful, and practical synthesis on a topic. They allow review authors to advance new ideas while describing and interpreting literature in the field. Narrative reviews do not aim to be systematic syntheses that answer a specific, highly focused question; instead, they offer carefully thought out and rigorous interpretations of a body of knowledge. Such reviews will not provide an exhaustive, comprehensive review of the literature; however, they are useful for a rich and meaningful summary of a topic.

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What is Narrative Analysis? Types, Methods & Examples

If you’re researching, you must know how important narrative analysis is. Many researchers begin with qualitative methods of data collection. However, there are many research methods, and choosing the right one can be overwhelming.

But with narrative analysis, you can get better results and clear insights. Narrative analysis is a qualitative research methodology in which you learn more about the audience.

Through understanding their stories, experiences, and how it’s changing their lives. The narrative analysis can be in the form of visual media, interviews, texts, etc.

But that’s not enough to understand narrative analysis. That’s why in this blog, we’ll explore more about this topic, its type, characteristics, and much more. Not only this, we’ll also share a step-by-step guide on how you can get started with it.

So, let’s dive into it.

What is Narrative Analysis?

Narrative analysis is a systematic and interpretive approach used to study and understand narratives, essentially stories or accounts of events, experiences, or interactions. This method involves examining the structure, content, and context of narratives to uncover underlying themes, patterns, and meanings.

It’s used by researchers analyzing social sciences, psychology, business, communication studies, and more.

Let’s understand it better with an example.

Imagine you are a market researcher working for a company that wants to understand customer perceptions of a new product launch.

How can you use this research approach here?

In this case, you can use narrative analysis to explore the stories and individual experiences customers share. These can be reviews, comments, online posts shared by customers, blogs, and relevant content.

Simply put, you search and understand the views of your customers by analyzing their narratives.

Types of Narrative Analysis

To do the narrative analysis, you should understand its types. These play a crucial role in ensuring you choose the ideal approach for business success.

Content Analysis

In this form of analysis , the content of the narrative is carefully examined to find motifs, patterns, and various themes. Many researchers use the coding process to find these themes. But why should you use coding themes?

It’s because manually all this work can take a lot of time. Accuracy is also compromised. That’s where automation helps.

It can identify trends, common themes, and patterns within text. Then, categorize, analyze, and find how they are relevant to each other.

Structural Analysis

In this type of analysis, the formal structure is studied deeper. So what does it include? It includes:

• Development of character
• Use of literary devices

So, as a researcher, you may analyze the narrative arc, such as the connection between the main lead and characters, the usage of figurative language, and symbolism. It shows how the narrative is made and how the audience perceives it.

Discourse Analysis

Discourse Analysis = Language + Discourse In Narrative

It also includes social, economic, and cultural phenomena. So, what does a researcher do in this?

They analyze words, phrases, terms, tone, and narrative style. 

Phenomenological Analysis

The subjective experience of the narrator is a prime focus in this analysis. It includes how the narrator interprets experience and shares it with others.

The researcher analyzes the language used to tell the emotions or how the narrator adds meaning to the stories. This analysis is important in understanding how people understand their lives and experiences.

Critical Analysis

In this analysis, different subjects are studied deeply, such as political, social, economic, or ideological points of view. It goes one step ahead by even checking the assumptions and key elements of the narrative.

Researchers analyze how a narrative reflects or changes structures that are extremely dominant.

Autoethnography

Personal narratives are used to find cultural experiences and how identities are formed. In this analysis, researchers use their personal experiences to evaluate and explore various issues such as:

These are further used to understand how structures shape the personal experiences of every individual. In short, the journey of how a person’s identity is shaped due to social and cultural norms.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves the analysis of themes and patterns that arise from data. Then, further, use them to interpret with respect to specific questions.

Researchers can also use deductive reasoning to get accurate data.

Characteristics of Narrative Analysis

Now, let’s look at some of the major characteristics of narrative analysis that you must know. This powerful tool will help you analyze better and get accurate results.

• Narrative-Centric Focus: Narrative analysis is all about looking at stories and narratives. No matter if they’re spoken or written. We want to understand how these stories affect people’s experiences and who they are.
• Context Matters: It’s important to know the context or situation in which these stories are told. It helps us understand why they’re told and what they mean in a specific place or time. Most importantly, social and cultural factors are involved in it.
• Interpreting Life Stories: This implements an analytical approach to find patterns, broader themes, and motifs in the story and narratives. It helps in understanding the meaning that people and societies attach to narratives.
• Iterative process: It is an ongoing, iterative process where researchers continually refine their understanding of the narratives. But how do they do it? By continuously examining more data.
• Usage of Language: Language, words, imagery, and narrative structure play a crucial role in the narrative analysis. That’s why researchers should pay attention to the language.

Purpose of Narrative Analysis

You might read different stories, but the major question is, what’s the purpose of narrative analysis?

Yes, you can understand patterns, motifs, and themes, but what’s next?

The primary purpose of this is to identify the experiences with whom people attach their feelings. For that, researchers dive deeper into the story that tells them about the narratives.

Let’s understand it with this example.

Imagine a global company that’s facing challenges with its company culture. They’re experiencing high employee turnover and reduced productivity. The company’s HR department decided to use narrative analysis to understand the root causes of these issues and identify potential solutions. So here’s what they do:

• Conduct confidential interviews and gather internal documents.
• Identify recurring themes like poor communication and management issues.
• Discover common dissatisfaction themes linked to communication and management problems.
• Place narratives in the context of organizational changes and external conditions.
• Find consistency in issues across the organization.

After collecting all this information, it’s time to move to the last step. This report is made with recommendations for targeted communication and leadership training to improve company culture and employee retention. That’s how you can use narrative analysis for your business. You can use AI tools like Luminoso to automate processes. It will save a lot of your time and effort.

Step-by-step Guide to Narrative Analysis

This systematic process involves a step-by-step approach. Only then you’ll be able to interpret narratives accurately. Here’s a detailed explanation of the process that you should follow.

Step 1: Data Collection

It is the first step in which researchers collect narratives that they have to analyze. But where do these narratives come from?

These narratives can be from different forms, such as in-depth interviews , written text, audio, videos, and relevant forms of media. The selection of narrative is also extremely crucial because it’s based on the objectives and goals of the analysis topic.

Step 2: Data Transcription

Some narratives are not written properly. They are in non-written forms, i.e., recordings, videos, and audio.

Remember that in this step, you should transcribe the information properly.

They should capture tones, words, pauses, and all verbal and non-verbal cues that add value to the narrative.

Step 3: Data Coding & Categorization

Now, researchers have to analyze the text. But how?

By breaking it into different segments and codes. These codes are tags applied to specific narratives relevant to a trend, idea, or theme.

You can choose to do this step either manually or with the help of software like Luminoso.

Step 4: Interpretation & Thematic Analysis

After coding the data, the next step is properly interpreting these segments. Researchers evaluate the narratives and understand different codes:

That’s where you should use thematic analysis. Group relevant codes to identify themes. Contextual analysis is also important in this. Dive deeper into the broader context of narrative and how it influences people.

Step 5: Comparison & Contrasting:

Comparing different narratives is crucial, but is it really necessary?

This way, you can deeply understand the meaning of context. It involves identifying similarities and dissimilarities in stories and people. With comparisons, you can understand underlying themes, perceptions, and experiences.

Step 6: Theoretical Framework

Implementing a theoretical framework is dependent on the goals of your research. It’s often used in fields such as psychology, literary analysis, and sociology to draw existing theories and model them.

Step 7: Reliability & Reporting

Ensuring that your analysis is reliable and accurate is a key factor in your research success. You can use techniques such as:

• Inter-Coder Reliability: Researchers employ this method to maintain consistency in the deductive coding and interpretation process. Multiple analysts independently assess and interpret a portion of the data to ensure agreement and accuracy.
• Triangulation: To enhance the credibility of findings, researchers use multiple data sources or research methods. This approach provides a comprehensive and well-rounded perspective on the topic under analysis, reducing the risk of bias and error.

After following all the steps, it’s time to complete the report and present findings based on your analysis. This report includes your research process, themes, patterns that you have observed, and what are the implications you get from this analysis.

Advantages of Narrative Analysis

Here are some of the advantages of analysis of narrative. Remember, it’s a valuable tool for researchers and professionals to gain a deeper understanding of different topics.

• Rich, Contextual Insights: Narrative analysis provides rich, contextually grounded, valuable insights into the experiences, perspectives, and beliefs of individuals and communities. It helps researchers understand the “how” and “why” behind stories.
• Holistic Understanding: Narrative analysis offers a broader understanding of narratives by examining content, structure, and context. It helps in uncovering the deep layers of meaning embedded in stories.
• Interdisciplinary Application: It is a cross-disciplinary method, meaning it can be applied in fields as diverse as literature, human sciences psychology, human communication, anthropology, and healthcare, fostering interdisciplinary research.
• Captures Complexity: It allows for the exploration of complex, multifaceted narratives. It is especially valuable when dealing with diverse, real-life situations that quantitative data alone might oversimplify.
• Human-Centered: It focuses on human experiences and the stories they tell. This human-centered approach is beneficial in fields where a nuanced understanding of the perspectives of individuals is crucial.

Narrative analysis is an insightful method to explore different stories, find meaning behind them, and understand how they define the world. It is applicable in almost every field. It opens endless opportunities for researchers.

However, many ethical considerations should always be addressed. Either way, by exploring the narratives, you can shape people’s lives and achieve business success.

Overall, its purpose is to provide a rich understanding of methods through which you understand how meanings are constructed.

Related Posts

What is “Storyful” Data? And why do we use it?

The Unstructured Data Problem All Companies Face

Sarcasm in AI: Navigating the Subtleties of Human Communication for Sentiment Analysis

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 2: Handling Qualitative Data

• Handling qualitative data
• Transcripts
• Field notes
• Survey data and responses
• Visual and audio data
• Data organization
• Data coding
• Coding frame
• Auto and smart coding
• Organizing codes
• Qualitative data analysis
• Content analysis

Thematic analysis

• Thematic analysis vs. content analysis
• Introduction

Types of narrative research

Research methods for a narrative analysis, narrative analysis, considerations for narrative analysis.

• Phenomenological research
• Discourse analysis
• Grounded theory
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
• Qualitative data interpretation
• Qualitative analysis software

Narrative analysis in research

Narrative analysis is an approach to qualitative research that involves the documentation of narratives both for the purpose of understanding events and phenomena and understanding how people communicate stories.

Let's look at the basics of narrative research, then examine the process of conducting a narrative inquiry and how ATLAS.ti can help you conduct a narrative analysis.

Qualitative researchers can employ various forms of narrative research, but all of these distinct approaches utilize perspectival data as the means for contributing to theory.

A biography is the most straightforward form of narrative research. Data collection for a biography generally involves summarizing the main points of an individual's life or at least the part of their history involved with events that a researcher wants to examine. Generally speaking, a biography aims to provide a more complete record of an individual person's life in a manner that might dispel any inaccuracies that exist in popular thought or provide a new perspective on that person’s history. Narrative researchers may also construct a new biography of someone who doesn’t have a public or online presence to delve deeper into that person’s history relating to the research topic.

The purpose of biographies as a function of narrative inquiry is to shed light on the lived experience of a particular person that a more casual examination of someone's life might overlook. Newspaper articles and online posts might give someone an overview of information about any individual. At the same time, a more involved survey or interview can provide sufficiently comprehensive knowledge about a person useful for narrative analysis and theoretical development.

Life history

This is probably the most involved form of narrative research as it requires capturing as much of the total human experience of an individual person as possible. While it involves elements of biographical research, constructing a life history also means collecting first-person knowledge from the subject through narrative interviews and observations while drawing on other forms of data , such as field notes and in-depth interviews with others.

Even a newspaper article or blog post about the person can contribute to the contextual meaning informing the life history. The objective of conducting a life history is to construct a complete picture of the person from past to present in a manner that gives your research audience the means to immerse themselves in the human experience of the person you are studying.

Oral history

While all forms of narrative research rely on narrative interviews with research participants, oral histories begin with and branch out from the individual's point of view as the driving force of data collection .

Major events like wars and natural disasters are often observed and described at scale, but a bird's eye view of such events may not provide a complete story. Oral history can assist researchers in providing a unique and perhaps unexplored perspective from in-depth interviews with a narrator's own words of what happened, how they experienced it, and what reasons they give for their actions. Researchers who collect this sort of information can then help fill in the gaps common knowledge may not have grasped.

The objective of an oral history is to provide a perspective built on personal experience. The unique viewpoint that personal narratives can provide has the potential to raise analytical insights that research methods at scale may overlook. Narrative analysis of oral histories can hence illuminate potential inquiries that can be addressed in future studies.

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To conduct narrative analysis, researchers need a narrative and research question . A narrative alone might make for an interesting story that instills information, but analyzing a narrative to generate knowledge requires ordering that information to identify patterns, intentions, and effects.

Narrative analysis presents a distinctive research approach among various methodologies , and it can pose significant challenges due to its inherent interpretative nature. Essentially, this method revolves around capturing and examining the verbal or written accounts and visual depictions shared by individuals. Narrative inquiry strives to unravel the essence of what is conveyed by closely observing the content and manner of expression.

Furthermore, narrative research assumes a dual role, serving both as a research technique and a subject of investigation. Regarded as "real-world measures," narrative methods provide valuable tools for exploring actual societal issues. The narrative approach encompasses an individual's life story and the profound significance embedded within their lived experiences. Typically, a composite of narratives is synthesized, intermingling and mutually influencing each other.

Designing a research inquiry

Sometimes, narrative research is less about the storyteller or the story they are telling than it is about generating knowledge that contributes to a greater understanding of social behavior and cultural practices. While it might be interesting or useful to hear a comedian tell a story that makes their audience laugh, a narrative analysis of that story can identify how the comedian constructs their narrative or what causes the audience to laugh.

As with all research, a narrative inquiry starts with a research question that is tied to existing relevant theory regarding the object of analysis (i.e., the person or event for which the narrative is constructed). If your research question involves studying racial inequalities in university contexts, for example, then the narrative analysis you are seeking might revolve around the lived experiences of students of color. If you are analyzing narratives from children's stories, then your research question might relate to identifying aspects of children's stories that grab the attention of young readers. The point is that researchers conducting a narrative inquiry do not do so merely to collect more information about their object of inquiry. Ultimately, narrative research is tied to developing a more contextualized or broader understanding of the social world.

Data collection

Having crafted the research questions and chosen the appropriate form of narrative research for your study, you can start to collect your data for the eventual narrative analysis.

Needless to say, the key point in narrative research is the narrative. The story is either the unit of analysis or the focal point from which researchers pursue other methods of research. Interviews and observations are great ways to collect narratives. Particularly with biographies and life histories, one of the best ways to study your object of inquiry is to interview them. If you are conducting narrative research for discourse analysis, then observing or recording narratives (e.g., storytelling, audiobooks, podcasts) is ideal for later narrative analysis.

Triangulating data

If you are collecting a life history or an oral history, then you will need to rely on collecting evidence from different sources to support the analysis of the narrative. In research, triangulation is the concept of drawing on multiple methods or sources of data to get a more comprehensive picture of your object of inquiry.

While a narrative inquiry is constructed around the story or its storyteller, assertions that can be made from an analysis of the story can benefit from supporting evidence (or lack thereof) collected by other means.

Even a lack of supporting evidence might be telling. For example, suppose your object of inquiry tells a story about working minimum wage jobs all throughout college to pay for their tuition. Looking for triangulation, in this case, means searching through records and other forms of information to support the claims being put forth. If it turns out that the storyteller's claims bear further warranting - maybe you discover that family or scholarships supported them during college - your analysis might uncover new inquiries as to why the story was presented the way it was. Perhaps they are trying to impress their audience or construct a narrative identity about themselves that reinforces their thinking about who they are. The important point here is that triangulation is a necessary component of narrative research to learn more about the object of inquiry from different angles.

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This brings us to the analysis part of narrative research. As explained above, a narrative can be viewed as a straightforward story to understand and internalize. As researchers, however, we have many different approaches available to us for analyzing narrative data depending on our research inquiry.

In this section, we will examine some of the most common forms of analysis while looking at how you can employ tools in ATLAS.ti to analyze your qualitative data .

Qualitative research often employs thematic analysis , which refers to a search for commonly occurring themes that appear in the data. The important point of thematic analysis in narrative research is that the themes arise from the data produced by the research participants. In other words, the themes in a narrative study are strongly based on how the research participants see them rather than focusing on how researchers or existing theory see them.

ATLAS.ti can be used for thematic analysis in any research field or discipline. Data in narrative research is summarized through the coding process , where the researcher codes large segments of data with short, descriptive labels that can succinctly describe the data thematically. The emerging patterns among occurring codes in the perspectival data thus inform the identification of themes that arise from the collected narratives.

Structural analysis

The search for structure in a narrative is less about what is conveyed in the narrative and more about how the narrative is told. The differences in narrative forms ultimately tell us something useful about the meaning-making epistemologies and values of the people telling them and the cultures they inhabit.

Just like in thematic analysis, codes in ATLAS.ti can be used to summarize data, except that in this case, codes could be created to specifically examine structure by identifying the particular parts or moves in a narrative (e.g., introduction, conflict, resolution). Code-Document Analysis in ATLAS.ti can then tell you which of your narratives (represented by discrete documents) contain which parts of a common narrative.

It may also be useful to conduct a content analysis of narratives to analyze them structurally. English has many signal words and phrases (e.g., "for example," "as a result," and "suddenly") to alert listeners and readers that they are coming to a new step in the narrative.

In this case, both the Text Search and Word Frequencies tools in ATLAS.ti can help you identify the various aspects of the narrative structure (including automatically identifying discrete parts of speech) and the frequency in which they occur across different narratives.

Functional analysis

Whereas a straightforward structural analysis identifies the particular parts of a narrative, a functional analysis looks at what the narrator is trying to accomplish through the content and structure of their narrative. For example, if a research participant telling their narrative asks the interviewer rhetorical questions, they might be doing so to make the interviewer think or adopt the participant's perspective.

A functional analysis often requires the researcher to take notes and reflect on their experiences while collecting data from research participants. ATLAS.ti offers a dedicated space for memos , which can serve to jot down useful contextual information that the researcher can refer to while coding and analyzing data.

Dialogic analysis

There is a nuanced difference between what a narrator tries to accomplish when telling a narrative and how the listener is affected by the narrative. There may be an overlap between the two, but the extent to which a narrative might resonate with people can give us useful insights about a culture or society.

The topic of humor is one such area that can benefit from dialogic analysis, considering that there are vast differences in how cultures perceive humor in terms of how a joke is constructed or what cultural references are required to understand a joke.

Imagine that you are analyzing a reading of a children's book in front of an audience of children at a library. If it is supposed to be funny, how do you determine what parts of the book are funny and why?

The coding process in ATLAS.ti can help with dialogic analysis of a transcript from that reading. In such an analysis, you can have two sets of codes, one for thematically summarizing the elements of the book reading and one for marking when the children laugh.

The Code Co-Occurrence Analysis tool can then tell you which codes occur during the times that there is laughter, giving you a sense of what parts of a children's narrative might be funny to its audience.

Narrative analysis and research hold immense significance within the realm of social science research, contributing a distinct and valuable approach. Whether employed as a component of a comprehensive presentation or pursued as an independent scholarly endeavor, narrative research merits recognition as a distinctive form of research and interpretation in its own right.

Subjectivity in narratives

It is crucial to acknowledge that every narrative is intricately intertwined with its cultural milieu and the subjective experiences of the storyteller. While the outcomes of research are undoubtedly influenced by the individual narratives involved, a conscientious adherence to narrative methodology and a critical reflection on one's research can foster transparent and rigorous investigations, minimizing the potential for misunderstandings.

Rather than striving to perceive narratives through an objective lens, it is imperative to contextualize them within their sociocultural fabric. By doing so, an analysis can embrace the diverse array of narratives and enable multiple perspectives to illuminate a phenomenon or story. Embracing such complexity, narrative methodologies find considerable application in social science research.

Connecting narratives to broader phenomena

In employing narrative analysis, researchers delve into the intricate tapestry of personal narratives, carefully considering the multifaceted interplay between individual experiences and broader societal dynamics.

This meticulous approach fosters a deeper understanding of the intricate web of meanings that shape the narratives under examination. Consequently, researchers can uncover rich insights and discern patterns that may have remained hidden otherwise. These can provide valuable contributions to both theory and practice.

In summary, narrative analysis occupies a vital position within social science research. By appreciating the cultural embeddedness of narratives, employing a thoughtful methodology, and critically reflecting on one's research, scholars can conduct robust investigations that shed light on the complexities of human experiences while avoiding potential pitfalls and fostering a nuanced understanding of the narratives explored.

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Using narrative analysis in qualitative research

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7 March 2023

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Jean Kaluza

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After spending considerable time and effort interviewing persons for research, you want to ensure you get the most out of the data you gathered. One method that gives you an excellent opportunity to connect with your data on a very human and personal level is a narrative analysis in qualitative research. 

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• What is narrative analysis?

Narrative analysis is a type of qualitative data analysis that focuses on interpreting the core narratives from a study group's personal stories. Using first-person narrative, data is acquired and organized to allow the researcher to understand how the individuals experienced something. 

Instead of focusing on just the actual words used during an interview, the narrative analysis also allows for a compilation of data on how the person expressed themselves, what language they used when describing a particular event or feeling, and the thoughts and motivations they experienced. A narrative analysis will also consider how the research participants constructed their narratives.

From the interview to coding , you should strive to keep the entire individual narrative together, so that the information shared during the interview remains intact.

Is narrative analysis qualitative or quantitative?

Narrative analysis is a qualitative research method.

Is narrative analysis a method or methodology?

A method describes the tools or processes used to understand your data; methodology describes the overall framework used to support the methods chosen. By this definition, narrative analysis can be both a method used to understand data and a methodology appropriate for approaching data that comes primarily from first-person stories.

• Do you need to perform narrative research to conduct a narrative analysis?

A narrative analysis will give the best answers about the data if you begin with conducting narrative research. Narrative research explores an entire story with a research participant to understand their personal story.

What are the characteristics of narrative research?

Narrative research always includes data from individuals that tell the story of their experiences. This is captured using loosely structured interviews . These can be a single interview or a series of long interviews over a period of time. Narrative research focuses on the construct and expressions of the story as experienced by the research participant.

• Examples of types of narratives

Narrative data is based on narratives. Your data may include the entire life story or a complete personal narrative, giving a comprehensive account of someone's life, depending on the researched subject. Alternatively, a topical story can provide context around one specific moment in the research participant's life. 

Personal narratives can be single or multiple sessions, encompassing more than topical stories but not entire life stories of the individuals.

• What is the objective of narrative analysis?

The narrative analysis seeks to organize the overall experience of a group of research participants' stories. The goal is to turn people's individual narratives into data that can be coded and organized so that researchers can easily understand the impact of a certain event, feeling, or decision on the involved persons. At the end of a narrative analysis, researchers can identify certain core narratives that capture the human experience.

What is the difference between content analysis and narrative analysis?

Content analysis is a research method that determines how often certain words, concepts, or themes appear inside a sampling of qualitative data . The narrative analysis focuses on the overall story and organizing the constructs and features of a narrative.

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What is the difference between narrative analysis and case study in qualitative research?

A case study focuses on one particular event. A narrative analysis draws from a larger amount of data surrounding the entire narrative, including the thoughts that led up to a decision and the personal conclusion of the research participant. 

A case study, therefore, is any specific topic studied in depth, whereas narrative analysis explores single or multi-faceted experiences across time. ​​

What is the difference between narrative analysis and thematic analysis?

A thematic analysis will appear as researchers review the available qualitative data and note any recurring themes. Unlike narrative analysis, which describes an entire method of evaluating data to find a conclusion, a thematic analysis only describes reviewing and categorizing the data.

• Capturing narrative data

Because narrative data relies heavily on allowing a research participant to describe their experience, it is best to allow for a less structured interview. Allowing the participant to explore tangents or analyze their personal narrative will result in more complete data. 

When collecting narrative data, always allow the participant the time and space needed to complete their narrative.

• Methods of transcribing narrative data

A narrative analysis requires that the researchers have access to the entire verbatim narrative of the participant, including not just the word they use but the pauses, the verbal tics, and verbal crutches, such as "um" and "hmm." 

As the entire way the story is expressed is part of the data, a verbatim transcription should be created before attempting to code the narrative analysis.

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• How to code narrative analysis

Coding narrative analysis has two natural start points, either using a deductive coding system or an inductive coding system. Regardless of your chosen method, it's crucial not to lose valuable data during the organization process.

When coding, expect to see more information in the code snippets.

• Types of narrative analysis

After coding is complete, you should expect your data to look like large blocks of text organized by the parts of the story. You will also see where individual narratives compare and diverge.

Inductive method

Using an inductive narrative method treats the entire narrative as one datum or one set of information. An inductive narrative method will encourage the research participant to organize their own story. 

To make sense of how a story begins and ends, you must rely on cues from the participant. These may take the form of entrance and exit talks. 

Participants may not always provide clear indicators of where their narratives start and end. However, you can anticipate that their stories will contain elements of a beginning, middle, and end. By analyzing these components through coding, you can identify emerging patterns in the data.

Taking cues from entrance and exit talk

Entrance talk is when the participant begins a particular set of narratives. You may hear expressions such as, "I remember when…," "It first occurred to me when…," or "Here's an example…."

Exit talk allows you to see when the story is wrapping up, and you might expect to hear a phrase like, "…and that's how we decided", "after that, we moved on," or "that's pretty much it."

Deductive method

Regardless of your chosen method, using a deductive method can help preserve the overall storyline while coding. Starting with a deductive method allows for the separation of narrative pieces without compromising the story's integrity.

Hybrid inductive and deductive narrative analysis

Using both methods together gives you a comprehensive understanding of the data. You can start by coding the entire story using the inductive method. Then, you can better analyze and interpret the data by applying deductive codes to individual parts of the story.

• How to analyze data after coding using narrative analysis

A narrative analysis aims to take all relevant interviews and organize them down to a few core narratives. After reviewing the coding, these core narratives may appear through a repeated moment of decision occurring before the climax or a key feeling that affected the participant's outcome.

You may see these core narratives diverge early on, or you may learn that a particular moment after introspection reveals the core narrative for each participant. Either way, researchers can now quickly express and understand the data you acquired.

• A step-by-step approach to narrative analysis and finding core narratives

Narrative analysis may look slightly different to each research group, but we will walk through the process using the Delve method for this article.

Step 1 – Code narrative blocks

Organize your narrative blocks using inductive coding to organize stories by a life event.

Example: Narrative interviews are conducted with homeowners asking them to describe how they bought their first home.

Step 2 – Group and read by live-event

You begin your data analysis by reading through each of the narratives coded with the same life event.

Example: You read through each homeowner's experience of buying their first home and notice that some common themes begin to appear, such as "we were tired of renting," "our family expanded to the point that we needed a larger space," and "we had finally saved enough for a downpayment."

Step 3 – Create a nested story structure

As these common narratives develop throughout the participant's interviews, create and nest code according to your narrative analysis framework. Use your coding to break down the narrative into pieces that can be analyzed together.

Example: During your interviews, you find that the beginning of the narrative usually includes the pressures faced before buying a home that pushes the research participants to consider homeownership. The middle of the narrative often includes challenges that come up during the decision-making process. The end of the narrative usually includes perspectives about the excitement, stress, or consequences of home ownership that has finally taken place. 

Step 4 – Delve into the story structure

Once the narratives are organized into their pieces, you begin to notice how participants structure their own stories and where similarities and differences emerge.

Example: You find in your research that many people who choose to buy homes had the desire to buy a home before their circumstances allowed them to. You notice that almost all the stories begin with the feeling of some sort of outside pressure.

Step 5 – Compare across story structure

While breaking down narratives into smaller pieces is necessary for analysis, it's important not to lose sight of the overall story. To keep the big picture in mind, take breaks to step back and reread the entire narrative of a code block. This will help you remember how participants expressed themselves and ensure that the core narrative remains the focus of the analysis.

Example: By carefully examining the similarities across the beginnings of participants' narratives, you find the similarities in pressures. Considering the overall narrative, you notice how these pressures lead to similar decisions despite the challenges faced. 

Divergence in feelings towards homeownership can be linked to positive or negative pressures. Individuals who received positive pressure, such as family support or excitement, may view homeownership more favorably. Meanwhile, negative pressures like high rent or peer pressure may cause individuals to have a more negative attitude toward homeownership.

These factors can contribute to the initial divergence in feelings towards homeownership.

Step 6 – Tell the core narrative

After carefully analyzing the data, you have found how the narratives relate and diverge. You may be able to create a theory about why the narratives diverge and can create one or two core narratives that explain the way the story was experienced.

Example: You can now construct a core narrative on how a person's initial feelings toward buying a house affect their feelings after purchasing and living in their first home.

Narrative analysis in qualitative research is an invaluable tool to understand how people's stories and ability to self-narrate reflect the human experience. Qualitative data analysis can be improved through coding and organizing complete narratives. By doing so, researchers can conclude how humans process and move through decisions and life events.

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Narrative Analysis: Methods and Examples

Narrative analysis is a powerful qualitative research tool. Narrative research can uncover behaviors, feelings and motivations that aren’t expressed explicitly….

Narrative analysis is a powerful qualitative research tool. Narrative research can uncover behaviors, feelings and motivations that aren’t expressed explicitly. It also provides rich linguistic data that may shed light on various aspects of cultural or social phenomena.

Narrative analysis provides researchers with detailed information about their subjects that they couldn’t get through other methods. Narrative analysis in qualitative research reveals hidden motivations that aren’t easy to perceive directly. This is especially true in research conducted with cultural subjects where the researcher must peel the many layers of a culture.

Let’s look at how narrative research is performed, what it can tell us about the subject, and some examples of narrative research.

What Is Narrative Research?

Examples of narrative research, difference between narrative analysis and case study, analyzing results in the narrative method.

Narrative analysis is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher focuses on a topic and analyzes the data collected from case studies, surveys, observations or other similar methods. The researchers write their findings, then review and analyze them.

To conduct narrative analysis, researchers must understand the background, setting, social and cultural context of the research subjects. This gives researchers a better idea of what their subjects mean in their narration. It’s especially true in context-rich research where there are many hidden layers of meaning that can only be uncovered by an in-depth understanding of the culture or environment.

Before starting narrative research, researchers need to know as much about their research subjects as possible. They interview key informants and collect large amounts of text from them. They even use other sources, such as existing literature and personal recollections.

From this large base of information, researchers choose a few instances they feel are good examples of what they want to talk about and then analyze them in depth.

Through this approach, researchers can gain a holistic view of the subject’s life and activities. It can show what motivates people and provide a better view of the society that the subjects live in by enabling researchers to see how individuals interact with one another.

• It’s been used by researchers to study indigenous peoples of various countries, such as the Maori in New Zealand.
• It can be used in medicine. Researchers, for instance, can study how doctors communicate with their patients during end-of-life care.
• The narrative model has been used to explore the relationship between music and social change in East Africa.
• Narrative research is being used to explore the differences in emotions experienced by different generations in Japanese society.

Through these examples of narrative research, we can see its nature and how it fills a gap left by other research methods.

Many people confuse narrative analysis in qualitative research with case studies. Here are some key differences between the two:

• A case study examines one context in depth, whereas narrative research explores how a subject has acted in various contexts across time
• Case studies are often longer and more detailed, but they rarely provide an overview of the subject’s life or experiences
• Narrative analysis implies that researchers are observing several instances that encompass the subject’s life, which is why it provides a richer view of things

Both tools can give similar results, but there are some differences that lead researchers to choose one or the other or, perhaps, even both in their research design.

Once the narratives have been collected, researchers notice certain patterns and themes emerging as they read and analyze the text. They note these down, compare them with other research on the subject, figure out how it all fits together and then find a theory that can explain these findings.

Many social scientists have used narrative research as a valuable tool to analyze their concepts and theories. This is mainly because narrative analysis is a more thorough and multifaceted method. It helps researchers not only build a deeper understanding of their subject, but also helps them figure out why people act and react as they do.

Storytelling is a central feature of narrative research. The narrative interview is an interactive conversation. This process can be very intimate and sometimes bring about powerful emotions from both parties. Therefore, this form of qualitative research isn’t suitable for everyone. The interviewer needs to be a good listener and must understand the interview process. The interviewee also needs to be comfortable to be able to provide authentic narratives.

Understanding what kind of research to use is a powerful tool for a manager. We can use narrative analysis in many ways. Narrative research is a multifaceted method that has the potential to show different results based on the researcher’s intentions for their study.

Learning how to use such tools will improve the productivity of teams. Harappa’s Thinking Critically course will show you the way. Learners will understand how to better process information and consider different perspectives in their analysis, which will allow for better-informed decision making. Our faculty will provide real-world insights to ensure an impactful learning experience that takes professionals at every stage of their careers to the next level.

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Phenomenological Research , Types Of Survey Research , Examples Of Correlational Research and Tips to Improve your Analytical Skills to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

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Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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Narrative Reports to Monitor and Evaluate the Integration of Pharmacists Into Family Practice Settings

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PURPOSE Narratives can capture unfolding events and negotiation of roles and thus can help to evaluate interventions in interdisciplinary health care teams. We describe a practical qualitative method, the narrative report, and its role in evaluating implementation research.

METHODS We used narrative reports as a means to evaluate an intervention to integrate pharmacists into group family practices. The pharmacists submitted 63 written narrative reports during a 1-year period. Our interdisciplinary research team analyzed these reports to monitor the progress of the implementation, to identify pharmacists’ needs, and to capture elements of the integration process.

RESULTS The monthly narrative reports allowed the research team to document early learning and calibrate the program in terms of clinical support, adapting roles, and realigning expectations. The reports helped the research team stay in tune with practice-related implementation challenges, and the preliminary summary of narrative findings provided a forum for sharing innovations among the integrating pharmacists.

CONCLUSION The narrative report can be a successful qualitative tool to track and evaluate the early stages of an intervention in the context of evolving primary health care teams.

• qualitative research
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• family practice
• INTRODUCTION

In the IMPACT project (Integrating Family Medicine and Pharmacy to Advance Primary Care Therapeutics), 1 we aimed to improve drug therapy using an innovative care model that over a 1-year period integrated nondispensing pharmacists into family practices across Ontario. We implemented this nascent program in 7 group family practices that had 7 to 14 physicians per practice. Although each practice had taken early steps toward working as groups, and 3 had recently introduced a nurse-practitioner, none had developed interdisciplinary teams, nor had they experienced working with a pharmacist as an integrated professional in their practice setting. A key challenge for the IMPACT project was to integrate pharmacists within a family practice setting so they could provide clinical medication-related assessments to physicians, as well as patient education and drug information support.

Primary health care research is often focused on evaluating the initiation, management, and outcomes of change. Writing narratives is a process of detailing and organizing happenings in a cohesive format. The result is a window on the writer’s experience, perspective, and negotiation of meaning. Stories serve to make sense of experience, bridge gaps within organizations, and draw attention to the individual. 2

Diary-style methods have been reported in a range of study fields, including care provision studies in nursing, 3 as well as workplace interaction 4 and employee innovation processes 5 in management. Diary-style formats are useful in studies that require information on processes rather than outcomes and provide a means to gather information directly from participants about their experiences on a frequent basis. 5 These formats are especially useful in capturing cognitive processes related to studies of innovations. 5 Diaries are also valued for their flexibility; they can range from semistructured formats that record information about a specific event or experience to completely unstructured journal-style formats. 3

We designed our narrative report to capture stories related to team-based care and the formulation of practice innovations, as both elements were part of the pharmacists’ role in the IMPACT study. 6 The information derived from the narrative reports was part of our program evaluation in that it provided insight into the experiences of the pharmacists who were delivering the program. Such reports allowed us to better understand whether the program implementation was in line with our original assumptions and helped us to interpret the effects of the program on the outcomes under study. 7 , 8

In this article we describe a practical method we developed to monitor and evaluate the early stages of implementation as the innovation developed into a stable intervention. Specifically, we describe our design and implementation strategy and the key aspects that encouraged the participants’ trust and reflexive responses. Finally, we provide examples to show how our method of using narrative reports helped with program monitoring, support, and calibration during implementation.

The narrative report consisted of a series of questions that aimed to identify pharmacists’ observations, struggles, ideas for practice innovation, and successes (a sample report form is shown in the Supplemental Appendix, available online-only at http://www.annfammed.org/cgi/content/full/6/2/161/DC1 ).

The participants began filing these reports when the intervention was initiated and continued for the first year of implementation. The time log provided subjective information on how the participants spent their time. The report forms were circulated monthly with instructions for completion and return. The Research Ethics Boards of the Élisabeth Bruyère Research Institute and McMaster University approved the study methods.

We provided the participating pharmacists with tips for making practice observations and constructing stories. We encouraged honesty, discouraged businesslike reports, and de-emphasized the need for precise style and grammar. We obtained informed consent from all participants and gave them detailed information outlining how the narrative reports would be used (to improve the intervention, capture emerging innovations, and help develop a road map for future pharmacists integrating into family practice). They also received a description of our de-identification process (all practice sites and names were removed before circulation to the management team) and restricted circulation policy (to management teams and researchers involved with the qualitative analysis). The narrative reports were not circulated among the pharmacists. The management team consisted of 2 project managers and the principal and co-principal investigators. We encouraged participants to use their observation skills, carry a note pad to make notes during the day, and consider using related stories they may be writing to physicians or mentors. As well, we provided sample narrative-type field notes. Further, we provided feedback after each round of reports and a summary of preliminary findings after 4 months, a process outlined by Stone et al 9 to maintain retention among participants writing diary-style reports.

The questions remained flexible to allow for creative inquiry and ongoing evaluation of the participants’ integration progress. The first 4 months focused on observations, interactions with physicians, and identification of supports and potential innovations. The fifth and sixth months continued in the same manner, but the participants were asked to comment specifically on their developing role and identity as a family practice pharmacist. The seventh month was a member-checking exercise eliciting feedback on a summary of the findings of the first 4 months compiled by the research team. For the eighth narrative participants were asked to comment on their developing relationships with physicians, and for the final narrative they were asked to discuss the tools they believed were necessary to integrate a pharmacist into their particular practice setting based on their experience.

Four members of the research team—1 family physician (K.P.), 2 pharmacists (B.F., N.K.), and 1 sociologist (S.H.)—independently reviewed all monthly narrative reports as they were received. Two additional team members (L.D., C.S.) also read narratives and participated in ongoing discussions. Analysts immersed themselves in the reports, making notes in the margins, writing memos, and assigning codes as themes began to emerge, using immersion/crystallization according to Borkin. 10 One analyst entered all coding into a qualitative data analysis program (NVIVO) to aid organization. The analysis team (many members also played leading roles in program evaluation, project management, and mentor coordination), discussed and debated emerging themes and codes during monthly meetings and suggested supplementary questions for ongoing exploration of areas of interest. The team used an iterative grounded theory 11 approach to determine common process and content themes related to the pharmacists’ integration experience while searching actively for outliers, competing explanations, and meanings. When disagreements persisted, we split coding categories and allowed these to remain distinct from each other. We presented a written report of preliminary findings from the first 4 months to the pharmacists and asked them to comment in a subsequent narrative, and we followed this written member check-up with an in-person focus group of all participating pharmacists.

The monthly narratives gave the research team a window on the early program implementation process, a process grounded in adaptation and relationship building. Watching the pharmacists adapt and problem solve allowed the research team to document early learning and calibrate the program in terms of clinical support, adapting practice roles, and realigning expectations. This knowledge exchange also helped the management team make decisions about supports, interventions, and individual meetings with pharmacists to assist with the development of the innovation. In the early stages of the project, the pharmacists were concerned about the length of time it took them to prepare the narrative reports. They estimated they spent and average of 1 to 3 hours per month. Although 2 pharmacists continued to find the report burdensome, the remaining 5 adjusted and appreciated the reporting format.

Early in the project the pharmacists’ narratives described clinical insecurities, which highlighted the importance of early mentoring, clinical supports, and discussions with practice physicians. As a result, the management team responded with early needs assessments and clinical pharmacy mentoring. Having the pharmacists provide practical clinical recommendations to physicians was a key component of the program. The narratives further allowed the management team to identify issues and emerging innovations from the sites and to focus on and refine solutions that could be shared across the project.

An ongoing issue that I am having problems with is how far to go when doing assessments of patients. It seems that everything that I look at creates more questions. Sometimes the problem is presented as a very simple clinical scenario, but when I look at the patients [sic] charts or talk to the patient, more questions come up. This creates a lot more work and makes me wonder if I should not be just addressing the question at hand (pharmacist 01; narrative report 3).

I would like a nice simple assignment from the docs like, “Please check out this patient’s compliance for me because her BP is poorly controlled and I have some concern that she might not be taking what I think she is.” The pharmacist would be ideally suited for this. I think the docs see the obvious potential but have not realized other potentials (pharmacist 02; narrative report 2).

Early narratives provided a forum for the pharmacists to consider possible system improvements and innovations based on their initial observations of their practice settings. For example, a pharmacist wrote about how to improve the practice’s charting system with regard to medication management:

The charts are very unorganized and not up to date at all with respect to what the patient’s current medication list is.… These unorganized charts can have potential risk for drug therapy monitoring if the physician or nurse cannot find the data. For example, the first 2 patients referred to me were on warfarin and had not had an INR done for over 1 year. As well, 1 of those patients was on digoxin, and her digoxin level was not done for almost 2 years.… It would be ideal to have a flow sheet at the front of the chart for warfarin and INR that is always up to date (pharmacist 06; narrative report 1).

The monthly reporting period was also useful for documenting and sharing the progress of implemented office system innovations. Tracking innovations helped the management team identify early successes that could be useful in other settings. The following shows how the narrative tracked the progress of a successful innovation from genesis to completion in a 2-month period:

[Initial stage] This month … I’ve been asked to help out with coming up with some templates for pain assessment/documentation and for diabetes tracking.… I’m happy to work on templates for the staff, as I feel that this effort will help their patients and free up some of their time (pharmacist 05, narrative report 4).

[Outcome] One thing that has helped enhance practice for the doctors is helping them develop a diabetes tracking flow sheet. This was an initiative that came from them and I’ve just revised/merged existing flow sheets to suit their needs. I feel that this has gotten most of the physicians talking since it is something that would help their practice (pharmacist 05, narrative report 5).

In addition to documenting these kinds of innovations, pharmacists also used the narratives to record their activities related to patients, including providing education.

In the last month, I had 3 patients on warfarin, and they did not understand what INR was, what food or drug can interact with warfarin, and why they were going to the lab every few weeks. After I educated them and provided them with the warfarin care booklet and calendar, they had a more clear understanding about the importance of their warfarin (pharmacist 06, narrative report 1).

Writing the narratives helped the pharmacists to clarify their emerging roles to suit their practice setting, to calibrate realistic expectations for the program, and to challenge the implementation process. The pharmacists documented discrepancies between the program’s expectations and the physicians’ expectations of the pharmacists, as well as what was actually happening in the practices. For example, the IMPACT management team expected computers and other technologies to play a key role, but not all physicians were eager to embrace innovative computer use:

Some of the ideas that have been put forward (to doctors) from IMPACT involve extra efforts on the computer, such as the ideas for sharing more information on prescriptions with the pharmacy. The most computer-savvy doctor in the practice just kind of smiled when I talked to him about this and said that this is very unlikely to go over with the other doctors as many of them are about at the limit of what they are willing to do with the computers (pharmacist 01, narrative report 4).

Conversely, another pharmacist in a different clinic noted a different situation, illustrating the importance of local context when determining the appropriate timing to initiate innovations:

I feel that the physicians have innovations and systems operations as a main priority as opposed to patient assessments. I think the assessments are very much appreciated. But I have the impression that resolving issues on electronic health record may be more useful for them (pharmacist 07, narrative report 4).

The narratives also exposed the pharmacists’ growing tension between clinical care and collecting evaluation data for the project. As the pharmacists adapted to the practical work of family practice, their efforts focused on patient-centered activities, while their motivation waned for comprehensive charting and documentation of program process data. Recognizing this stress allowed the research team to try to resolve technical difficulties and streamline data collection as an early priority.

Although I know this is a research project, I find that the documentation and entering data into the database represents a challenge for me. I do what I can since there are still areas that are difficult to use in the database and it is not as streamlined as it could be (pharmacist 05, narrative report 2).

At times, the narratives revealed enthusiasm leading to overextension of the pharmacists. The family practice setting, for example, involved a new set of responsibilities, which presented a challenge for those pharmacists continuing outside jobs already laden with many responsibilities; in such cases, the program team worked to provide personal support and focus tasks.

I feel that I have maxed out my time in all respects (socially and professionally). I do feel stretched between my two positions, and especially the past 2 weeks I have been feeling the “burnout” syndrome settle-in (pharmacist 07, narrative report 4).

The narrative reports provided one means of connecting researchers to the realities of the implementation process and supported early program calibration. The reports helped identify early adaptation challenges, as well as successes, and helped our program management team effectively intervene with clinical mentoring, program management support, and targeted physician engagement. The opportunity for participating pharmacists to review and provide feedback on the preliminary narrative findings report served to build a sense of shared experience among participants and facilitated the sharing of early innovations.

Greenhalgh et al 12 conducted a systematic review looking at the adoption of innovation in service delivery. They identified several key elements that facilitate adoption: the relative advantage, complexity, compatibility, trialability, and adaptability of the innovation. Our narrative reports provided a means to enhance innovation implementation by using several of these elements. For example, the variation in physician openness to computer innovation disclosed the importance of appreciating local complexity, the success of the diabetic flow sheet illustrated relative advantage, and the calibration of clinical recommendations and practice innovations characterized the importance of adaptability.

The challenges we encountered by introducing this method were in developing a sense of security for participants to share their stories, training the pharmacist participants to detail their experiences in narrative rather than point-form format, and anticipating the time involved for participants to produce the reports. We recognize that self-censorship may have been occurring, but we hope our attention to negotiating a safe process mitigated this possibility. Developing written narrative skills can be a daunting task. Nevertheless, we found that engaging the participating pharmacists to help improve implementation helped the research team with on-going quality improvement for the program.

We have several suggestions for others to consider when using narrative reports. To promote creativity, security, and honest writing among participants, provide them with training tools such as sample reports, obtain their informed consent, and explain data security and privacy procedures. For effective data collection and management, determine a reasonable frequency for reporting, keeping in mind the time requirements to write the narratives. As well, develop the most appropriate system to collect data and consider whether electronic tools, such as e-mail or qualitative data analysis programs, will help. Analysts should read reports on an ongoing basis, develop an early strategy for feedback to participants, and plan for supplementary data collection (eg, in-depth interviews) should sensitive but important themes begin to emerge.

In conclusion, primary health care research frequently involves multifaceted interventions taking place in community settings. In such research, process evaluation plays an important role in the interpretation of findings. Practical research methods that meet interrelated monitoring and process evaluation goals, such as narrative summary reports, are worth considering. We found the narrative report an engaging and effective multipurpose research tool when exploring the practitioner role in the development of interdisciplinary primary care teams.

Conflicts of interest: none reported.

Funding support: IMPACT was a large-scale demonstration project supported by the Ontario Primary Health Care Transition Fund (2004–2006). IMPACT Web site: http://www.impactteam.info .

• Received for publication June 14, 2007.
• Revision received October 29, 2007.
• Accepted for publication November 7, 2007.
• © 2008 Annals of Family Medicine, Inc.
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The Disturbing Portrayal of the Klan in “The Birth of a Nation”

This essay is about the portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan in D.W. Griffith’s 1915 film “The Birth of a Nation.” It examines how the film depicts the Klan as heroic defenders of the South during Reconstruction, using advanced cinematic techniques to glorify their actions. The essay highlights the film’s racist themes and its impact on American society, including the revival of the Klan and the reinforcement of harmful racial stereotypes. It also discusses the controversy and protests that surrounded the film’s release and its complex legacy as both a technical milestone in cinema and a troubling artifact of American culture. The essay underscores the importance of critically engaging with media to understand its societal impact.

How it works

“The Birth of a Nation,” directed by D.W. Griffith in 1915, is widely regarded as a seminal work of cinema because of its inventive methods and epic narrative. But its racist overtones and depiction of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) have generated a great deal of controversy and discussion. The Klan is portrayed in the movie as both the heroic defenders of Southern society and as an essential entity that must be in place to defend white civilization against the alleged threats posed by African Americans.

Wide-ranging effects of this gravely problematic portrayal include the resurgence of the Klan and the propagation of negative racial stereotypes.

Griffith’s film is based on Thomas Dixon Jr.’s novel and play “The Clansman,” which was explicitly intended to present the Klan in a positive light. The film’s narrative aligns with this intent, portraying the Klan as noble defenders of Southern values and white womanhood. In the movie, the Klan rises in response to what is depicted as the chaos and lawlessness of Reconstruction, a period during which the Southern states were being rebuilt and integrated back into the Union following the Civil War. African American characters in the film are almost uniformly shown as either childlike and incompetent or vicious and dangerous, played by white actors in blackface to emphasize negative stereotypes. These depictions serve to justify the formation of the Klan as a necessary evil to restore order and protect white society.

One of the most infamous scenes in “The Birth of a Nation” is the climactic ride of the Klan, which is filmed with a sense of grandeur and excitement. The Klan members, dressed in their white robes and hoods, are shown galloping heroically to the rescue of imperiled white characters. This scene, and others like it, uses advanced cinematic techniques such as cross-cutting to heighten tension and drama, making the Klan appear as a noble and heroic force. The use of stirring music and dynamic editing further glorifies their actions, creating a sense of inevitability and righteousness about their mission. This romanticized portrayal contrasts sharply with the Klan’s historical reality as a terrorist organization responsible for countless acts of violence and intimidation against African Americans and their allies.

The impact of “The Birth of a Nation” on American society was profound. Upon its release, the film was praised by many for its technical achievements and storytelling prowess. However, it also sparked immediate protests and condemnation from African American communities and civil rights organizations. The NAACP attempted to have the film banned and organized boycotts and demonstrations in cities where it was shown. Despite these efforts, the film was a commercial success and had a significant cultural impact. It played a role in the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s, inspiring a new generation of Klan members who saw themselves as continuing the legacy depicted in the film.

The legacy of “The Birth of a Nation” is complex. On one hand, it is considered a landmark in the history of cinema for its technical innovations and its role in shaping the medium’s narrative possibilities. On the other hand, its racist content and glorification of the Klan make it a deeply troubling artifact of American culture. The film serves as a stark reminder of how powerful media can be in shaping public perceptions and reinforcing harmful ideologies. It illustrates the ways in which art can be used to perpetuate prejudice and justify oppression, highlighting the importance of critical engagement with cultural texts.

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the film’s problematic aspects. Modern screenings often include contextual discussions and disclaimers to address its racist content. Scholars and critics continue to examine the film’s legacy, acknowledging its place in the history of cinema while also critiquing its dangerous and false portrayal of the Klan. This dual approach helps to ensure that while we acknowledge the film’s contributions to the art of filmmaking, we do not lose sight of the real and harmful impact it has had on society.

“The Birth of a Nation” remains a powerful example of how film can influence societal attitudes and beliefs. Its portrayal of the Klan as heroes has left an indelible mark on American culture, one that we must critically engage with to understand the full scope of its legacy. By examining the film through a critical lens, we can better appreciate the importance of responsible storytelling and the need to challenge and confront harmful narratives in media.

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PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Disturbing Portrayal of the Klan in “The Birth of a Nation” . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-disturbing-portrayal-of-the-klan-in-the-birth-of-a-nation/ [Accessed: 21-Jul-2024]

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