research title about pollution in the philippines

Estimating the Health & Economic Cost of Air Pollution in the Philippines

In the Philippines, air pollution is the third highest risk factor driving death and disability due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs), and is also the leading environmental risk to health (IHME 2020). Its costs are not limited to the individual or community level, but also nationally, as air pollution-related health impacts yield corresponding financial and economic costs, which are often unaccounted for in policymaking. 

To add urgency to the issue, a growing body of scientific studies and literature are finding that air pollution is more dangerous to human health than previously thought. The World Health Organization updated its National Ambient Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) in September 2021, tightening the guidelines of annual average air pollution exposure to 5µg/m 3 from 10µg/m 3 for PM 2.5 and to 10µg/m 3 from 40µg/m 3 for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ).

Quantifying the impacts of air pollution on human health and the economy is important, especially in countries like the Philippines, where air pollution levels are increasing due to a growing number of fossil fuel pollution sources across various sectors. 

Our research found that air pollution was responsible for 66,230 deaths in the Philippines in 2019, of which 64,920 deaths were estimated to be adults and 1,310 children. This is significantly higher than previous estimates made for the country, aligning the impact with the most recent literature. The corresponding economic cost of exposure to air pollution is estimated at PHP 2.32 trillion (US$ 44.8 billion) in 2019 , or a GDP equivalent of 11.9% of the country’s GDP in 2019. Premature deaths account for most of the estimated economic cost at PHP 2.2 trillion (US$ 42.8 billion). 

This report covers the methodology and results of estimating the health and economic cost of air pollution in the Philippines under three scenarios: a baseline scenario, a WHO 2005 AQG-compliant scenario, and a WHO 2021 AQG-compliant scenario.

6 February 2023

Lauri Myllyvirta, Hubert Thieriot, Isabella Suarez

Philippines

The Philippine Archipelago pp 779–829 Cite as

Environmental Challenges in the Philippines

• Yves Boquet 2  
• First Online: 21 April 2017

2282 Accesses

5 Citations

6 Altmetric

Part of the book series: Springer Geography ((SPRINGERGEOGR))

The Republic of the Philippines is one of most exposed countries in the world to many “natural” hazards: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, lahar flows, typhoons, flooding, landslides, and sea level rise. Earthquake risks make Metro Manila especially vulnerable, due to the high population density and the poor quality of buildings, partly linked to corruption. This chapter examines the current policies to reduce risk in the metropolis and the scales of vulnerability, both at the national, regional, community and individual levels, focusing on the resilience of people and society when confronted with danger. Their vulnerability is heightened with several forms of environmental degradation, such as deforestation, soil impoverishments, mining impacts, all favoring landslides and floods, as well as the loss in biodiversity, both in maritime and land areas. Despite the establishment of protected areas and natural parks, adaptation to climate change and mitigation of damage remains difficult and requires building up a better institutional resilience.

• Vulnerability
• Deforestation
• Environmental degradation
• Protected areas

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Each event recorded in this database is killed at least ten people, affected at least 100 people or needed international aid.

http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=135

Adaptations are actions that people do to adjust to stimuli, such as rainfall or flooding. Mitigation, in the context of climate change, is more about reducing greenhouse-gas emission (Mayuga 2015 ). Adaptations are more local in scale, mitigation more global in scope.

For example in 1645 (destruction of Manila’s cathedral), even as the epicenter was far the city, in Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija . The latest major tremor affecting Manila with casualties and destructions was the 1968 Casiguran earthquake, with an epicenter in Aurora province.

http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1977/02feb/19770219-PD-1096-FM.pdf

Twelve non-technical questions, accompanied by simple drawings, easy to answer by any resident: (1) Who built or designed my house? (2) How old is my house? (3) Has my house been damaged by past earthquakes or other disasters? (4) What is the shape of my house? (5) Has my house been extended or expanded? (6) Are the external walls of my house 6-inch (150 mm) thick? (7) Are steel bars of standard size and spacing used in walls? (8) Are there unsupported walls more than 3 m wide? (9) What is the gable wall of my house made of? (10) What is the foundation of my house? (11) What is the soil condition under my house? (12) What is the overall condition of my house?

http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/index.php/13-disaster-risk-reduction-and-management-laws/1457-the-valley-fault-system-atlas

http://www.nababaha.com/marikina_valley_fault.htm

http://tremors.instigators.io /

Such as the European Union, CARE Netherlands , GIZ (German Agency for International Cooperation), USAid or JICA.

“Adaptation” refers to policies helping protect citizens, the economy, and the environment from climate change impacts like storms, drought, flooding, landslides, and heat waves. Climate change “mitigation” refers to policies aiming at a reduction of carbon emissions from the transportation, garbage management, agriculture, energy, and industrial sectors.

The forum was originally composed of 20 developing countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh , Barbados, Bhutan, Costa Rica , Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar , Maldives, Nepal , Philippines, Rwanda, St Lucia, Tanzania, Timor Leste, Tuvalu, Vanuatu , Vietnam ), The inaugural meeting of this “V-20” took place in Lima, Peru , in October 2015, in conjunction with the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund, with the Philippines serving as chair of the meeting. The call to create the V20 originated from the Climate Vulnerable Forum’s Costa Rica Action Plan (2013–2015) in a major effort to strengthen economic and financial responses to climate change. It foresaw a high-level policy dialogue pertaining to action on climate change and the promotion of climate resilient and low emission development with full competence for addressing economic and financial issues beyond the remit of any one organization. The 20 original members were later joined by 23 more countries (Burkina Faso, Cambodia , Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominican Republic, Fiji , Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti , Honduras, Malawi, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Morocco, Niger, Palau , Papua New Guinea , Senegal, South Sudan, Sri Lanka , Sudan, Tunisia and Yemen).

In Paris , President Aquino pledged a whopping 70% in reduction of carbon emissions by the Philippines, while approving the operation of at least 27 coal-fired power plants, no more than a month after the UN Climate conference, to insure the provision of electricity to the country. Upon his arrival at the Philippine presidency, Rodrigo Duterte announced he was not bound by the “crazy pledges” of his predecessor and would honor the 70% commitment, preferring to re-think the country’s priorities and the right balance between climate change protection and the need to provide economic development tools (energy) for the country.

Such as the May 2015 Climate Vulnerability Regional Forum in Manila attended by delegates from Afghanistan, Cambodia , Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan , Papua New Guinea , Tajikistan, Timor Leste and Vietnam .

As well as other environmental laws such as the Renewable Energy Act, the Solid Waste Management Act and the Environmental Awareness Education Act.

http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph / (Pagasa national weather service), http://weather.com.ph/weathertv/ , http://www.hurricanezone.net/ all offer detailed information about active typhoons

“Resilience Capacity Building for Cities and Municipalities to Reduce Disaster Risks from Climate Change and Natural Hazards”

http://blog.noah.dost.gov.ph/noah-open-file-reports/

Resiliency is another, much less used, form of this word. Resiliency is used mostly in North America, as an alternate to resilience

Etymologically it is derived from “Bathala”, the ancient Supreme Being worshiped by Filipinos during the pre-Spanish Period. It is akin to the Arabic/Muslim expression “Inshallah” (at the will of God)

A word derived from kapwa , a Tagalog term widely used when addressing another with the intention of establishing a connection. Kapwa looks for what people have in common as human beings, not as rich or poor, young or old, man, woman or child. According to this thinking, people always remain just people (“ tao lang ”) despite titles, prestigious positions or wealth, or abject poverty. What really matters is their behavior and their ethics. The essence of humanity is recognizable in everyone, linking (including) people rather than separating (excluding) them from each other.

Pagpapanday ng Kalakasan (finding and cultivating strengths); Paghahanap ng Kalutasan at Kaagapay (seeking solutions and support); Pangangalaga sa Katawan (managing physical reactions); Pagsasaayos ng Kalooban at Isipan (managing thoughts and emotions); Pagsasagawa ng Kapakipakinabang na Gawain (engaging in regular and positive activities); Pag-usad sa Kinabukasan (moving forward).

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Environmental Pollution Studies Laboratory

The main goal of the Environment and Pollution Studies Laboratory (EPSL) is to study pollution in the Philippines and its neighboring nations in general. Specifically, EPSL aims to study air, water and soil pollution. The EPSL surveys various aspects of pollution (e.g. sources, content, impacts). The laboratory therefore involves assessment of different sites all over the country. In addition, the EPSL stands by the views of One Health and identifies the inter-connectivity of humans, animals, and the environment.

Research Interest

Air, Water and Soil contaminants and transport

Description

Environmental Pollution Studies is concerned about determining the level and extent of contamination in air, water and soil. It also aims to determine and describe how the contamination is transported from different spheres of the Earth.

Current Project

TRACe Fish: Trace oRganics and metAls in Commodity Fish: Method optimization, extent of contamination and health risk due to fish intake (2017)

Previous project

Manila Aerosol Characterization Experiment 2015; Polycylic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in size-segregated atmospheric particulate matter from a traffic site in Quezon City, Philippines (2015)

Air and Water Quality Management

Having issues in the Philippines regarding air and water quality, EPSL aims to develop and recommend policies that will help to improve the air and water quality for sustainable future. It also wants to train concerned personnel from both private and government sectors to have better environmental management.

Prevented emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and particulate mattrer due to fleet shifting from conventional to electric tricycle (2017); Technical assistance to the air quality monitoring system of Rotary Club of Makati (2016)

Aquatic ecosystems rehabilitation

EPSL is also interested to restore ecological integrity of various aquatic ecosystems of contaminated and degraded habitats for the benefit of the environment and the people.

Synergistic Capacity Advancement for the Management of Laguna Lake: SCALE (2017)

Clean Air for megacities and smaller cities

With the rapid growth of vehicles in the urban areas, traffic-generated emissions have been a significant contributor to urban air pollution. EPSL, in collaboration with UNU and GIST joint programme, studies local emissions and their health impacts in Philippine cities such as Metro Manila and Baguio City. This venture aims to provide scientific knowledge and better understanding of the relationship between roadway emissions and the hazard of human exposure to air pollutants.

Previous Project

LEAP PH Megacities: L ocal E missions, A ir P ollution and P ublic H ealth studies in Ph ilippine megacities

Emissions Inventory

Emissions from vehicles, cookstoves, and biomass burning are some of the sources of air pollution in urban areas. EPSL is dedicated in conducting researches to broaden and deepen the knowledge on the impacts of these emissions to the state of the quality of air.

Concentration ratios and molecular markers of PAHs in three Metro Manila ambient sites and from a selected emission source (2017)

Emission factors from motor vehicle pollution sources using a wind tunnel set-up (2014-2015); Determination of Particulate and Elemental emission factors from Selected Area and Point Sources in Metro Manila (2014)

Environmental toxicology

EPSL also aims to describe and address adverse ecological health risks due to hazardous contaminants present in air. Future direction may include expansion into the field of air and soil contaminants.

Polycylic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in size-segregated atmospheric particulate matter from a traffic site in Quezon City, Philippines (2015)

OTHER RESEARCH INTERESTS

Sustainable Transport

Description: With issues such as climate change and rapid population growth, the shift to a more sustainable means of transport is needed now more than ever. EPSL is involved in projects which help provide baseline for the implementation of more eco-friendly transportation.

Current Project: Prevented emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and particulate matter due to fleet shifting from conventional to electric tricycle (2017)

Previous project: Emission factors from motor vehicle pollution sources using a wind tunnel set-up (2014-2015)

Green Chemistry

Description: EPSL is also dedicated to producing the least possible amount of hazardous chemical waste in all its projects and analytical services. By developing strategies to minimize waste, EPSL aims to be the standard in for sustainable research practices.

Climate Change and co-benefits

Description: EPSL aims to study climate change and mitigate the impact of climate change in the Philippines and other neighbouring nations. It also wants to study and develop various climate change co-benefits for impact mitigation such as technological innovation, energy-supply security, etc.

Current Project: Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change and Towards Adaptation in the Philippines (2017-2022), Year 1: Assessing the integrity of megacities environment: air and water quality

Cook stoves and indoor air pollution

Description: Indoor air pollution from solid fuels is one of the top 10 causes of disease both globally and in Southeast Asia. EPSL aims to address the gap in the management of air quality by testing local cook stoves fuels generating local emission factors that can be used for better assessment of local emissions and for public health protection.

Previous Study: Particulate Emission Factor of Key Area Pollution Sources derived from Wind Tunnel Experiments (2014)

Non-ISI Publications

Mylene G. Cayetano, Colleen Marciel Rosales and Rheo B. Lamorena-Lim. (2015) Determination of particulate and elemental emission factors from selected area and point sources in Metro Manila, UNU-GIST Publication.

Tong Zhu, Mylene G. Cayetano, Changhong Chen, Sarath Guttikunda, Min Hu, Young J. Kim, Yataka Kondo, Peter K.K. Louie, Luisa Molina, Yu Morino, Nguyen Thi Kim Oanh, Eduardo P. Olaguer, Didin Agustian Permadi, Prapat Pongkiatkul, Abdus Salam, Min Shao, Xuesong Sun,Shinji Wakamatsu, Hongli Wang and Peyman Zawar-Reza. (2012). WMO/IGAC Impacts of Megacities on Air Pollution and Climate. Chapter 3 – Asia. p. 59~140

ISI Publications

Hagad, H.R. and Cayetano, M.G.(2018). PM10 and surface dust source characterization in Baguio City Central Business District (CBD), Philippines.Environmental Geochemistry and Health.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0208-7

Borlaza, L.J.S., Cosep, E.M.R., Kim, S., Lee, K., Joo, H., Park, M., Bate, D., Cayetano, M.G., Park, K.(2018), Oxidative potential of fine ambient particles in various environments, Environmental Pollution, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.074.

Jolejole, M. E., Kim, J.B., Jeon, D.J., Cayetano, M., Kim, J. H. (2018). Scenario study of the effect of different land use to a sub-basin in Yeongsan River basin using SWAT model. Desalination and Water treatment. 120. 198-204. 10.5004/dwt.2018.22884.

Kecorius, S., Tamayo, E.G., Galvez, M. C., Madueño, L., Betito, G., Cayetano, M., Vallar, E., Wiedensohler, A. (2018). Activity Pattern of School/University Tenants and their Family Members in Metro Manila – Philippines. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 18. 2412-2419. 10.4209/aaqr.2018.02.0069.

Gibe, H. P. and Cayetano, M. G.: Spatial estimation of air PM2.5 emissions using activity data, local emission factors and land cover derived from satellite imagery, Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., doi:10.5194/amt-2017-14, in review, 2017.

Everlyn Gayle T. Tamayo, Mylene G. Cayetano, Charita S. Kwan, Konrad Müller, Development of an analytical method for the solvent extraction of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air particulate matter, Journal of Environmental Science and Management (Submitted as of 31 August, 2016)

Jinsang Jung, KwangYul Lee, Mylene G. Cayetano, Tsatsral Batmunkh, and Young J. Kim (2015). Optical and hygroscopic properties of long-range transported haze plumes observed at Deokjeok Island off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula under the Asian continental outflows. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres. 120, 8861-8877

ABSTRACT: An intensive field campaign was conducted on Deokjeok Island off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula during spring 2009 to characterize the optical and hygroscopic properties of Asian continental outflows. A slightly high wavelength dependence of light absorption coefficient, α of 1.6 ± 0.05 (average ± 1· standard deviation), and a low humidity-dependent light scattering enhancement factor at 80% relative humidity, f(80%) (2.0 ± 0.2), were obtained when air masses originated from the northern part of China (N China), compared to those obtained when air masses originated from the eastern part of China (E China) (α = 1.4 ± 0.1; f(80%) = 2.4 ± 0.2). The relatively high α and low f(80%) during the N China compared to those during the E China were consistent with a relatively high mass ratio of organic aerosol to sum of SO42−, NO3−, and NH4+ during the N China (1.01 ± 0.17) compared to the E China episode (0.25 ± 0.13). This result indicates the importance of organic aerosol on aerosol optical and hygroscopic properties of haze plumes. Single scattering albedo (SSA) of dry particulate matter with a diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM2.5) (0.92 ± 0.01) and mass scattering efficiency (MSE) of dry PM2.5 at 550 nm wavelength during the E China episode (3.6 ± 0.3 m2 g−1) were higher than those previously obtained at the air mass source regions in China (SSA = ~0.8; MSE = ~3.0 m2 g−1), implying that optical properties of PM2.5 were significantly altered during long-range atmospheric transport.

Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015JD023154/abstract

Edgar Vallar, Maria Cecilia Galvez, Red Castilla, Mylene Cayetano, James Simpas, Melliza Cruz, Rheo Lamorena-Lim, Len Herald Lim, Preciosa Corazon Pabroa, Ronald Macatangay, Gerry Bagtasa, Teresita Peralta, Jean Rosete, and Vernon Morris. (2015) Analysis of tropospheric and columnar Ozone measurements in Manila, Philippines. ACRS Publication

ABSTRACT: Ozone is a gas that can be found in the stratosphere and the troposphere. Stratospheric ozone, formed when sunlight breaks down oxygen molecules, plays a beneficial role because it absorbs most of the harmful UV rays of the Sun. Tropospheric or ground-level ozone is produced from photochemical reactions involving man-made emissions from industry and automobiles. This ozone is harmful to man because it leads to respiration problems aside from damaging plants. In addition, ozone is also a greenhouse gas. This work investigated the diurnal variation of both tropospheric ozone and columnar ozone from May 25 – 31, 2015 in De La Salle University (DLSU), Manila, Philippines. In particular, this paper presents data collected as part of the Metro Manila Aerosol Characterization Experiment (MACE) 2015, an intensive aerosol characterization campaign conducted by the RESearchers for Clean Air (RESCueAIR), the Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research (TROPOS) from Leipzig, Germany, the Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS), and Partnership for Clean Air (PCA). Columnar ozone was studied using a tripod-mounted MICROTOPS II ozonemeter and a comparison of these values with ozone readings from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is presented in this paper. Tropospheric ozone was measured 24 hours each day using a Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer (DOAS) and a Thermo Environmental Instruments Model 49C ozone analyzer. The DOAS is part of the Air Quality Monitoring Station (AQMS) under a collaboration between the Environment Management Bureau (EMB) and DLSU while the 49C analyzer is a collaborative measurement between DLSU and the NOAA Center for Atmospheric Sciences. The DOAS instrument is located beside Taft Avenue. The 49C analyzer is housed on the rooftop of the Henry Sy Sr. Hall (HSSH) of DLSU which is about 90 meters above street level. Ozone measurements from these two instruments are also compared in this paper.

Link: http://www.a-a-r-s.org/acrs/administrator/components/com_jresearch/files/publications/ACRS2015_Paper-ID_851.pdf.pdf

Mylene G. Cayetano, Philip K. Hopke, Kwon H. Lee, Jinsang Jung, Tsatsral Batmunkh, Kwangyul Lee, and Young J. Kim. Investigations of transported and local emissions on particle compositions in Korea. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, (accepted as of July 2013)

Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14: 793–805, 2014 Copyright ©Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research ISSN:1680-8584 print/2071-1409online doi:10.4209/aaqr.2012.08.0218

Investigations of the Particle Compositions of Transported and Local Emissions in Korea

Mylene G. Cayetano1¥, Philip K. Hopke2, Kwon H. Lee3, Jinsang Jung1§, Tsatsral Batmunkh1, Kwangyul Lee1, Young J. Kim1* 1 School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 500712, Gwangju, Korea 2 Center for Air Resources Engineering and Science Clarkson University, P.O. Box 5708 Potsdam, NY 13699-5708, USA 3 Department of Satellite Geoinformatics Engineering, Kyungil University, Buhori 33, Hayangeub, Gyungsan, Korea

ABSTRACT The synoptic meteorological patterns, aerosol optical thickness (AOT) and changes in the chemical composition of aerosol particles are indicators that allow the study of the effects of emissions on air quality. These approaches have been applied to two sets of intensive campaign measurement data in Gwangju, Korea, allowing the identification of long-range transported (LRT) and local emission impacts in spring of 2008 and 2010. Prefrontal air masses originating from polluted regions of the Asian continent influenced the particulate properties on March 12, 13, 27, April 12–13, and May 7, 2008, resulting in SO4–2 concentrations of 44.1 µg/m3, 44.6 µg/m3, 26.4 µg/m3, 21.9 µg/m3 and 26.4 µg/m3, respectively, compared to a local baseline concentration of 8.5 µg/m3. Air masses affected by mixed burning (LRT-MB) arrived in Gwangju between April 23 to 27, 2008 and influenced the particulate organic carbon (OC) concentrations by as much as 20.0 µgC/m3. Pollution events in 2010 have been classified into three classes: sulfate-nitrate (S-N) dominant, chloride-enriched (Cl–) and mixed burning influenced (Local MB) emissions. From the diurnal patterns of SO4–2 and NO3–, their concentrations were found to be lowest at midday and highest in the evening, with their chemical transformation reactions consistent with known processes that lead to the formation of NH4NO3. Cl-enriched emissions not related to sea salt and biomass burning emissions were observed on various occasions; a strong correlation (adjusted R2 = 0.96) between excess NH4+ and Cl– exists for the pooled cases. The data suggested contributions from local municipal solid waste combustion and biomass burning. Overall analysis of ionic balance suggests that the LRT particles may provide an excess SO4–2. The neutralizing capacity of NH3 for local emissions was demonstrated from the detection of sufficient amount of NH4+ that has been reacted with Cl–.

Keywords: PM2.5; Atmospheric aerosols; Air pollution; Emission characterization; Municipal solid waste burning; Biomass burning; Urban air quality; Secondary aerosol

LINK: http://www.aaqr.org/article/download?articleId=651&path=/files/article/651/19_AAQR-12-08-OA-0218_793-805.pdf

Mylene G. Cayetano, Young J. Kim, Jin Sang Jung, Tsatsral Batmunkh, Kwang Yul Lee, Sung Yong Kim, Kwan Chul Kim, Dong Gyu Kim, Suk Jo Lee, Jeong Soo Kim and Lim Seok Chang. 2011. Observed chemical characteristics of long range transported particles at a marine background site in Korea. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 61:1–12 DOI: 10.1080/10473289.2011.604001T

Deokjeok Island is located off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula and is a suitable place to monitor the long-range transport of air pollutants from the Asian continent. In addition to pollutants, Asian dust particles are also transported to the island during long-range transport events. Episodic transport of dust and secondary particles was observed during intensive measurements in the spring (March 31-April 11) and fall (October 13-26) of 2009. In this study, the chemical characteristics of long-range-transported particles were investigated based on highly time-resolved ionic measurements with a particle-into-liquid system coupled with an online ion chromatograph (PILS-IC) that simultaneously measures concentrations of cations (Li+, Na , NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and anions (F-, C1-, NO3-, SO42-). The aerosol optical thickness (AOT) distribution retrieved by the modified Bremen Aerosol Retrieval (M-BAER) algorithm from moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite data confirmed the presence of a thick aerosol plume coming from the Asian continent towards the Korean peninsula. Seven distinctive events involving the long-range transport (LRT) of aerosols were identified and studied, the chemical components of which were strongly related to sector sources. Enrichment of acidic secondary aerosols on mineral dust particles, and even of sea-salt components, during transport was observed in this study. Backward trajectory, chemical analyses, and satellite aerosol retrievals identified two distinct events: a distinctively high [Ca2++Mg2]/[Na+] ratio (>2.0), which was indicative of a preprocessed mineral dust transport event, and a low [Ca2++Mg2+]/[Na+] ratio (<2.0), which was indicative of severe aging of sea-salt components on the processed dust particles. Particulate C1- was depleted by up to 85% in spring and 50% in the fall. A consistent fraction of carbonate replacement (FCR) averaged 0.53 in spring and 0.55 in the fall. Supporting evidences of C1- enrichment on the marine boundary layer prior to a dust front were also found. Supplemental materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of the Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association for sector and air mass classifications of clean and LRT cases.

Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22168103

Batmunkh, Y.J.Kim, K.Y.Lee, Cayetano M. G., J.S.Jung, S.Y. Kim, D.G.Kim, K.C.Kim, S.J. Lee, J.S. Kim, L.S. Chang, and J.Y. An. 2011. Time-resolved measurements of PM2.5carbonaceous aerosols at Gosan, Korea. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 61:1–10. DOI: 10.1080/10473289.2011.609761

In order to better understand the characteristics of atmospheric carbonaceous aerosol at a background site in Northeast Asia, semicontinuous organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC), and time-resolved water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) were measured by a Sunset OC/ EC and a PILS-TOC (particle-into-liquid sampler coupled with an online total organic carbon) analyzer, respectively, at the Gosan supersite on Jeju Island, Korea, in the summer (May 28-June 17) and fall (August 24-September 30) of 2009. Hourly average OC concentration varied in the range of approximately 0.87-28.38 microgC m-3, with a mean of 4.07+/- 2.60 microgC m-3, while the hourly average EC concentration ranged approximately from 0.04 to 8.19 .microgC m-3, with a mean of  1.35 +/- 0.71 microgC m-3, from May 28 to June 17, 2009. During the fall season, OC varied in the approximate range 0.9-9.6 microgC m-3, with a mean of 2.30 +/-0.80 microgC m-3, whereas EC ranged approximately from 0.01 to 5.40 microgC m-3, with a mean of 0.66 +/- 0.38 microgC m-3. Average contributions of EC to TC and WSOC to OC were 26.0% +/- 9.7% and 20.6% +/-7.4%, and 37.6% +/- 23.5% and 57.2% +/- 22.2% during summer and fall seasons, respectively. As expected, clear diurnal variation of WSOC/OC was found in summer, varying from 0.22 during the nighttime up to 0.72 during the daytime, mainly due to the photo-oxidation process. In order to investigate the effect of air mass pathway on the characteristics of carbonaceous aerosol, 5-day back-trajectory analysis was conducted using the HYSPLIT model. The air mass pathways were classified into four types: Continental (CC), Marine (M), East Sea (ES) and Korean Peninsula (KP). The highest OC/EC ratio of 3.63 was observed when air mass originated from the Continental area (CC). The lowest OC/EC ratio of 0.79 was measured when air mass originated from the Marine area (M). A high OC concentration was occasionally observed at Gosan due to local biomass burning activities. The contribution of secondary OC to total OC varied approximately between 8.4% and 32.2% and depended on air mass type.

Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22168101

Santiago, E. C., and Cayetano M. G., 2010. Organochlorine Pesticides in Ambient Air in Selected Urban and Rural Residential Areas in the Philippines Derived from Passive Samplers with Polyurethane Disks, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 1-6.

The passive sampler with PUF disk was applied to investigate the types and concentrations of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in ambient air in three urban and rural residential areas simultaneously at different weather conditions in the Philippines. The concentrations of OCPs derived from the passive samplers indicated clear distinctions in the predominance of certain types and amounts of OCPs in air at different sampling sites and periods of sampling. Chlordanes were detected in concentrations ranging from 218 to 2,324 pg/m3 in the urban residential sites in all the sampling periods, indicating the possible use of these pesticides as termiticides in houses. Endosulfans were detected in two rural sites at 491 pg/m3 and 904 pg/m3 during one sampling period; indicating the possible use of the pesticide in the farm areas at that period.

Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00128-010-0160-4

Jung, J., Y. J. Kim, K. Y. Lee, Cayetano M. G., T. Batmunkh, J. H. Koo, and J. Kim.. Spectral optical properties of long-range transport Asian dust and pollution aerosols over Northeast Asia in 2007. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 10(2), 2397-2444.

As a part of the IGAC (International Global Atmospheric Chemistry) Mega-cities program, aerosol physical and optical properties were continuously measured from March 2007 to March 2008 at an urban site (37.57° N, 126.94° E) in Seoul, Korea. Spectral optical properties of long-range transported Asian dust and pollution aerosols have been investigated based on the year long measurement data. Optically measured black carbon/thermally measured elemental carbon (BC/EC) ratio showed clear monthly variation with high values in summer and low values in winter mainly due to the enhancement of light attenuation by the internal mixing of EC. Novel approach has been suggested to retrieve the spectral light absorption coefficient (babs) from Aethalometer raw data by using BC/EC ratio. Mass absorption efficiency, σabs (=babs/EC) at 550 nm was determined to be 9.0±1.3, 8.9±1.5, 9.5±2.0, and 10.3±1.7 m2 g−1 in spring, summer, fall, and winter, respectively with an annual mean of 9.4±1.8 m2 g−1. Threshold values to classify severe haze events were suggested in this study. Increasing trend of aerosol single scattering albedo (SSA) with wavelength was observed during Asian dust events while little spectral dependence of SSA was observed during long-range transport pollution (LTP) events. Satellite aerosol optical thickness (AOT) and Hysplit air mass backward trajectory analyses as well as chemical analysis were performed to characterize the dependence of spectral optical properties on aerosol type. Results from this study can provide useful information for studies on regional air quality and aerosol's effects on climate change.

Link: http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/10/5391/2010/

Santiago, E. C., and Cayetano M. G. 2007. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air in the Philippines derived from passive sampler with polyurethane foam disk. Atmospheric Environment, 41(19), 4138-4147.

Passive samplers with polyurethane disks (PUF) were applied in the determination of the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air in six residential areas in the Philippines during four simultaneous sampling periods. The uptake profiles of PAHs were determined at one site during one sampling period. Most of the PAHs that were detected in air at concentrations that were significantly higher than their analytical detection limits exhibited a linear uptake trend on the PUF disk. The linear uptake profiles of some high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs were not established and this is attributed to the low concentration of the compounds in air in the gaseous phase. The retention concentrations of phenanthrene-d-10 were determined after depuration in four sampling sites during two sampling periods. The sampling rate for phenanthrene-d-10 was calculated at the linear phase of the uptake using the kA derived from depuration experiments and the relationship of kA and sampling rate which was established in a previous passive sampling study. The average sampling rate obtained for phenanthrene d-10 (2.94±0.69 m3 d−1) was applied for derivation of the concentrations of the PAHs in the field samples.

The passive sampler with PUF disk and short integration time of 42–56 days is applicable for the derivation of the concentrations of PAHs in ambient air in the Philippines. The concentrations of the organic pollutants derived from the passive sampler showed variability for the six residential areas; reflecting the influence of possible sources of emission of the pollutants at the sites at the different sampling periods. The weather conditions, including the occurrence of a tropical cyclone, increased rainfall and high-relative humidity during the rainy season, had an influence on the concentrations of PAHs derived by the passive sampler.

LINK: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231007000751

MS STUDENTS GRADUATED

Everlyn T. Tamayo

THESIS: Development of an analytical method for the solvent extraction of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air particulate matter, Journal of Environmental Science and Management (Submitted as of 31 August, 2016)

Hilda R. Hagad

THESIS: Source Identification and Elemental Quantification of Airborne Particulate Matter (APM) in Central Business District ,Baguio City Philippines

• Hezron P. Gibe

THESIS: Estimated emissions of air PM2.5 derived from satellite imagery, local emission factors, and activity data validated in situ using source apportionment by positive matrix factorization (PMF) in Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija

Mark Edward A. Jolejole

THESIS: Response to Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities in Streams of Cabuyao, Laguna to Surrounding Industrial Land Use

Munir J. Baldomero

THESIS: Boundary Layer Climatology in Quezon City Using Different Instruments

Kenny Vienne S. Mandingz

THESIS: “Effects of the Manila Bay Breeze Circulation on the Particulate Matter Concentration of Metro Manila

Begie C. Perdigones

THESIS: Analysis and Prediction of Particulate Matter Concentrations in Metro Manila Using Feed-forward Back-propagation Artificial Neural Network

Henrison C. Sanchez

THESIS: Characterizing the Urban Heat Island phenomenon in Cabanatuan City using Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model

MS CANDIDATES

• Patricia Erika P. Lim
• Richard B. Casiguran
• Genievie Dayaon
• Jonah John G. San Pedro
• Irjay P. Rolloda
• Paul Ezekiel M. Losaria
• Joanna Mae D. Norcio
• Daniel Cristobal C. Lor
• Sheryllyn M. Linda

Addressing the plastic pollution crisis in the Philippines: New momentum

Junu shrestha, agnes balota.

A growing middle class, increased consumer demand and a strong economic boom have spurred the Philippines’ economy in recent decades. This growth, positive in so many ways, has inadvertently fed a plastic pollution crisis.

In response, the government, academia and civil society have confronted the issue head on through studies, consultations, and awareness raising with support from the World Bank. This work has helped to build policies that govern the consumption, recovery and recycling of plastics.

In recent decades, the Philippines has made strides with comprehensive legislation such as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 and the National Plan of Action for the Prevention, Reduction, and Management of Marine Litter. While the Philippines has established these comprehensive laws and action plans to address the issue, more effective implementation and stakeholder involvement are necessary to achieve tangible results.

The Polluter Pays Principle

In 2023, a critical national law has been passed in the Philippines that advances this legal framework to combat plastic pollution much further. Titled the “Extended Producer Responsibility” (EPR) law, the legislation requires mandatory EPR for businesses with assets worth over ₱100 million. The law also encourages smaller businesses to voluntarily participate in the program. “The polluter pays” principle is central to EPR, obligating plastic packaging producers to assume full responsibility for the entire life cycle of their products, including waste management. This means that those who bring plastic packaging into the Philippine market must pay for the cost of waste prevention, clean up, and recovery measures.

Given the volume of plastic imported and manufactured for consumption, the country has not been able to catch up with its needs for reducing, recycling, and reusing (3Rs). Before enactment of the new law, the burden of managing waste was entirely on the shoulders of Local government Units (LGUs), who often lack the capacity to deal with the increasing waste on their own.

Under the new law, businesses can recover their plastic packaging waste and offset their plastic footprint by undertaking recovery schemes, establishing hubs for collection of waste, partnering with LGUs to recover plastic waste and establishing industrial scale recycling centers, among others. This polluter pays principle eases the LGU’s burden.

Reviewing Korea’s Pollution Playbook

The World Bank is supporting early implementation of the law with technical assistance, including the recently published report, “ Combating Plastic Waste Crisis in the Philippines ,” which analyzes Korea’s EPR system and distills lessons learned to inform EPR implementation in the Philippines.  

Recognizing a growing waste management crisis, Korea introduced policies, regulations and enforcement, effectively reducing its plastic waste and increasing recycling over the past 20 years.

Several factors enabled the success of its EPR system for plastic waste, some of which can guide the Philippines. Recommendations include awareness raising, managing waste effectively, proper separation, and putting the burden of cost on plastic producers to finance collection, sorting and recycling. The success of the EPR law and enforcement in the Philippines will depend on increasing the number of waste collection and recycling facilities paid for by the plastic producers.  The enforcement of these fees will finance a new level of waste management infrastructure.

While valuable lessons can be gleaned from Korea, notable differences also exist. There are more than 2,000 inhabited islands in the Philippines, many of which lack infrastructure and services. The well-being and future livelihoods of informal waste collectors remain a crucial gap to be addressed.

Policy makers can achieve meaningful improvements in the waste management system and significantly reduce polluting plastic waste if lessons from successfully operating EPR systems such as Korea’s are taken into consideration, and the waste management gaps in the Philippines effectively addressed.

With a clear governance framework and reliable financial flows, the enterprises that generate plastic packaging are now in the business of responsibly recovering plastic from trash and waterways and placing it into managed waste systems. This law, though years in the making, marks the beginning of aggressive measures to reduce the amount of plastic waste being generated in the Philippines.  The benefits of this law will extend beyond the Philippines, reducing marine plastic waste in shared seas and oceans.

Related works :

• Market Study on Plastics Circularity Opportunities and Barriers ;
• An Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Plans, Collection,
• Recycling and Disposal of Metro Manila ;
• Reducing Plastic Waste in the Philippines:
• An Assessment of Policies and Regulations to Guide Country Dialogue and Facilitate Action;
• The Role of Extended Producer Responsibility Schemes for Packaging towards Circular Economies in APEC 
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Practice Manager for Environment, Natural Resources and the Blue Economy in the East Asia and Pacific Region

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How Did the Philippines Become the World’s Biggest Ocean Plastic Polluter?

As summer vacation commences, tourists are bound to flock to the Philippines, a nation known for its iconic islands that house some of the world’s whitest sands and most transparent waters. Unfortunately, the Asian nation has also made waves by being crowned as the world’s biggest ocean plastic polluter. In this article, we dive into the persistent plastic pollution in the country’s waters.

Assessing Ocean Plastic Pollution in the Philippines

The Philippines had the largest share of global plastic waste discarded in the ocean in 2019. The country was responsible for 36.38% of global oceanic plastic waste, far more than the second-largest plastic polluter, India, which in the same year accounted for about 12.92% of the total.

Contrary to popular belief, most plastic waste does not enter the sea directly. Conversely, it makes its way to the sea from smaller water streams. 

According to a 2021 study , 80% of plastic waste comes from rivers and seven of the top ten plastic-polluted rivers in the world are in the Philippines. Pasig River even dethrones the previously most polluted river in 2017 , the Yangtze River of China. 

How Does Plastic Pollution Affect the Environment?

The Philippines prides itself on having one of the world’s most diverse marine biodiversity. By being at the apex of the Coral Triangle, the country holds an extensive system of coral reefs occupying more than 27,000 square kilometres (10,425 square miles). 

Dubbed the “rainforest of the sea”, coral reefs are the essence of marine ecosystems , with 25% of the ocean’s fish relying on them for shelter, food, and reproduction.

Unfortunately, this centralisation of dependence is easily overthrown once coral reefs encounter threats such as rising ocean temperatures and plastic pollution. 

A 2018 study showed that, without the presence of plastic, coral reefs have a 4% likelihood of contracting a disease. With plastic, the risk dramatically increases to 89% due to the spread of pathogens. 

This phenomenon triggers a chain reaction, as it disrupts marine ecosystems and causes nearby sea animals to consume microplastics. Microplastics are smaller pieces of plastic generated through processes such as weathering and exposure to wave action and more. Their consumption is evidently persisting in the Philippines, where nearly half of all rabbitfish , a commonly consumed fish species, were found to contain traces of microplastics.

By dumping plastics into the sea, these eventually enter our bloodstream. According to the United Nations, more than 51 trillion microplastic particles litter the world’s seas, a quantity that outnumbers the stars in our galaxy by 500 times.

While we are increasingly aware of where microplastics can be found, we are still relatively in the dark about their impact on the environment and especially on human health. Yet, there is no doubt that microplastics contain highly toxic and harmful chemicals.

You might also like: 5 Coral Reefs That Are Currently Under Threat and Dying

What’s Behind the Philippines’ Plastic Pollution Crisis?

The Philippines has a peculiar culture of consuming products in small quantities. For example, instead of buying a regular bottle of shampoo, many people opt for sachets sold at local stores at a much lower price. 

With a reported 20 million people living below the poverty line in 2021, the country’s widespread poverty leaves citizens hunting for the cheapest alternative. Large corporations exploit this situation by offering palm-sized packages of products and building a “sachet economy”, further exacerbating plastic pollution in the country. 

Nonetheless, it is said that there is no other material that offers safer and quicker transportation of food like plastic does. 

Instead of merely focusing on reducing plastic use, governments should also consider increasing the accessibility to proper disposal facilities. Indeed, the head of Philippine Alliance for Recycling and Materials Sustainability Crispian Lao states that 70% of Filipinos lack access to disposal facilities, which steers plastic waste directly to oceans. With minimal exposure to environmentally-friendly options for plastic disposal, the population often lacks awareness of plastic pollution.

This highlights another problem: The lack of government action. 

Among the reasons behind plastic pollution being such a big issue in the Philippines is government mismanagement. More specifically, the government is criticised for merely having good laws surrounding waste disposal but often failing to properly enforce them . 

In 2001, the government established the Waste Management Act to tackle the nation’s growing solid waste problem through methods such as prohibition of open dumps for solid waste and by adopting systematic waste segregation. Two decades later, the Commission on Audit stated that there has still been a “steady” increase in waste generation. 

You might also like: 4 Biggest Environmental Issues in the Philippines in 2024

How Do We Fix This?

In the grand scheme of things, most of the causes of plastic pollution could be addressed with proper government intervention. Instead of feeding into the corporate agenda that maximises plastic production, the government could take notes from its surrounding Asian regions. 

For example, Taiwan was responsible for a meagre 0.05% of global oceanic plastic waste in 2019, owing to numerous legislation to protect its waters from plastic that the country enforced in recent years, including the Marine Pollution Control Act in 2000 and the Action Plan of Marine Debris Governance in 2018. In 2020, the Environmental Protection Administration declared a ban on all free plastic straws and has now pledged to ban all single-use plastics by 2030. With years of revising and enforcing plans, Taiwan can now aim for bigger environmental goals.

Another great example is China. Up until 2017, the country was the largest importer of plastic . Since the introduction of a ban on imported waste in 2018, including different types of plastics, things have drastically changed. The ban effectively halved the amount of imported waste. Ultimately, China was responsible for only 7.22% of global oceanic plastic pollution in 2019. 

Additionally, the Philippine government could extend its success from the six-month closure of its tropical landmark Boracay in 2018, following former President Duterte’s order to carry out rehabilitation works to restore the island’s pristine condition from pollution.

A survey conducted in February 2018 by the Philippines News Agency found that a staggering 716 out of 834 businesses had no discharge permit and were draining contaminated water into the sea.

Before the closure, the faecal coliform level in Boracay waters was at nearly 900 most probably number (MPN) per 100 millilitres (ml). The acceptable level for swimming conditions is 100 MPN per 100ml. By the time it reopened, Boracay’s coliform concentration had plummeted to 40 MPN per 100 ml, indicating a much cleaner environment.

Despite the financial loss that came with the prolonged closure of Boracay, numerous stakeholders have stated that it was worth it. 

You might also like: 10 Plastic Pollution in the Ocean Facts You Need to Know

As this example shows, short-term efforts can lead to long-term improvements.

Especially if aided by government measures, the actions of an entire nation can go a long way. By increasing the number of accessible recycling bins, people would be one step closer to classifying their trash. By imposing fees or even bans on the use or production of plastics, people would have no plastic to throw into the seas. By simply raising awareness, more Filipinos would act against plastic pollution.

Featured image: Wikimedia Commons.

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Measurement of light pollution in PAGASA Astronomical Observatory before and after the 2020 Taal phreatic eruption through luminance

• Ronah Ceniza Rollan Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
• Rosenel Dahipon Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
• Alleah Garzon Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Light pollution causes inability to clearly observe astronomical bodies at night due to anthropogenic light sources especially in urban areas. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Observatory is an astronomical observatory situated in the light polluted city of Metro Manila. Light pollution was quantified in the said observatory before and after the Taal volcano phreatic eruption, situated approximately 109 kilometers from PAGASA Observatory, through luminance using a Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR) camera. The magnitude of the light pollution before and after the said eruption was 16.63 and 17.22 mag/arsec 2 , respectively, an increase of 3.50%. Furthermore, it showed that the night sky in PAGASA Observatory is under "City Scale – Level 8" according to Bortle Dark Sky Scale.

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Published by the Samahang Pisika ng Pilipinas ISSN 2719-1621 (online)

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Philippines tackles air pollution

After six years of governmental wrangling and a massive nationwide campaign to gather signatures, the Philippines—home to one of the world’s most polluted cities—is on the verge of passing clean air legislation.

The population of Manila has grown faster than that in any other city since 1970 and now stands at at least 12 million, with 12600 people to each square kilometre. Thousands live in the shadow of power stations or industrial plants. Smog constantly blankets the city, 2.2 million motor vehicles form traffic jams, and pedestrians keep handkerchiefs clamped over their mouths and noses.

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), levels of lead in the air in Manila are more than three times the established safety limit, and concentrations of suspended particulate matter are also dangerously high. Other pollutants have not been measured.

The priority legislation could be passed within as little as two months and would phase out the use of leaded fuel within 18 months, reduce industrial emissions, promote recycling, phase out vehicles over 15 years old, ban incineration, and drastically increase fines for the owners of polluting vehicles.

Dr Steve Tamplin, WHO regional adviser on environmental health, said: “The crucial question is whether this legislation will be effectively enforced.” At an average speed of just 7 km/hour, rush hour traffic in Manila moves more slowly than anywhere else in Asia. Dr Tamplin said that investing more in overhead light rail systems, which currently cover a single 30 km stretch, would be the best way of reducing traffic congestion, the biggest source of pollution.

Dr Miguel Celdran, a paediatrician at Makati Medical Center, said: “About 90%of my patients have respiratory illness, and we’re seeing babies as young as two months suffering from asthma. Twenty years ago, this was unheard of.”

A recent survey by the Philippine Paediatric Society, which asked doctors to describe the most common illnesses that they treat, received the same response in every case: diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

Urine samples from taken from children living and begging on the polluted streets showed that at least 7%had high lead concentrations.

Dr Celdran said that his mainly middle class clients kept their children indoors, using air ionisers and filtered air conditioners to improve air quality, but that this resulted in other problems due to a lack of exercise.

The United Nations estimates that by the year 2000 around half of the world’s population will be living in urban areas, and the global fleet of motor vehicles is already thought to be more than 800 million.

A WHO report, Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World, warns that: “Megacities could well see increases in their air pollution concentrations of levels as high as 75-100%over the next decade.”

Manila's smog may soon be a thing of the past

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Philippines dominates global ocean plastic pollution chart at 36%, shows study

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This is AI generated summarization, which may have errors. For context, always refer to the full article.

CAGAYAN DE ORO, Philippines ― An international study on plastic pollution has shown that the Philippines is the world’s leading contributor to plastic pollution in the oceans, with an average of 3.30 kilograms per person per year.

Utility Bidder, an independent United Kingdom-based organization dedicated to identifying gaps in the market and providing efficient, transparent services to help businesses find the best utility tariffs, commissioned the Plastic Polluters study , and released it in September. The group was originally known as Business Energy Consultant established in 2009.

As part of the study, the group monitored countries that emit the most waste per capita into the oceans, countries with the highest likelihood of plastic waste emissions, nations with the most mismanaged waste, and those exporting the largest quantities of plastic waste.

The study’s findings indicated that the Philippines ranked first as the country with the highest plastic waste emissions into the ocean per person each year, at 3.30 kg.

Suriname in South America ranked second, with 2.89 kg per capita per year.

Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean took the third spot, with 2.55 kg per capita per year.

Fourth and fifth were Saint Lucia in the Caribbean Sea (2.45 kg per capita per year) and Malaysia in Southeast Asia (2.29 kg per capita per year), respectively.

“The study revealed that more than 350,000 tons of plastic waste enter the ocean from the Philippines annually,” read part of the study.

This 350,000-ton figure from the Philippines accounts for 36% of the world’s total plastic waste, according to the study.

The data left the head of the Cagayan de Oro City Local Environment and Natural Resources Office (Clenro), Armen Cuenca, disheartened.

“That is so sad to know,” Clenro chief Armen Cuenca told Rappler on Tuesday, October 10.

In Cagayan de Oro alone, Cuenca pointed out that their data indicate an alarming increase in waste being dumped into the city’s sanitary landfill, which has now reached an average rate of 45,000 cubic meters per month.

The study by Utility Bidder showed the alarming yearly increase in plastic waste entering the world’s oceans, posing a severe threat to marine life.

While the Philippines holds the top rank as a plastic polluter in the study, Utility Bidder cites the country’s efforts to mitigate the likelihood of plastic waste emissions.

Policy approach

In September 2021, the Philippines began implementing an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) program to address environmental concerns related to product packaging and waste. 

EPR is a policy approach that holds producers accountable for their products’ entire life cycle, including disposal and recycling.

In the Philippines, EPR initiatives primarily targeted addressing the growing issue of plastic pollution and enhancing recycling rates.

The key components of the Philippine EPR program included:

• Mandatory reporting – producers and manufacturers were required to report data on the types and quantities of packaging materials they used.
• Financial responsibility – producers were expected to financially contribute to the recycling and disposal of their product packaging materials. This financial obligation aimed to encourage producers to adopt more environmentally friendly packaging and invest in recycling infrastructure.
• Recycling targets – the government established recycling targets for various types of packaging materials, and producers were obligated to meet these targets.
• Waste reduction measures – producers were encouraged to implement measures to reduce the amount of packaging material used in their products, such as using lighter materials and more recyclable options.

Cagayan de Oro’s solid waste problem

In Cagayan de Oro, the possibility of waste emissions into the ocean is of great concern, given that the city’s solid waste has increased by 52% over the past five years.

Based on Clenro’s data, the city’s garbage volume rose from 300,890 to 573,863.30 cubic meters annually, from 2017 to 2022.

To combat the garbage problem, the city council approved the Integrated Solid Waste Management Ordinance (13378-2018) in 2018.

Under this ordinance, Clenro has been tasked to ensure that residents properly dispose of their trash to avoid penalties and sanctions.

Violations under the ordinance include the following:

• The use of plastic cellophane, except for items exempted by the ordinance.
• Littering, which entails disposing of garbage in public places, including cigarette butts.
• Illegal/bulk dumping, which involves discarding trash in non-designated areas, whether public or private.
• Open burning of garbage, including dried leaves.
• Failure to segregate trash.

The ordinance also reminded the city’s 80 barangays to establish materials recovery facilities (MRF) accessible to their constituents.

Clenro’s penalty matrix is as follows:

• Issuing plastic bags carries a penalty of P3,000 per plastic bag issued by the establishment.
• Illegal or bulk dumping results in a fine of P5,000 or three months imprisonment or both.
• Littering, open burning, and unsegregated garbage violations incur fines ranging from P500 to P2,000 or one to five days of community service.

Since 2020, Clenro has taken action against 1,308 violators for using single-use plastic, 127 individuals for littering, 84 people for illegal dumping, 74 individuals for open-pit burning, and 118 violators for dumping unsegregated garbage.

The city has also begun implementing its 10-year solid waste management plan, which aims to reduce the city’s garbage volume. One of the goals is to reduce the monthly garbage volume from 33,000 cubic meters this year to 30,000 cubic meters monthly by 2024 through waste diversion and the construction of recycling facilities.

“We have partnered with UN Habitat for the Healthy Ocean Clean Cities Initiative and World Wide Fund for the Clean Ports Project,” Cuenca said.

This partnership involves activities like organizing waste pickers at the city’s old dumpsite into a cooperative to produce “eco-bricks with laminated plastic as one of the components” and having a plastic densifier for recycling plastics into other products.

Cuenca also said that in the first quarter of 2024, Clenro will be implementing the Trash Trap along Bitan-ag Creek.

“We are also exploring the ultimate solution for our solid waste, which is waste-to-energy,” he said. – Rappler.com

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Water pollution in the Philippines

Three million people in the Philippines put their lives at risk every day by using unsafe water sources . Moreover, another 7 million do not have access to improved sanitation and sanitation services.

According to Water.Org – a global non-profit organization that aims to deliver water and sanitation to the world – although the Philippines’ economy is registering rapid growth, it still faces massive obstacles in terms of access to water and sanitation.

In a country that is registering rapid increases in urbanization, communities are struggling to meet the basic sanitation needs of the incoming new citizens.

Although local government continues to take action to lessen the decline in the quality of water reserves, the country is still among the leading nations in terms of plastic water pollution. The Philippines is home to more than two-thirds of all animal and plant species on our planet and due to water pollution, the country is one of the world’s most threatened biodiversity hotspots.

Defining water pollution

When dangerous chemicals and microorganisms reach waterways, they contaminate bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans. The quality of water thus deteriorates and becomes toxic for both humans and the environment. This is known as water pollution.

Water pollution and biodiversity

Data shows that both biodiversity and the quality of water in the streams that feed into Laguna de Bay – the Philippines’ largest lake – are deteriorating. A significant factor in the country’s declining species diversity is plastic waste which makes its way to the ocean where it is consumed by birds and other sea life.

According to research in the Science Advances journal of the AAAS released in April 2021, the Philippines is home to 28% of the world’s rivers that are polluted by plastic. During the process of degradation, plastic particles acquire new chemical and physical characteristics that may increase the risk of becoming hazardous to living things.

The Philippines is one of the biggest plastic pollutants on the planet, with 0.28 to 0.75 million tons of plastic escaping into the waters each year from coastal locations in Manila Bay together with hundreds of thousands of tons of plastic waste that are dumped in the country’s rivers.

Fishermen have complained that plastics are suffocating the coral reefs which has an impact on the ecosystem as a whole as well as causing a decrease in fish yields.

The 2021 research from Oxford University, Our World in Data , showed that Asian rivers contain 81% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans, with the Philippines accounting for about 30% of that total. In addition, the Pasig River’s share of plastic is over 6%, with the remainder coming from other rivers including Agusan, Jalaur, Pampanga, Rio Grande de Mindanao, Tambo in Pasay, Tullahan, and Zapote.

The 27 km Pasig river that runs through the nation’s capital was once a vital commerce route but the river has now been polluted due to inadequate sewage systems and urbanization. Locals collect rubbish from the banks of the river every morning, filling bags in their never-ending quest to clean up a stream that is also a key source of plastic waste.

In the Philippines’ poorest communities, waste is rarely collected, and sometimes not at all, resulting in unlawful dumping. This waste ultimately seeps into the maritime ecosystem and has detrimental effects on both the fishing industry and environmental tourism.

Environment protection in the Philippines

The government is seeking to stimulate 60% plastic reuse by 2030 and is offering the private sector opportunities for technology transfer and integration in the management of plastic waste.

In 2021, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, in partnership with other federal agencies and commercial organizations, commenced its five-year initiative to bring the Pasig River back to life by making it cleaner with a sustainable river garbage collecting system.

In June 2022, the country’s main environmental authority noted great achievements regarding the water quality in Manila Bay, suggesting that the current bay restoration project that aims to clean up and replenish the local waters so that they are suitable for swimming and other physical enjoyment is showing some success.

The Philippines currently registers the fastest economic development among its ASEAN peers but this rapid development, along with an increasing level of urbanization, is leading to the pollution of waters with toxins coming from plants and farms, as well as tons and tons of plastic, which can all contaminate the soil and seep into water ending up in the world’s oceans. The government is aware of this issue and for several years has been taking action to deal with it by restoring Manila Bay, among other areas, and has ambitious plans to restore rivers across the country.

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