tv documentary essay

Best Documentary Essay Examples & Topics

Watching documentaries is a great way to learn new things. These are films that shape and interpret facts for education and entertainment of their viewers. It has several social functions, which are to record, preserve, and reveal, and persuade. This form of motion films also aims to entertain and educate.

If you are struggling to write a good documentary essay, our experts have combined some helpful tips for you here. So, no need to worry.

First and foremost, you should find a topic . Focus on something you are genuinely passionate about. Think about the cause that matters to you: maybe it’s climate change, slavery, environmental cause, ocean pollution, or perhaps it’s something else. It is essential to find something that speaks to you. This way, you won’t struggle with composing your paper.

You can also find a list of essay topics for your documentary research below, checking our samples. Yet, to pick the right idea, we first need to understand what film types are available.

There are several genres of documentaries:

• Expository documentaries. Such films present objective information with a ubiquitous presence. The filmmaker usually does not appear on the screen.
• Poetic documentaries . They rely heavily on images and music rather than narration. That is to say, there is little verbal communication with the audience.
• Essayistic documentaries. These movies feature an essay-like narration. The filmmaker relies both on speech and on the images to make their point.
• Observational documentaries. They try to demonstrate an objective record of some activity. It almost does not have music and narration and tries to present the event as-it-is.
• Participatory documentaries. The films are the complete opposite of observational ones. The filmmaker is an active participant in the movie. They appear on the screen and communicate the subject.
• Performance documentaries. These movies feature a dramatic performance. It can be a concert, a play, or another performance event recorded in the form of a documentary.
• Interview films. These are the records of a conversation between two or more people. It relies on communication on-screen to deliver the message rather than on images and music.
• Dramatization. This type recreates an event using actors to bring the viewer to the event. Some argue that it is not a form of documentary.
• Mixed documentaries. The films use different modes and techniques. It can combine poetic, expository, interview modes at the same time.
• Animation films. Such movies are standard, too, and their most distinctive feature is the use of animation to present the material.

As for your documentary essay assignment, you can be asked to work with any documentary. Let’s figure out what tasks you will need to fulfill beforehand.

Documentary Review vs. Analysis

Not everyone understands the difference between a movie review and a movie analysis when watching movies and writing essays about the material. Sometimes these two terms are used interchangeably. Nevertheless, when it comes to grading and evaluating the paper, this difference is essential.

• A film review essay is a “consumer-oriented” judgment that aims to recommend (or not) a movie. One can find documentary review essay examples in the newspapers, websites, or online databases.
• An analysis of the film usually offers an interpretation and an evaluation of the movie. Some film theory is generally used as a framework to analyze and interpret the feature.

You can center your documentary essay assignment around not only a specific film but an entire genre of documentaries. You might be asked to write about a specific topic or an aspect of one movie in depth. Let’s try to see how it works!

How to Write a Documentary Essay

When you are asked to write an essay about a documentary, there are expectations. You will need to analyze specific elements in one film or a few.

No matter what your assignment is, we are here to help you nail it! Here is a short guide on how to write a documentary essay:

• Watch the documentary (and take notes) . We highly recommended watching the film several times before you start writing anything. Throughout this process, you should take notes to recall essential elements later on. Schematically express your ideas and arguments.
• Choose your perspective. You need to understand the approach you will be using. However, your position should be supported by the examples and ideas from the film. Search for what others think and say on a similar issue and compare it to your thoughts.
• Pick what to discuss. After that, you need to start collecting the examples and ideas from the movie that support your viewpoint. All these elements should eventually connect to the main focus of your paper. You can try to do some additional research but do not forget to return to the movie continually.
• Outline your essay. The outline will help you stay within the word limit. This way, you’ll structure your thoughts and ideas on the paper before you start your essay. Plus, you will remain close to the intended format while writing.
• Write it! Start with a brief introduction about the documentary and your thesis statement at the end of it. Then, evaluate the film, developing your arguments logically. In your conclusion, restate your position on the matter and list the critical points discussed.

Thank you for reading this article till the very end! We hope you found it helpful. Share this page with those who need our help. For your inspiration, you can check the list of documentary essay examples below.

🏆 Top 10 Documentary Essay Topics

• The roles of documentaries in culture
• The history of documentary film
• Documentary and propaganda
• Documentaries with and without words: compare and contrast
• Narration styles in modern documentaries
• Pseudo-documentary as a genre
• The role of documentary films in education
• Ethnographic film and its role in social science
• Documentary in the era of social-media platforms
• The ethics of documentary film

395 Documentary Essay Examples

The corporation documentary essay: reflection paper on the 2003 movie, “the corporation” a film by mark achbar, jennifer abbott and joel bakan, themes in ava duvernay’s “13th”.

• Words: 1181

Smartest Guys in the Room

• Words: 1969

“The American Factory”: Plot and Issues Portrayed

• Words: 1069

“Sicko” a Documentary by Michael Moore

“factory city: eupa”: how the documentary can be helpful, the century of the self: video summary, the 2008 banking crisis in the documentary “inside job”.

• Words: 1412

“Battle of the Brains: The Case for Multiple Intelligences” by BBCW

Film review “see what i’m saying: the deaf entertainers documentary”, the film “salud” and the cuban healthcare system, “forks over knives” documentary and its influence, “the crooked e: the unshredded truth about enron” film, the documentary “the american nurse” by carolyn jones, the documentary “age 7 in america” by phil joanou, themes in “i am” documentary by tom shadyac, “commanding heights: the battle of world economy” documentary.

• Words: 1842

The Documentary “Supplements and Safety”

The documentary “inequality for all”, “the 11th hour” environmental documentary, the documentary “the human element” by james balog.

• Words: 1740

Hot Coffee Documentary

“capitalism: a love story” by michael moore.

• Words: 1723

Newsom’s The Mask You Live In Documentary Review

Reflection paper: “blood diamonds-the true story” by schmuddelginger, sicko: u.s. health care system issues, the speaking in tongues documentary overview.

• Words: 1396

21st Century Hackers – Documentary Review

Commanding heights – episode iii – documentary, the movie life and debt.

• Words: 1359

The Documentary “Waiting Room”

Mcdonald’s ethics in super-size me documentary, scene analysis from “finding dawn” by christine welsh.

• Words: 1120

“Examined Life”, Cornel West – Summary and Analysis

A girl in the river (2015): facilitating change in the community.

• Words: 1204

“Babel” and “Super Size Me”: Documentaries Analysis

• Words: 2286

HBO Documentary Risky Drinking

What the bleep do we know (2004).

• Words: 3663

The “They Call Us Monsters” Film Analysis

• Words: 1116

“The 13th” Documentary Directed by Ava DuVernay

“born into brothels” documentary analysis, the film baraka and its spiritual reflections, “cracking the code of life” documentary, planet earth in the documentary “pole to pole”.

• Words: 1127

The Documentary “Last Train Home”

• Words: 1385

The Documentary “Taboo: Blood Bonds”

“when the levees broke” by spike lee, documentaries: “baltimore: anatomy of an american city”, “supreme revenge: battle for the court”: documentary analysis.

• Words: 1378

“The Spirit of Crazy Horse”: The PBS Documentary

“ishi: the last yahi” by theodora kroeber, “super size me” documentary by morgan spurlock.

• Words: 1059

“The Game Changers” Documentary by James Cameron

• Words: 1669

“The World According to Monsanto” Documentary

Drug war in “baltimore: anatomy of an american city”, documentary: “the journey of man, a genetic odyssey”, why we fight by eugene jarecki documentary, terms and conditions may apply documentary, inside north korea: michael wood’s documentary.

• Words: 1235

The Documentary “Anthropocene: The Human Epoch”

• Words: 1503

Elizabeth Leiter’s The Abortion Divide Review

• Words: 1023

The Documentary “Murder to Mercy: The Cyntoia Brown Story”

Jobs & technology: “in the age of ai” documentary, “21 up south africa: mandela’s children”, the documentary “devil’s playground” by walker, justice in errol morris’s the thin blue line film.

• Words: 2805

“Thin Blue Line” by Errol Morris

“sun ra: a joyful noise” documentary analysis.

• Words: 1665

The Documentary “The Invisible War”

• Words: 1654

Finding Dawn (2006): Violence Against Indigenous Women

• Words: 1072

Waiting for Superman

Documentary “super size me”, the documentary “documenting hate: charlottesville”, the “kids behind bars” documentary review, polley’s “stories we tell” documentary analysis, ”the mystery of memory” documentary by gray & schwarz.

• Words: 1123

The Documentary “Paris Is Burning” by Jennie Livingston

Documentary “the medicated child” by marcela gaviria, rhetorical devices in america’s opioid crisis documentary, “the house we live in” by california newsreel, “baraka” by ron fricke, “wal-mart: the high cost of low price” by robert greenwald.

• Words: 1047

Documentary Films Concept and Definition

• Words: 1356

Artificial Intelligence in the Documentary “Transcendent Man”

• Words: 1683

The Movie “Color of Fear”

The corporation, a state of mind: film analysis.

• Words: 1200

“The “Running Fence” by Amelia Knight

Reflection on “documenting hate: charlottesville”, the great hack documentary by amer & noujaim.

• Words: 1192

The “Meet the Patels” Documentary by Patel & Patel

“jim crow of the north”: how housing segregation affects people, the “central park five” documentary, documentary review “killer landslides”, the documentary “triumph of the nerds”, “street fight” a film by cory booker, “daughter from danang” a film by gail dolgin, documentaries as a education tool, the documentary ‘the inventor’ by alex gibney, the brazilian documentary “favela rising”, suicide: “the bridge” documentary by e. steele, documentary film definition, “inside job” documentary by charles ferguson, “a day without a mexican” mockumentary by s. arau, “mount everest: into the death zone” documentary, “blackfish” a documentary by gabriela cowperthwaite, the rise of the mammals documentary, the gathering storm film about churchill’s resilience.

• Words: 1436

The Plastic Planet Documentary Analysis

• Words: 1199

“The Corporation” Documentary Analysis

The switch from hell: a short documentary analysis, episode five of “the full swing” documentary.

• Words: 1104

Response to “The Last Colony” Documentary

The age of aids and rise of the killer virus documentaries, the japanese-american internment in world war ii documentary, the documentary “people like us”: reflection, fossil fuel era:”before the flood,” “the story of stuff,” and “rude awakening”, mexican experience in “9500 liberty” documentary, the “slavery by another name” documentary.

How to Write a Documentary Script (Fully Explained)

By: Author Paul Jenkins

Posted on Published: December 11, 2021  - Last updated: July 10, 2023

Categories Documentary , Filmmaking , Storytelling , Writing

What’s the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the term “documentary”? I can almost guarantee it’s not “screenplay.” Unfortunately, when most people think of documentaries, they think of a bunch of footage thrown together in a meaningful order, with voice-overs and music added at the end. In reality, a documentary script needs to be just as compelling and exciting as a script for a feature film. In this post, you’ll learn how to write a script for a documentary in this amazing medium of storytelling.

Documentary Scripts Differ From Drama Scripts

The first thing to know is that although you should aim for your documentary to be every bit as engaging and compelling as any movie, and for its script to reflect that, the way in which documentary scriptwriting works is very different from that done in drama production.

The terms “script” and “screenplay” are often used interchangeably. But most drama screenwriters will tell you that a script is a very specific and structured document, often divided into three “acts” with a beginning, middle, and end.

However, the script for a documentary is often more of a film treatment , often with a beginning, middle, and end, but with a much more open-ended ending. It’s an outline for a film that doesn’t establish every line of dialog, but gives an overview of what’ll or could be in the finished film.

Therefore, a script for a documentary doesn’t have to follow any particular rigid rules.

The process by which you achieve documentary scripts and even the way in which they are formatted goes through several stages, outlined below.

Documentary screenwriting ensures that the filmmaker’s message is clearly conveyed and transforms the raw material into something sophisticated and entertaining for the audience.

A compelling script is one of the most important ingredients in creating something great.

Related: What Is the Purpose of a Documentary

The Right Script for the Right Documentary

There are some types of documentaries that can be scripted much more than others. This is especially true of the so-called “essay films,” which have been very popular with commissioning editors and funders in recent years.

Scripts in certain formats at certain stages of documentary film production are sometimes a desire of producers and commissioning editors, not the actual filmmakers.

Perhaps it’s the very predictability of (and control over) such films that’s so attractive to those who control the money in the film industry.

The type of documentary writing you need to do in fact depends on the kind of documentary you’re making. As the maker of a film, you are its author. As its author, you are also (almost always in documentary) its writer. Your most important responsibility is to ensure that a good story – one that matters – is brought to life in a truthful way on screen.

Some historical films can be heavily scripted from the start because of the nature of the research and evidence.

Observational films and research can’t be scripted in advance like a screenwriter would for a fiction film. Real-life and real discoveries must take over during the filming process as your documentary is being made.

Documentaries often have open endings and go through several drafts that are refined as the filmmaker sees what the footage looks like or gets new ideas or information from interviewees.

Documentary filmmakers know full well that the wrong kind of scripting can limit the possibilities and options in the actual production of a film.

Stories Change While Making a Documentary

When researching and shooting a documentary, it often happens that your understanding of a story – or even the main story you want to focus on – changes in light of what you discover.

It’s a good idea to write down your ideas, but don’t try to write a “script” in the traditional sense.

The best documentaries are shaped and refined when the filmmaker understands and re-understands them. A good script is always a work in progress: it’s not set in stone – and it never should be.

Documentary is about discovery, and the script is just one of the elements that are defined as the filmmaker brings his story to life.

When veteran documentary filmmaker Errol Morris made his multiple award-winning film The Thin Blue Line , he initially intended to make a film about psychiatrist James Grigson, also known as Doctor Death because of his frequent appearances as an expert witness in death penalty trials. After meeting one of the men Grigson helped get into prison, Randall Dale Adams, Morris was convinced of his innocence and the film became an investigation that eventually helped exonerate Adams and convict the real killer.

If Morris had written and stuck rigidly to an initial script, he would never have made the movie.

The Essence of a Documentary Film Script

The best documentaries are shaped and refined as they’re understood and re-understood by the filmmaker. A good script is always a work in progress: it’s not set in stone – and it never should be.

The script is just one of the elements that are defined as the documentary filmmaker brings his story to life. Whereas in drama, the script is core to the success of the film.

Documentary filmmaking is about research and discovery, not determining in advance what’ll happen on camera. You can kill a great film and great story very fast by over-scripting at the wrong stage in the overall process.

That’s not to say you don’t think up scenes – you absolutely do. Just that you don’t force them into a die-cut mold before you’ve even shot the film!

Still, the various stages of the documentary process require different kinds of writing, which we can call a “script format.”

Perhaps confusingly, the documentary script has a different name and format each of these stages:

Outlines and Treatments – the Initial Scripts You Need

In addition to defining the basic idea for the film, an outline and/or documentary treatment will help sell or raise money for the film.

A good outline or treatment clearly describes the story and the approach you’ll take to bring it to the screen. You might draw out the role of the main character in your film with two or three fleshed-out illustrative scenes or even sequences.

The most important task at this stage is to give the film’s backers confidence in the project.

Treatment is more than just a summary of the story and your research so far – it lays out the anticipated scenes and sequences in a way that gives the reader an idea of how the story will play out.

While you can include some imagined (or quoted) dialog in the treatment, most of the work is done by outlining the action and key moments of the scenes you’ll include in the treatment.

Sometimes a selected chronology can be very helpful. In any case, you’ll find that it’s much easier to write the treatment if you’re clear about the sequence of events in your story. The Aeon Timeline app is a great tool to help you with this.

The Shooting Script (Filming Script)

Once you have the funds to proceed to shoot, a shooting script is supposed to help you plan it. It helps you to better plan your ideas.

Usually, a shooting script contains a set of planned sequences and the main elements of each sequence – plot, dialogs (interview dubbing), ideas for the opening credits.

A good shooting script is when all the ideas, concepts, and research are put together in one document that helps you decide who, what, when, and where to shoot.

Sometimes you need to discuss this script with a producer or executive producer before you start shooting. It can be very helpful in planning the budget and logistics at various stages of a shoot or shoots.

It’s also very helpful to share the script with your cinematographer and sound recordist so they can better plan their work.

This way, they can better assess what equipment they’ll need in certain locations and how they’ll need to light and shoot the scene. They’ll also know how to approach the entire film from a technical and artistic standpoint. You can note in the script where you think certain pieces of equipment might be helpful in realizing your vision – for example, if you see a role for a slider, a certain type of lens, or a drone in certain scenes and sequences.

Storyboarding can sometimes be very helpful, but it’s not the same as a movie script, where scenes are “blocked” and rehearsed. It’s more about mapping out the most important sequences on paper and thus in your mind.

Editing Scripts

After sooting, and before starting editing, you make a start on creating the editing script (sometimes called the ‘cutting script’ or ‘paper edit’).

Of all the scripts in documentary production, the edit script is the most important. When you add elements to the script, such as interview clips you choose for a particular sequence or scene, it becomes a ‘paper cut’ or ‘paper edit’.

Documentary films are won or lost in editing. It’s as simple as that.

The better prepared you are for the edit, the better your film will be. The linchpin that often guides editing decisions is the script and the daily updates you make to it.

I’ll show you some specific examples of how I use Scrivener to write my scripts. But first, here are some important principles to keep in mind:

Your editing script may be very similar to the shooting script. Chances are, however, that it’ll be significantly different based on the information you’ve gathered and discovered during the shoot.

Creating the editing script is a process that happens in parallel with logging all the rushes (raw footage) you filmed during the shoot, and especially the interview transcripts you receive. Logging is when you watch all the stuff through and note down (with time-codes) the good stuff.

When creating your editing script, be guided by what you actually have available for editing – not some theoretical construct that you think you can piece together with narration.

For effective editing on paper and for script editing, you need complete transcripts of all interviews and scenes where dialog plays a role. In the past, this was very expensive, and some producers resisted this important step. These days, however, machine transcription is surprisingly good – certainly good enough for creating transcripts suitable for editing and the like.

Documentary Editing and Scripting for Editing Works on Two Levels

Making sense of the basic story.

Sometimes you don’t fully discover the story or the layers within it until you edit. For this reason, documentary filmmakers sometimes use a Sync Assembly or “bout-a-bout” (end to end) approach in the initial editing phase, called the First Assembly.

Referencing the elements you filmed or acquired (e.g., archival film), you build them into the storyline.

Subsequent to the logging phase, this is a way to discover the merits of your material.

You should always keep in mind that the time or effort you spent on getting a shot or scene may not matter at the editing table!

All that matters is whether it’s the right shot or scene for what the edit needs to do at that particular moment. This is a very good reason to work with an editor instead of editing your movies yourself – you need someone whose only interest is in creating the best film, and who won’t be swayed by the production experiences you had to date.

Bringing a dramatic structure to the film

Much like three-dimensional chess – because film involves logic and emotion – film theory doesn’t always serve as a guide for dramatic structure.

Even if you use an inciting incident, a rising plot, complications, a resolution, and so on, sometimes the film structure can only be discovered by moving blocks (sequences) in a very fluid way.

It’s a very good idea to understand film grammar and theory, but also to stay very flexible when it comes to how you arrive at your rough cut. So – do study Blake Snyder, Robert McKee, et al. But don’t make fiction rules your overarching guide.

I’d advise you to have an editing structure – not the same as a developed script – that allows you to stick to your central flow of ideas when you’re editing the film and then guide it through the rough cut. Otherwise, you can very easily get lost in the details.

That’s exactly why Scrivener is so useful: it allows you to focus on a scene and quickly rearrange and organize the scenes and even the flow within a scene. I go into details on how I use it, below.

In my opinion, you should resist the invitation – or temptation – to create a script in Final Draft or side-by-side format: you’ll end up fiddling with formatting and all sorts of nonsense instead of doing the work that matters – getting the flow of ideas onto the screen.

Remember, your attention needs to be on what’s happening on the screen, the story, and the flow of ideas – not become some kind of quasi-screenwriter buried in his or her laptop.

Daily Script Updates

You will need to spend a lot of time finding relevant parts of the interview sync as your edit progresses.

My favorite way to do this is to prepare these parts of the dub the night before or early morning before editing. Precisely to avoid the buried-in-laptop syndrome identified above.

And then I can focus on the actual flow of ideas in the edit. Otherwise, you become an assistant editor: a path that can destroy a film.

The right relationship between a director and an editor is one of equals. A good documentary editor is a treasure who can bring great creative and artistic value to a production. This includes structural and narrative advice.

That said, you should always remember that as the director, you’ve to make the final decisions. If the film goes wrong, only one person is to blame.

If a film does well and wins awards, you should praise the other person in the editing room – your editor – who played an important role in making it happen!

Narration Scripts

A narration script can take several forms during the course of an edit.

In the beginning, when you’re trying to clarify the structure of the rough cut, it’s likely that you’ll record a variety of small pieces of narration script quickly so that the scenes make sense when you review and play them back.

They also help the editor edit the footage to make a scene or sequence work, even while doing the rough cut.

Later, you’ll begin to develop a cohesive narration (commentary) script for the entire film. You’ll usually record an updated commentary just before your rough cut is screened to help viewers see the rough cut.

After the final cut and, of course, during post-production (grading, mixing, etc.), you’ll write a final script that will be recorded either by you or a professional voice actor or actress.

This final script will be much more polished and should take full account of what’s happening on screen.

Write to Picture. Always.

The important thing to remember is that the narrative should follow the image, not the other way around.

Movies are primarily a visual medium, even though the sound is an important factor in the success of almost all films.

The narration is there to guide you through the film, not to have “radio with pictures.”

That’s why you should resist uneducated or inadequately experienced people trying to force a full-blown script to which pictures are then edited.

Doing so will result in a boring movie at best and a disaster at worst. You can ruin a film very quickly, even in the final stages of rough editing or even fine editing, if you let the narrative monster.

One of the problems is that a lot of people you encounter as a documentary filmmaker – including decision-makers – are incapable of watching a true rough cut. So they resort to what they’re capable of – following an audio guide through the material.

That’s one of the reasons why filmmakers end up writing endless narration too early, and films are ruined.

Make sure your narration serves the film – not the other way around.

The Devil Is in the Details

Here’s a tip: The devil is in the details. This is where good research can go into a script: just the right information at the right time to better understand what’s happening on screen.

Most documentaries need narration for this reason and attempting to resist narration for purely esthetic reasons is nonsensical.

There are some documentaries that do without narrative altogether, but they’re rare. The current Formula One documentary series Drive to Survive is a case in point: it uses interviews, real-world dialog (some of which is contrived), commentary from the racetrack (which is important to the films because it fills in the information gaps that would otherwise have to be narrated by the documentary), and subtitles to carry the films.

To see how a master storyteller uses his films, check out one of Werner Herzog’s films. Grizzly Man would be a good place to start!

Post Production Scripts

When the film is completed in post-production, the department or production manager for a film usually hires someone to write a full post-production script.

In terms of format, it’s similar to a film script – it serves to present the entire film in screenplay form, complete with accurate interview dubs and descriptions of the plot, locations, archives used, music, and so on.

Tips for Creating a Script for a Documentary Film or Short Film Script

See the wood for the trees.

First of all, it’s extremely important to “see the wood for the trees”, i.e. to always keep in mind the structure of your film and its central ideas and the core documentary idea – the so-called “controlling idea”.

You need to keep your subject matter front and center in your attention, on the screen, and on the page! This is true even when telling a short story, and constructing a short film script.

Once you get into the detailed and exhausting work of shooting and editing, it’s easy to lose sight of the most important things your film needs to do.

Use Mind Mapping Alongside Scripting

A big part of the solution is to use mind mapping in combination with your script. Even with a short script.

A mind map gives you an instant overview of the structure, allows you to move structural ideas around very quickly, and lets you expand or reduce levels of detail.

The two apps I use almost daily are iThoughts and TheBrain. Both work for Mac and Windows and are long-established and robust.

I use them to map out ideas and connections in a mind map and then incorporate them into my writing. Then, as ideas come up while writing, I transfer them back to the mind map. And so on.

Scrivener as the Best Documentary Film Scripting Solution

I’ll put it bluntly: If you’re writing a screenplay, you need Scrivener as your screenwriting software. It’s a long-established solution for successful writers in fiction, nonfiction, and screenplay.

The reason is that there’s no other program that’s as flexible and powerful when it comes to making your way through the sometimes quite complex screenplay scenarios.

Elements in your scripts

The following elements are likely to appear in a video script for a documentary:

• Interview sync (in vision)
• Interview sync (voiceover)
• Archive footage
• Archive photos
• Actuality (footage you shot on location)
• B-roll (illustrative footage you shoot on location)
• Archival footage

Scrivener’s corkboard

The classic Hollywood technique was to hang index cards on a cork wall – and for good reason. You need to be able to move elements, scenes, etc. around quickly and flexibly so that it makes immediate sense when you look at it.

Check out how a scene can be rendered in Scrivener (it’s from my film The Warning ).

This scene is in a relatively late stage of editing. I’ve color-coded the different elements (reality, commentary, interview dubbing, etc.).

On the left is the entire sequence of the movie – in the Scrivener “binder”. Each element – interview sync, commentary, stock footage, etc. – has its own “document” in the binder.

When you select a binder in the draft (the entire script), that binder can be displayed in a “cork” view (in the central panel) where each document is displayed as a separate tab.

When you select the entire draft, the subfolders and sub-sub folders (which can correspond to sequences and scenes) are displayed as cards in the cork panel – you can then view them to learn the details they contain.

The fact that the Corkboard can display the most important scenes and sequences in the movie is worth its weight in gold. Each scene heading or element identifier is displayed at the top of each card, in bold.

On the right side, you’ll find the “scrivenings” in Scrivener-speak. These are the complete text versions of the elements.

Rapid re-ordering

If I decide to swap the order of two parts, I can do so in one of the three fields, and the order will automatically and immediately appear in the other two fields.

The value of this feature when plotting and editing are hard to underestimate. It’s a very fluid and quick way to keep the script on track during editing and to edit possible sequences within scenes and sequences on paper before editing.

You can also display one part of your script on the right and another part on the left for comparison. If you want, you can also assign “labels” to individual items to help you find or filter them – this can be very useful if, for example, you only want to see the commentaries and nothing else. Or all the interview syncs, one after another.

There’s a lot more to say about this, but trust me, it’s much better than scripting and customizing in Word or Google Docs.

Side-by-side template

If you want to create a script for a documentary at a later date, you can do that. Scrivener has a template built in to help you. Some TV stations and broadcasters insist on having such a template. Especially for a TV show format or series.

Index card synopses

The kicker for me is that Scrivener allows you to create a summary for each index card in the Corkboard and display them all at the click of a button.

Or Scrivener will automatically generate summaries based on the content of each document in the binder. You can even assign images to each card, so you can create a traditional storyboard in Scrivener if you want.

Script Follows Structure

My final piece of advice on this topic is to make sure your script follows structure. Always.

Don’t let people who don’t know how to put together a documentary (because they lack the necessary experience) push you into tinkering with details before you have a handle on the structure of your film.

Professional editors and others understand this very well.

You can go over your story before writing the script, which means you write down the entire story as it comes to mind.

Usually, though, it’s like this. I find it makes more sense to create a good chronology (I use Aeon Timeline) for reference, and then mind map out the story and how I want to tell it before using Scrivener.

• 1-800-611-FILM
• Documentary Filmmaking

How To Write A Documentary Script

From eye-opening films like Blackfish (2013) to emotional narratives told in movies like Bowling for Columbine (2002), documentaries have the power to captivate and showcase the brilliance of humanity when crafted with care. Every director and producer has their own unique approach to creating a documentary script and finding your voice as a filmmaker can be an exciting and liberating experience for those new to the field.

However, depending on the subject matter, it can be challenging to get started on a script. That’s why having a well-established system can help get you to the finish line.

How to Write a Documentary Script

While there’s no set formula for writing a documentary script , there are best practices that can make the process as seamless as possible. Here are some of our favorite tips for writing a compelling documentary script.

1. Find a Story You’re Passionate About

Why a documentary? What are you hoping to convey? Why are you the perfect person to tell this story? These are all questions you answer in a pitch in order to be green-lit by producers and executive producers. However, it’s important to first answer them for yourself. The answers can help you find a story that you’re truly passionate about, which will be worth the long process of making a documentary. Once you’ve answered these questions, you can start the difficult task of researching your material, finding the story, and creating a script.

Recently, for instance, NYFA welcomed Ukrainian documentary filmmakers who discussed filming in the conflict back home in their country. The filmmakers discussed why they were suited to tell their own story, how it benefits the audience, and the crystal clear message they hope to share with international viewers.

2. Research, Research, Research

During the pre-production phase of making a documentary, research is crucial, as it serves as the foundation for your script. It’s common for others to have already explored the topic you’re working on, so it’s important to dive deeper and get a new angle. If you’re looking for experts on the topic, one way to find them is to search for books and then contact the authors. They can provide important background information and fact-checking or even become on-camera interviewees who enhance the credibility of your film. Their input is crucial in creating the structure of your documentary, which you can fill in with story details as you develop your outline.

3. Blueprint Your Documentary

This is the time to organize and plan how the story will be transmitted to your audience. This can be an outline most commonly expressed in a set of “sequences.” These are detailed scenes to show how the film may play out. When you have this sequence outline clear, shooting the frame is much easier because you already know what you want. This sequence outline follows the natural narrative spine of storytelling , which is broken into acts that culminate in the overall message that you are trying to convey. There may be some tweaking, but the sequence outline is a guide.

4. Write the Script

The first column is optional and is used by some filmmakers as a guide to the arc of the narrative. Video and Audio columns are standard, and they are formatted so that the visuals line up with the audio (interview, narration, music, etc.) that plays over them.

Once you have collected your research, data, and interviews, only then can you write the script. Without research, it would be impossible to conceive what an interviewee is going to say and how that ties into your message. Once you have all of the facts and materials, then you can sit down and write the script and voice-overs. As a tip: work backward. It is one of the best ways how to write a documentary script.

5. Engage Your Viewer

To truly captivate your audience, it’s important to establish a connection between them and your documentary. One effective way to achieve this is by focusing on protagonists with captivating personal stories that can truly engage your audience. By tapping into the emotions of your viewers, you can encourage them to open up and better understand the complexity of the issue at hand.

Ultimately, your goal should be to transport your viewers to another world, to provide them with fresh perspectives and new knowledge, and to inspire and move them through the power of your storytelling.

6. Commit to Your Message

It’s crucial to consider the message that you want your documentary to convey. When your theme is clearly defined, the process of putting the entire script and production together becomes much smoother. This clarity of message can help your audience connect with your documentary, regardless of whether or not they agree with your point of view. At the very least, your film will leave them with something to think about and consider moving forward.

As a director, writer, or producer, it’s important to remain flexible and open to the story unfolding in ways you may not have originally anticipated.

7. Finesse Your Project

It’s important to be thorough and take the time to craft a script that truly reflects the message you want to convey and the story you want to tell. Rewriting is often necessary as you continue to refine your message and ensure accuracy in your facts. If you’re using a narrator, for example, you may need to adjust the script to fit their style.

Remember, documentaries aren’t just about observing humanity – they’re an invitation to explore our deepest nature, what drives us, what brings us joy, and what makes us feel sorrow. They showcase real people dealing with real, powerful issues that strike at the very core of our being. As a documentary filmmaker, you must reflect those deep, moving messages in your writing and capture your audience’s emotions. By doing so, you can create a truly impactful and unforgettable documentary.  

Bring Your Documentary to Life at NYFA

Want to learn more about creating an excellent documentary? Request information today about NYFA’s upcoming documentary filmmaking programs.

10 Tips for Writing a Documentary Script (Complete Beginners)

Documentary films can require a unique approach, different from that of the traditional fictional script for your conventional feature film or TV show. With documentaries on almost every platform and channel, they are an increasingly compelling insight into topics and places we wouldn’t have had access to a few years ago.

What is a Documentary?

The term ‘documentary’ has evolved within the film and television world over the years. Broadly, such a screenwork ‘documents’ reality. It is a work of non-fiction. Usually, they will focus on a specific topic from an alternative angle or perspective, which the filmmaker is often eager to tell.

This is because it is either a topic remarkably close to their heart or one they feel is not being fully explored in the media. Documentary makers use a combination of film, photographs, voiceover, and interviews, all involving real people and events, to convey a message, point of view or experience to their audiences.

Most documentaries range from thirty to one hundred and twenty minutes and can be shown in movie theatres or television. With the continued development of the internet and streaming sites, documentaries can be found in all lengths and formats.

Documentary Examples

The most famous documentaries in recent years include Harry & Meghan (Garbus, 2022), Tiger King (Goode, 2020), Louis Theroux (Various, 1998-Present) and They Shall Not Grow Old (Jackson, 2018). All of these encompass the truth and experiences of specific people or groups.

Alternatively, documentaries can also focus on broader global issues affecting humanity and nature. For example, films such as Oceans (Perrin, 2010), March of the Penguins (Jacquet, 2005) and The Blue Planet (Fothergill, 2001) all highlight the environmental impact of modern life on the natural world.

Keen to try your hand at writing a documentary script and highlighting a topic close to your heart? Let us dive into our top ten tips for writing a documentary script.

We have divided our tips into ‘before’ and ‘after’ shooting. Documentary scripts are different from traditional film and television scripts that are purely fictional.

Before Shooting

1. find your story.

Like any creative project, the subject of your documentary must be something you are passionate about; there is no use in researching and discussing something you are not interested in. If you are not interested, then neither will your audience.

Audiences should be at the forefront of your mind throughout the planning process. Is there a specific group of people you are making this documentary for? How will this documentary impact them specifically?

Do not finalize your documentary topic until you have asked these crucial questions.

Are you stuck on finding a killer idea for your documentary? Click here for 9 Creative Ideas to Start Your Next Script

Are you a beginner in the world of documentary writing and looking for a reliable tool to help you bring your vision to life? Look no further than Celtx! Celtx is a powerful and user-friendly software that can assist you in crafting a professional-quality documentary script.

2. Know Facts from Fiction

Before you start planning the structure of your documentary, the first thing to be understood is that documentary films are securely founded in fact and not fiction. As Das outlines, documentaries tell stories of “real events, real issues, real conflict, real people and real emotions.” The raw reality is the aim of the game.

Ensure that the topic you are exploring in your documentary is firmly secured in reality; the message you are conveying is easy to follow and understand; and of course it needs to be credible.

3. Research Your Subject

Therefore, you must conduct thorough and accurate research into your chosen subject to ensure you are not misleading your audience. You will need to delve deeper than you may first think, as it is likely your topic has been researched before in one form or another. Consult experts in the field, and use reliable and proven sources.

For example, we encourage you to approach credible authors and scholars to discuss their findings and your own. They may be able to provide a different angle or suggest something you had not considered before. Similarly, if a previous documentary exists that you wish to consult, by all means, approach the filmmaker. They could also give advice on the documentary-making process too! Bonus!

All input from your research and any experts you subsequently approach will help you develop a ‘blueprint’ for your documentary.

4. Prepare a Proposal

Proposals are a common form of fundraising for the making of the documentary. However, when you’re first starting out, they can be a great way of organizing and linking together your ideas.

Documentary proposals often include information on your intended audience, your planned storytelling approach, and a budget plan. Considering your style and tone is excellent to plan too; will it be a fast-paced documentary jumping between sequences, or will it be slower moving with longer shots?

If you are not too sure about the style of your documentary just yet, watch some existing ones. Seek inspiration from those in a similar topic vein to your own. Consider whether you want to emanate something similar or turn things on their head. Whatever you decide, make sure you can explain it in detail within your proposal.

Filmmaking in all its forms is a business, so it is advisable to have finances in mind. First, consider the overall picture of costs, for example, equipment hire, crew hire, number of shoot days etc.

When writing a proposal, even if for your eyes only at this stage, you must be as thorough as possible in envisioning your documentary. If you do eventually send your proposal out to prospective directors and producers, they will want to know every detail. Therefore, it pays to get ahead of the game!

5. Create a Blueprint

It is a widely debated issue in the screenwriting industry as to whether a screenplay is a mere blueprint of the movie to be layered upon or as Aaltonen explains, is seen “more holistically, as dramaturgical thinking runs through the entire filmmaking process” in modern times.

However, when it comes to the documentary script, especially when you are outlining a hand before you begin shooting, it is a mere blueprint of what you are about to film. Therefore, think of it as a ‘shooting’ script.

So why is it just a blueprint at this point? Unlike their fictional film counterpart, documentaries need to be flexible as they do not have the same stringent guidelines. This is because they are shot in the real world, which can never be scripted or controlled. Overall, this is what makes documentary-making exciting as well as challenging.

What you can control is how the story of your documentary will play out to your audience. Usually, you can present this as a set of detailed scenes or sequences suggesting how the film will be presented. Such an outline will be broken into the traditional three-act structure.

Why? Well, you are still trying to tell a story, and the three-act formula is a proven way of doing this, whether fictional or non-fictional. Of course, as with any screenplay, you will need to make changes, but these sequences will act as your guiding light throughout the process.

To support you with your changes, we recommend dividing your script into two columns: video and audio, so you can clearly keep track of both as you work.

6. Tell a Story

Despite the non-fiction nature of a documentary, you still need to tell a good, compelling story .

As we have discussed, the three-act structure is an excellent guide to planning your documentary: a robust and gripping beginning, informative middle, and thought-provoking ending.

The Beginning

The opening minutes of your documentary should include an audiovisual hook demanding the audience’s Attention. Then, much like an academic essay, the beginning should outline the message of your documentary and what you are looking for the audience to take away from it.

The inciting incident is a crucial element, which rocks the boat and makes your audience sit up and listen.

Prepare for the most challenging section of your documentary: the middle. The key to nailing the mid-section is the intention, bolstering the tone and subject of the documentary overall.

Each sequence you include in the mid-section must have slightly different messaging, which again feeds into the idea you presented to the audience at the beginning. You should gradually release information, ultimately persuading the viewer.

Das discusses the options of using an open and closed ending to a documentary. For example, if you choose to tie up all loose ends within your documentary and answer all the questions raised, you will have a closed ending.

If, however, you wish to leave your audience with unanswered questions, this would be an open ending. Das warns that this style of end “relies heavily on audience imagination to fill in the gaps,” and you must give them the resources to do that within the body of your documentary.

Whichever you decide, ensure you give the audience an ending they will remember and feel satisfied with.

Once you have your completed blueprint, it is time to start shooting!

After Shooting

Once you have completed your shoot, it is time to piece your footage together and thus move on to a final script.

7. Transcribe Footage

If you include interviews or improvised voiceovers in your documentary, make sure you transcribe it into a log. Yes, this task will take some time, but it will be fulfilling. In addition, it will allow you to organize and categorize sections of your script.

Include any speech in the audio column of your shooting script, editing your blueprint as you go.

8. Be Ruthless

The spontaneity of documentary making when out filming means that it can be amazingly easy to end up with a lot of footage that does not match up to your intended message. Now is the time to cut it!

Remember, keeping your audience engaged and on board with your documentary’s intention is critical.

It may be the most beautiful footage in the history of documentaries but save it for the deleted scenes or your social media pages.

9. Pay Attention to the Details

A similarity that documentaries share with traditional film and television scripts is rewriting. However, when it comes to voiceovers and narration within your film, these do not always support your visual footage in the best way. Or perhaps you misinterpreted a piece of your research, resulting in the wrong facts being included.

The beauty of rewrites is that you can make them post-shoot. But, of course, be mindful of the budget available if you are employing narrators or voiceover artists, as you may have to pay them to re-record.

10. Fact Check as You Go

You may have conducted the most credible research imaginable, but there is always the possibility that a fact may become irrelevant or be proven false.

Throughout your creative process, review the information you are including. Is it accurate? Is it credible? Does it originate from an authentic and reliable source? Time well spent to ensure no one is going to catch you out!

Once you have your completed documentary script, it is time to consider your facts, video, audio, and rewrites. Now edit your footage and voiceover to piece together your final cut.

Remember, there is no absolute formula to documentary filmmaking. Keep in mind the story and message you are conveying and the credibility of the sources from which you are drawing. Finally, choose a topic you are genuinely passionate about, and run with it!

Good luck out there, documentary makers!

Natasha is a UK-based freelance screenwriter and script editor with a love for sci-fi. In 2022 she recently placed in the Screenwriters' Network Short Film Screenplay Competition and the Golden Short Film Festivals. When not at her desk, you'll find her at the theater, or walking around the English countryside (even in the notorious British weather)

View all posts

You may also like

Spec scripts uncovered: what they are and why..., what is third person point of view in..., plot outline techniques: how to structure your story..., montage script format: how to write visually compelling sequences, flashback screenplay techniques: mastering time in storytelling, beat sheets: crafting your screenplay structure .

cephalic presentation types

Appointments at mayo clinic.

• Pregnancy week by week
• Fetal presentation before birth

The way a baby is positioned in the uterus just before birth can have a big effect on labor and delivery. This positioning is called fetal presentation.

Babies twist, stretch and tumble quite a bit during pregnancy. Before labor starts, however, they usually come to rest in a way that allows them to be delivered through the birth canal headfirst. This position is called cephalic presentation. But there are other ways a baby may settle just before labor begins.

Following are some of the possible ways a baby may be positioned at the end of pregnancy.

Head down, face down

When a baby is head down, face down, the medical term for it is the cephalic occiput anterior position. This the most common position for a baby to be born in. With the face down and turned slightly to the side, the smallest part of the baby's head leads the way through the birth canal. It is the easiest way for a baby to be born.

Head down, face up

When a baby is head down, face up, the medical term for it is the cephalic occiput posterior position. In this position, it might be harder for a baby's head to go under the pubic bone during delivery. That can make labor take longer.

Most babies who begin labor in this position eventually turn to be face down. If that doesn't happen, and the second stage of labor is taking a long time, a member of the health care team may reach through the vagina to help the baby turn. This is called manual rotation.

In some cases, a baby can be born in the head-down, face-up position. Use of forceps or a vacuum device to help with delivery is more common when a baby is in this position than in the head-down, face-down position. In some cases, a C-section delivery may be needed.

Frank breech

When a baby's feet or buttocks are in place to come out first during birth, it's called a breech presentation. This happens in about 3% to 4% of babies close to the time of birth. The baby shown below is in a frank breech presentation. That's when the knees aren't bent, and the feet are close to the baby's head. This is the most common type of breech presentation.

If you are more than 36 weeks into your pregnancy and your baby is in a frank breech presentation, your health care professional may try to move the baby into a head-down position. This is done using a procedure called external cephalic version. It involves one or two members of the health care team putting pressure on your belly with their hands to get the baby to roll into a head-down position.

If the procedure isn't successful, or if the baby moves back into a breech position, talk with a member of your health care team about the choices you have for delivery. Most babies in a frank breech position are born by planned C-section.

Complete and incomplete breech

A complete breech presentation, as shown below, is when the baby has both knees bent and both legs pulled close to the body. In an incomplete breech, one or both of the legs are not pulled close to the body, and one or both of the feet or knees are below the baby's buttocks. If a baby is in either of these positions, you might feel kicking in the lower part of your belly.

If you are more than 36 weeks into your pregnancy and your baby is in a complete or incomplete breech presentation, your health care professional may try to move the baby into a head-down position. This is done using a procedure called external cephalic version. It involves one or two members of the health care team putting pressure on your belly with their hands to get the baby to roll into a head-down position.

If the procedure isn't successful, or if the baby moves back into a breech position, talk with a member of your health care team about the choices you have for delivery. Many babies in a complete or incomplete breech position are born by planned C-section.

When a baby is sideways — lying horizontal across the uterus, rather than vertical — it's called a transverse lie. In this position, the baby's back might be:

• Down, with the back facing the birth canal.
• Sideways, with one shoulder pointing toward the birth canal.
• Up, with the hands and feet facing the birth canal.

Although many babies are sideways early in pregnancy, few stay this way when labor begins.

If your baby is in a transverse lie during week 37 of your pregnancy, your health care professional may try to move the baby into a head-down position. This is done using a procedure called external cephalic version. External cephalic version involves one or two members of your health care team putting pressure on your belly with their hands to get the baby to roll into a head-down position.

If the procedure isn't successful, or if the baby moves back into a transverse lie, talk with a member of your health care team about the choices you have for delivery. Many babies who are in a transverse lie are born by C-section.

If you're pregnant with twins and only the twin that's lower in the uterus is head down, as shown below, your health care provider may first deliver that baby vaginally.

Then, in some cases, your health care team may suggest delivering the second twin in the breech position. Or they may try to move the second twin into a head-down position. This is done using a procedure called external cephalic version. External cephalic version involves one or two members of the health care team putting pressure on your belly with their hands to get the baby to roll into a head-down position.

Your health care team may suggest delivery by C-section for the second twin if:

• An attempt to deliver the baby in the breech position is not successful.
• You do not want to try to have the baby delivered vaginally in the breech position.
• An attempt to move the baby into a head-down position is not successful.
• You do not want to try to move the baby to a head-down position.

In some cases, your health care team may advise that you have both twins delivered by C-section. That might happen if the lower twin is not head down, the second twin has low or high birth weight as compared to the first twin, or if preterm labor starts.

• Landon MB, et al., eds. Normal labor and delivery. In: Gabbe's Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. 8th ed. Elsevier; 2021. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed May 19, 2023.
• Holcroft Argani C, et al. Occiput posterior position. https://www.updtodate.com/contents/search. Accessed May 19, 2023.
• Frequently asked questions: If your baby is breech. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/if-your-baby-is-breech. Accessed May 22, 2023.
• Hofmeyr GJ. Overview of breech presentation. https://www.updtodate.com/contents/search. Accessed May 22, 2023.
• Strauss RA, et al. Transverse fetal lie. https://www.updtodate.com/contents/search. Accessed May 22, 2023.
• Chasen ST, et al. Twin pregnancy: Labor and delivery. https://www.updtodate.com/contents/search. Accessed May 22, 2023.
• Cohen R, et al. Is vaginal delivery of a breech second twin safe? A comparison between delivery of vertex and non-vertex second twins. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 2021; doi:10.1080/14767058.2021.2005569.
• Marnach ML (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. May 31, 2023.

Products and Services

• A Book: Obstetricks
• A Book: Mayo Clinic Guide to a Healthy Pregnancy
• 3rd trimester pregnancy
• Fetal development: The 3rd trimester
• Overdue pregnancy
• Pregnancy due date calculator
• Prenatal care: 3rd trimester

Mayo Clinic does not endorse companies or products. Advertising revenue supports our not-for-profit mission.

• Opportunities

Mayo Clinic Press

Check out these best-sellers and special offers on books and newsletters from Mayo Clinic Press .

• Mayo Clinic on Incontinence - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Incontinence
• The Essential Diabetes Book - Mayo Clinic Press The Essential Diabetes Book
• Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic on Hearing and Balance
• FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment - Mayo Clinic Press FREE Mayo Clinic Diet Assessment
• Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book - Mayo Clinic Press Mayo Clinic Health Letter - FREE book
• Healthy Lifestyle

Your gift holds great power – donate today!

Make your tax-deductible gift and be a part of the cutting-edge research and care that's changing medicine.

Obstetric and Newborn Care I

10.02 key terms related to fetal positions.

a. “Lie” of an Infant.

Lie refers to the position of the spinal column of the fetus in relation to the spinal column of the mother. There are two types of lie, longitudinal and transverse. Longitudinal indicates that the baby is lying lengthwise in the uterus, with its head or buttocks down. Transverse indicates that the baby is lying crosswise in the uterus.

b. Presentation/Presenting Part.

Presentation refers to that part of the fetus that is coming through (or attempting to come through) the pelvis first.

(1) Types of presentations (see figure 10-1). The vertex or cephalic (head), breech, and shoulder are the three types of presentations. In vertex or cephalic, the head comes down first. In breech, the feet or buttocks comes down first, and last–in shoulder, the arm or shoulder comes down first. This is usually referred to as a transverse lie.

(2) Percentages of presentations.

(a) Head first is the most common-96 percent.

(b) Breech is the next most common-3.5 percent.

(c) Shoulder or arm is the least common-5 percent.

(3) Specific presentation may be evaluated by several ways.

(a) Abdominal palpation-this is not always accurate.

(b) Vaginal exam–this may give a good indication but not infallible.

(c) Ultrasound–this confirms assumptions made by previous methods.

(d) X-ray–this confirms the presentation, but is used only as a last resort due to possible harm to the fetus as a result of exposure to radiation.

c. Attitude.

This is the degree of flexion of the fetus body parts (body, head, and extremities) to each other. Flexion is resistance to the descent of the fetus down the birth canal, which causes the head to flex or bend so that the chin approaches the chest.

(1) Types of attitude (see figure 10-2).

(a) Complete flexion. This is normal attitude in cephalic presentation. With cephalic, there is complete flexion at the head when the fetus “chin is on his chest.” This allows the smallest cephalic diameter to enter the pelvis, which gives the fewest mechanical problems with descent and delivery.

(b) Moderate flexion or military attitude. In cephalic presentation, the fetus head is only partially flexed or not flexed. It gives the appearance of a military person at attention. A larger diameter of the head would be coming through the passageway.

(c) Poor flexion or marked extension. In reference to the fetus head, it is extended or bent backwards. This would be called a brow presentation. It is difficult to deliver because the widest diameter of the head enters the pelvis first. This type of cephalic presentation may require a C/Section if the attitude cannot be changed.

(d) Hyperextended. In reference to the cephalic position, the fetus head is extended all the way back. This allows a face or chin to present first in the pelvis. If there is adequate room in the pelvis, the fetus may be delivered vaginally.

(2) Areas to look at for flexion.

(a) Head-discussed in previous paragraph, 10-2c(1).

(b) Thighs-flexed on the abdomen.

(c) Knees-flexed at the knee joints.

(d) Arches of the feet-rested on the anterior surface of the legs.

(e) Arms-crossed over the thorax.

(3) Attitude of general flexion. This is when all of the above areas are flexed appropriately as described.

d. Station.

This refers to the depth that the presenting part has descended into the pelvis in relation to the ischial spines of the mother’s pelvis. Measurement of the station is as follows:

(1) The degree of advancement of the presenting part through the pelvis is measured in centimeters.

(2) The ischial spines is the dividing line between plus and minus stations.

(3) Above the ischial spines is referred to as -1 to -5, the numbers going higher as the presenting part gets higher in the pelvis (see figure10-3).

(4) The ischial spines is zero (0) station.

(5) Below the ischial spines is referred to +1 to +5, indicating the lower the presenting part advances.

e. Engagement.

This refers to the entrance of the presenting part of the fetus into the true pelvis or the largest diameter of the presenting part into the true pelvis. In relation to the head, the fetus is said to be engaged when it reaches the midpelvis or at a zero (0) station. Once the fetus is engaged, it (fetus) does not go back up. Prior to engagement occurring, the fetus is said to be “floating” or ballottable.

f. Position.

This is the relationship between a predetermined point of reference or direction on the presenting part of the fetus to the pelvis of the mother.

(1) The maternal pelvis is divided into quadrants.

(a) Right and left side, viewed as the mother would.

(b) Anterior and posterior. This is a line cutting the pelvis in the middle from side to side. The top half is anterior and the bottom half is posterior.

(c) The quadrants never change, but sometimes it is confusing because the student or physician’s viewpoint changes.

NOTE: Remember that when you are describing the quadrants, view them as the mother would.

(2) Specific points on the fetus.

(a) Cephalic or head presentation.

1 Occiput (O). This refers to the Y sutures on the top of the head.

2 Brow or fronto (F). This refers to the diamond sutures or anterior fontanel on the head.

3 Face or chin presentation (M). This refers to the mentum or chin.

(b) Breech or butt presentation.

1 Sacrum or coccyx (S). This is the point of reference.

2 Breech birth is associated with a higher perinatal mortality.

(c) Shoulder presentation.

1 This would be seen with a transverse lie.

2. Scapula (Sc) or its upper tip, the acromion (A) would be used for the point of reference.

(3) Coding of positions.

(a) Coding simplifies explaining the various positions.

1 The first letter of the code tells which side of the pelvis the fetus reference point is on (R for right, L for left).

2 The second letter tells what reference point on the fetus is being used (Occiput-O, Fronto-F, Mentum-M, Breech-S, Shoulder-Sc or A).

3 The last letter tells which half of the pelvis the reference point is in (anterior-A, posterior-P, transverse or in the middle-T).

(b) Each presenting part has the possibility of six positions. They are normally recognized for each position–using “occiput” as the reference point.

1 Left occiput anterior (LOA).

2 Left occiput posterior (LOP).

3 Left occiput transverse (LOT).

4 Right occiput anterior (ROA).

5. Right occiput posterior (ROP).

6 Right occiput transverse (ROT).

(c) A transverse position does not use a first letter and is not the same as a transverse lie or presentation.

1 Occiput at sacrum (O.S.) or occiput at posterior (O.P.).

2 Occiput at pubis (O.P.) or occiput at anterior (O.A.).

(4) Types of breech presentations (see figure10-4).

(a) Complete or full breech. This involves flexion of the fetus legs. It looks like the fetus is sitting in a tailor fashion. The buttocks and feet appear at the vaginal opening almost simultaneously.

A–Complete. B–Frank. C–Incomplete.

(b) Frank and single breech. The fetus thighs are flexed on his abdomen. His legs are against his trunk and feet are in his face (foot-in-mouth posture). This is the most common and easiest breech presentation to deliver.

(c) Incomplete breech. The fetus feet or knees will appear first. His feet are labeled single or double footing, depending on whether 1 or 2 feet appear first.

(5) Observations about positions (see figure 10-5).

(a) LOA and ROA positions are the most common and permit relatively easy delivery.

(b) LOP and ROP positions usually indicate labor may be longer and harder, and the mother will experience severe backache.

(c) Knowing positions will help you to identify where to look for FHT’s.

1 Breech. This will be upper R or L quad, above the umbilicus.

2 Vertex. This will be lower R or L quad, below the umbilicus.

(d) An occiput in the posterior quadrant means that you will feel lumpy fetal parts, arms and legs (see figure 10-5 A). If delivered in that position, the infant will come out looking up.

(e) An occiput in the anterior quadrant means that you will feel a more smooth back (see figure 10-5 B). If delivered in that position, the infant will come out looking down at the floor.

Distance Learning for Medical and Nursing Professionals

• Getting Pregnant
• Registry Builder
• Baby Products
• Birth Clubs
• See all in Community
• Ovulation Calculator
• How To Get Pregnant
• How To Get Pregnant Fast
• Ovulation Discharge
• Implantation Bleeding
• Ovulation Symptoms
• Pregnancy Symptoms
• Am I Pregnant?
• Pregnancy Tests
• See all in Getting Pregnant
• Due Date Calculator
• Pregnancy Week by Week
• Pregnant Sex
• Weight Gain Tracker
• Signs of Labor
• Morning Sickness
• COVID Vaccine and Pregnancy
• Fetal Weight Chart
• Fetal Development
• Pregnancy Discharge
• Find Out Baby Gender
• Chinese Gender Predictor
• See all in Pregnancy
• Baby Name Generator
• Top Baby Names 2023
• Top Baby Names 2024
• How to Pick a Baby Name
• Most Popular Baby Names
• Baby Names by Letter
• Gender Neutral Names
• Unique Boy Names
• Unique Girl Names
• Top baby names by year
• See all in Baby Names
• Baby Development
• Baby Feeding Guide
• Newborn Sleep
• When Babies Roll Over
• First-Year Baby Costs Calculator
• Postpartum Health
• Baby Poop Chart
• See all in Baby
• Average Weight & Height
• Autism Signs
• Child Growth Chart
• Night Terrors
• Moving from Crib to Bed
• Toddler Feeding Guide
• Potty Training
• Bathing and Grooming
• See all in Toddler
• Height Predictor
• Potty Training: Boys
• Potty training: Girls
• How Much Sleep? (Ages 3+)
• Ready for Preschool?
• Thumb-Sucking
• Gross Motor Skills
• Napping (Ages 2 to 3)
• See all in Child
• Photos: Rashes & Skin Conditions
• Symptom Checker
• Vaccine Scheduler
• Reducing a Fever
• Acetaminophen Dosage Chart
• Constipation in Babies
• Ear Infection Symptoms
• Head Lice 101
• See all in Health
• Second Pregnancy
• Daycare Costs
• Family Finance
• Stay-At-Home Parents
• Breastfeeding Positions
• See all in Family
• Baby Sleep Training
• Preparing For Baby
• My Custom Checklist
• My Registries
• Take the Quiz
• Best Baby Products
• Best Breast Pump
• Best Convertible Car Seat
• Best Infant Car Seat
• Best Baby Bottle
• Best Baby Monitor
• Best Stroller
• Best Diapers
• Best Baby Carrier
• Best Diaper Bag
• Best Highchair
• See all in Baby Products
• Why Pregnant Belly Feels Tight
• Early Signs of Twins
• Teas During Pregnancy
• Baby Head Circumference Chart
• How Many Months Pregnant Am I
• What is a Rainbow Baby
• Braxton Hicks Contractions
• HCG Levels By Week
• When to Take a Pregnancy Test
• Am I Pregnant
• Why is Poop Green
• Can Pregnant Women Eat Shrimp
• Insemination
• UTI During Pregnancy
• Vitamin D Drops
• Best Baby Forumla
• Postpartum Depression
• Low Progesterone During Pregnancy
• Baby Shower
• Baby Shower Games

Breech, posterior, transverse lie: What position is my baby in?

Fetal presentation, or how your baby is situated in your womb at birth, is determined by the body part that's positioned to come out first, and it can affect the way you deliver. At the time of delivery, 97 percent of babies are head-down (cephalic presentation). But there are several other possibilities, including feet or bottom first (breech) as well as sideways (transverse lie) and diagonal (oblique lie).

Fetal presentation and position

During the last trimester of your pregnancy, your provider will check your baby's presentation by feeling your belly to locate the head, bottom, and back. If it's unclear, your provider may do an ultrasound or an internal exam to feel what part of the baby is in your pelvis.

Fetal position refers to whether the baby is facing your spine (anterior position) or facing your belly (posterior position). Fetal position can change often: Your baby may be face up at the beginning of labor and face down at delivery.

Here are the many possibilities for fetal presentation and position in the womb.

Medical illustrations by Jonathan Dimes

Head down, facing down (anterior position)

A baby who is head down and facing your spine is in the anterior position. This is the most common fetal presentation and the easiest position for a vaginal delivery.

This position is also known as "occiput anterior" because the back of your baby's skull (occipital bone) is in the front (anterior) of your pelvis.

Head down, facing up (posterior position)

In the posterior position , your baby is head down and facing your belly. You may also hear it called "sunny-side up" because babies who stay in this position are born facing up. But many babies who are facing up during labor rotate to the easier face down (anterior) position before birth.

Posterior position is formally known as "occiput posterior" because the back of your baby's skull (occipital bone) is in the back (posterior) of your pelvis.

In the frank breech presentation, both the baby's legs are extended so that the feet are up near the face. This is the most common type of breech presentation. Breech babies are difficult to deliver vaginally, so most arrive by c-section .

Some providers will attempt to turn your baby manually to the head down position by applying pressure to your belly. This is called an external cephalic version , and it has a 58 percent success rate for turning breech babies. For more information, see our article on breech birth .

Complete breech

A complete breech is when your baby is bottom down with hips and knees bent in a tuck or cross-legged position. If your baby is in a complete breech, you may feel kicking in your lower abdomen.

Incomplete breech

In an incomplete breech, one of the baby's knees is bent so that the foot is tucked next to the bottom with the other leg extended, positioning that foot closer to the face.

Single footling breech

In the single footling breech presentation, one of the baby's feet is pointed toward your cervix.

Double footling breech

In the double footling breech presentation, both of the baby's feet are pointed toward your cervix.

Transverse lie

In a transverse lie, the baby is lying horizontally in your uterus and may be facing up toward your head or down toward your feet. Babies settle this way less than 1 percent of the time, but it happens more commonly if you're carrying multiples or deliver before your due date.

If your baby stays in a transverse lie until the end of your pregnancy, it can be dangerous for delivery. Your provider will likely schedule a c-section or attempt an external cephalic version , which is highly successful for turning babies in this position.

Oblique lie

In rare cases, your baby may lie diagonally in your uterus, with his rump facing the side of your body at an angle.

Like the transverse lie, this position is more common earlier in pregnancy, and it's likely your provider will intervene if your baby is still in the oblique lie at the end of your third trimester.

Was this article helpful?

What to know if your baby is breech

What's a sunny-side up baby?

What happens to your baby right after birth

How your twins’ fetal positions affect labor and delivery

BabyCenter's editorial team is committed to providing the most helpful and trustworthy pregnancy and parenting information in the world. When creating and updating content, we rely on credible sources: respected health organizations, professional groups of doctors and other experts, and published studies in peer-reviewed journals. We believe you should always know the source of the information you're seeing. Learn more about our editorial and medical review policies .

Ahmad A et al. 2014. Association of fetal position at onset of labor and mode of delivery: A prospective cohort study. Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology 43(2):176-182. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23929533 Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Gray CJ and Shanahan MM. 2019. Breech presentation. StatPearls.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448063/ Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Hankins GD. 1990. Transverse lie. American Journal of Perinatology 7(1):66-70.  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2131781 Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Medline Plus. 2020. Your baby in the birth canal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002060.htm Opens a new window [Accessed September 2021]

Where to go next

• Learn   /  

Why Is Cephalic Presentation Ideal For Childbirth?

5   Dec   2017 | 8 min Read

Sudeshna Chakravarti

Author | 799 Articles

The cephalic presentation is a birth position where the fetus is head down, facing backward, with their chin tucked and the back of their head ready to enter the birth canal. It is one of the variations of how a fetus rests in the womb and is considered an ideal baby birth position.

According to a study published in the Obstetrics and Gynaecology journal, about 96% of babies are born in the cephalic position. Most babies settle into the cephalic presentation at 33 weeks. Your healthcare provider will carefully monitor fetal movement in the last few weeks of your gestation to ensure your baby has achieved an ideal birth position by 36 weeks of pregnancy. If your baby is not in the cephalic position by the 36th week, your healthcare provider may try a few ways to turn their position. 

Read on as we tell you more about why cephalic presentation is considered an ideal birth position, and what your doctor will do to ensure your baby’s safe descent to your birth canal.

Why is the Cephalic Presentation Ideal?

During labour, contractions stretch your birth canal so that your baby has adequate room to come through during birth. The cephalic presentation is the safest and easiest way for your baby to pass through the birth canal.

If your baby is in a non-cephalic position, delivery can become more challenging. Different fetal positions pose a range of difficulties and varying risks and may not be considered ideal birthing positions.

Two Kinds of Cephalic Positions

There are two kinds of cephalic positions:

• Cephalic occiput anterior , where your baby’s head is down and is facing toward your back.
• Cephalic occiput posterior , where your baby is positioned head down, but they are facing your abdomen instead of your back. This position is also nicknamed ‘sunny-side-up’ and can increase the chances of prolonged and painful delivery. 

How to Know if Your Baby is In a Cephalic Position?

You can feel your baby’s position by rubbing your hand on your belly. If you feel your little one’s stomach in the upper stomach, then your baby is in a cephalic position. But if you feel their kicks in the lower stomach, then it could mean that your baby is in a breech position.

You can also determine whether your baby is in the anterior or posterior cephalic position. If your baby is in the anterior position, you may feel their movement underneath your ribs and your belly button could also pop out. If your baby is in the posterior position, then you may feel their kicks in their abdomen, and your stomach may appear rounded up instead of flat. 

You can also determine your baby’s position through an ultrasound scan or a physical examination at your healthcare provider’s office. 

Benefits of Cephalic Presentation in Pregnancy

Cephalic presentation is one of the most ideal birth positions, and has the following benefits:

• It is the safest way to give birth as your baby’s position is head-down and prevents the risk of any injuries.
• It can help your baby move through the delivery canal as safely and easily as possible.
• It increases the chances of smooth labour and delivery.

Are There Any Risks Involved in Cephalic Position?

Conditions like a cephalic posterior position in addition to a narrow pelvis of the mother can increase the risk of pregnancy complications during delivery. Some babies in the head-first cephalic presentation might have their heads tilted backward. This may, in some rare cases, cause preterm delivery.

What are the Risks Associated with Other Birth Positions?

A small percentage of babies may settle into a non-cephalic position before their birth. This can pose risks to both your and your baby’s health, and also influence the way in which you deliver. 

In the next section, we have discussed a few positions that your baby can settle in throughout pregnancy, as they move around the uterus. But as they grow old, there will be less space for them to tumble around, and they will settle into their final position. This is when non-cephalic positions can pose a risk.  

Breech Position

There are three types of breech fetal positioning:

• Frank breech : Your baby’s legs stick straight up along with their feet near their head.
• Footling breech: One or both of your baby’s legs are lowered over your cervix.
• Complete breech: Your baby is positioned bottom-first with their knees bent.

If your baby is in a breech position , vaginal delivery is considered complicated. When a baby is born in breech position, the largest part of their body, that is, their head is delivered last. This can lead to injury or even fetal distress. Moreover, the umbilical cord may also get damaged or get wrapped around your baby’s neck, cutting off their oxygen supply.  

If your baby is in a breech position, your healthcare provider may recommend a c-section, or they may try ways to flip your baby’s position in a cephalic presentation.

Transverse Lie

In this position, your baby settles in sideways across the uterus rather than being in a vertical position. They may be:

• Head-down, with their back facing the birth canal
• One shoulder pointing toward the birth canal
• Up with their hands and feet facing the birth canal

If your baby settles in this position, then your healthcare provider may suggest a c-section to reduce the risk of distress in your baby and other pregnancy complications.

Turning Your Baby Into A Cephalic Position

External cephalic version (ECV) is a common, and non-invasive procedure that helps turn your baby into a cephalic position while they are in the womb. However, your healthcare provider may only consider this procedure if they consider you have a stable health condition in the last trimester, and if your baby hasn’t changed their position by the 36th week.

You can also try some natural remedies to change your baby’s position, such as:

• Lying in a bridge position: Movements like bridge position can sometimes help move your baby into a more suitable position. Lie on your back with your feet flat on the ground and your legs bent. Raise your pelvis and hips into a bridge position and hold for 5-10 minutes. Repeat several times daily.
• Chiropractic care: A chiropractor can help with the adjustment of your baby’s position and also reduce stress in them.
• Acupuncture: After your doctor’s go-ahead, you can also consider acupuncture to get your baby to settle into an ideal birthing position.

While most babies settle in a cephalic presentation by the 36th week of pregnancy, some may lie in a breech or transverse position before birth. Since the cephalic position is considered the safest, your doctor may recommend certain procedures to flip your baby’s position to make your labour and delivery smooth. You may also try the natural methods that we discussed above to get your baby into a safe birthing position and prevent risks or other pregnancy complications. 

When Should A Baby Be In A Cephalic Position?

Your baby would likely naturally drop into a cephalic position between weeks 37 to 40 of your pregnancy .

Is Cephalic Position Safe?

Research shows that 95% of babies take the cephalic position a few weeks or days before their due date. It is considered to be the safest position. It ensures a smooth birthing process.

While most of the babies are in cephalic position at delivery, this is not always the case. If you have a breech baby, you can discuss the available options for delivery with your doctor.

Does cephalic presentation mean labour is near?

Head-down is the ideal position for your baby within your uterus during birth. This is known as the cephalic position. This posture allows your baby to pass through the delivery canal more easily and safely.

Can babies change from cephalic to breech?

The external cephalic version (ECV) is the most frequent procedure used for turning a breech infant.

How can I keep my baby in a cephalic position?

While your baby naturally gets into this position, you can try some exercises to ensure that they settle in cephalic presentation. Exercises such as breech tilt, forward-leaning position (spinning babies program), cat and camel pose can help.

Stitches after a normal delivery : How many stitches do you need after a vaginal delivery? Tap this post to know.

Vaginal birth after caesarean delivery : Learn all about the precautions to consider before having a vaginal delivery after a c-section procedure. 

How many c-sections can you have : Tap this post to know the total number of c-sections that you can safely have.

Cover Image Credit: Freepik.com

Related Topics for you

babychakraenglish

cephalicposition

cephalicpresentation

fetaldevelopment

fetalmovement

preganancycare

Suggestions offered by doctors on BabyChakra are of advisory nature i.e., for educational and informational purposes only. Content posted on, created for, or compiled by BabyChakra is not intended or designed to replace your doctor's independent judgment about any symptom, condition, or the appropriateness or risks of a procedure or treatment for a given person.

• Find in topic

INTRODUCTION

Diagnosis and management of face and brow presentations will be reviewed here. Other cephalic malpresentations are discussed separately. (See "Occiput posterior position" and "Occiput transverse position" .)

Prevalence  —  Face and brow presentation are uncommon. Their prevalences compared with other types of malpresentations are shown below [ 1-9 ]:

● Occiput posterior – 1/19 deliveries

● Breech – 1/33 deliveries

To continue reading this article, you must sign in . For more information or to purchase a personal subscription, click below on the option that best describes you:

• Medical Professional
• Resident, Fellow or Student
• Hospital or Institution
• Group Practice
• Patient or Caregiver

Print Options

In this Article

The ABCs of Cephalic Presentation: A Comprehensive Guide for Moms-to-Be

Updated on 24 November 2023

As expectant mothers eagerly anticipate the arrival of their little ones, understanding the intricacies of pregnancy becomes crucial. One term that frequently arises in discussions about childbirth is "cephalic presentation." In this article, we will understand its meaning, types, benefits associated with it, the likelihood of normal delivery and address common concerns expectant mothers might have.

What is the meaning of cephalic presentation in pregnancy?

Cephalic presentation means the baby's head is positioned down towards the birth canal, which is the ideal fetal position for childbirth. This position is considered optimal for a smoother and safer delivery. In medical terms, a baby in cephalic presentation is said to be in a "vertex" position.

The majority of babies naturally assume a cephalic presentation before birth. Other presentations, such as breech presentation (where the baby's buttocks or feet are positioned to enter the birth canal first) or transverse presentation (where the baby is lying sideways), may complicate the delivery process and may require medical intervention.

Cephalic presentation types

There are different types of cephalic presentation, each influencing the birthing process. The primary types include:

1. Vertex Presentation

The most common type where the baby's head is down, facing the mother's spine.

2. Brow Presentation

The baby's head is slightly extended, and the forehead presents first.

3. Face Presentation

The baby is positioned headfirst, but the face is the presenting part instead of the crown of the head.

Understanding these variations is essential for expectant mothers and healthcare providers to navigate potential challenges during labor.

You may also like: How to Get Baby in Right Position for Birth?

What are the benefits of cephalic presentation?

In order to understand whether cephalic presentation is good or bad, let’s take a look at its key advantages:

1. Easier Engagement

This presentation facilitates the baby's engagement in the pelvis, aiding in a smoother descent during labor.

2. Reduced Risk of Complications

Babies in head-first position typically experience fewer complications during delivery compared to other presentations.

3. Faster Labor Progression

This position is associated with quicker labor progression, leading to a potentially shorter and less stressful birthing process.

4. Lower Cesarean Section Rates

The chances of a cesarean section are significantly reduced when the baby is in cephalic presentation in pregnancy.

5. Optimal Fetal Oxygenation

The head-first position allows for optimal oxygenation of the baby as the head can easily pass through the birth canal, promoting a healthy start to life.

What are the chances of normal delivery in cephalic presentation?

The chances of a normal delivery are significantly higher when the baby is in cephalic or head-first presentation. Vaginal births are the natural outcome when the baby's head leads the way, aligning with the natural mechanics of childbirth.

While this presentation increases the chances of a normal delivery, it's important to note that individual factors, such as the mother's pelvic shape, the size of the baby, and the progress of labor, can also influence the delivery process. Sometimes complications may arise during labor and medical interventions or a cesarean section may be necessary.

You may also like: Normal Delivery Tips: An Expecting Mother's Guide to a Smooth Childbirth Experience

How to achieve cephalic presentation in pregnancy?

While fetal positioning is largely influenced by genetic and environmental factors, there are strategies to encourage head-first fetal position:

1. Regular Exercise

Engaging in exercises such as pelvic tilts and knee-chest exercises may help promote optimal fetal positioning.

2. Correct Posture

Maintaining good posture, particularly during the third trimester , can influence fetal positioning.

3. Hands and Knees Position

Spend some time on your hands and knees. This position may help the baby settle into the pelvis with the head down.

4. Forward-leaning Inversion

Under the guidance of a qualified professional, some women try forward-leaning inversions to encourage the baby to move into a head-down position. This involves positioning the body with the hips higher than the head.

5. Prenatal Yoga

Prenatal yoga focuses on strengthening the pelvic floor and promoting flexibility, potentially aiding in cephalic presentation.

6. Professional Guidance

Seeking guidance from a healthcare provider or a certified doula can provide personalized advice tailored to individual needs.

1. Cephalic presentation is good or bad?

Cephalic position is generally considered good as it aligns with the natural process of childbirth. It reduces the likelihood of complications and increases the chances of a successful vaginal delivery . However, it's essential to note that the overall health of both the mother and baby determines its appropriateness.

2. How to increase the chances of normal delivery in cephalic presentation?

Increasing the chances of normal delivery in cephalic presentation involves adopting healthy practices during pregnancy, such as maintaining good posture, engaging in appropriate exercises, and seeking professional guidance. However, individual circumstances vary, and consultation with a healthcare provider is paramount.

Final Thoughts

Navigating the journey of pregnancy involves understanding various aspects, and cephalic presentation plays a crucial role in determining the birthing experience. The benefits of a head-first position, coupled with strategies to encourage it, empower expectant mothers to actively participate in promoting optimal fetal positioning. As always, consulting with healthcare professionals ensures personalized care and guidance, fostering a positive and informed approach towards childbirth.

1. Makajeva J, Ashraf M. Delivery, Face and Brow Presentation. (2023). In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing

2. Boos R, Hendrik HJ, Schmidt W. (1987). Das fetale Lageverhalten in der zweiten Schwangerschaftshälfte bei Geburten aus Beckenendlage und Schädellage [Behavior of fetal position in the 2d half of pregnancy in labor with breech and vertex presentations]. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd

Anupama Chadha

Anupama Chadha, born and raised in Delhi is a content writer who has written extensively for industries such as HR, Healthcare, Finance, Retail and Tech.

Get baby's diet chart, and growth tips

Related Articles

The Ultimate Guide on Cabbage During Pregnancy Benefits and Precautions

The Pros and Cons of Consuming Brinjal in Pregnancy

A Mom-to-Be's Handbook to Safely Savoring Momos in Pregnancy

The Dos and Don'ts of Drinking Alcohol During Breastfeeding

Related questions, hello frnds..still no pain...doctor said head fix nhi hua hai..bt vagina me pain hai aur back pain bhi... anyone having same issues, kon kon c chije aisi hai jo pregnancy mei gas acidity jalan karti hain... koi btayega plz bcz mujhe aksar khane ke baad hi samagh aata hai ki is chij se gas acidity jalan ho gyi hai. please share your knowledge, i am 13 week pregnancy. anyone having storione-xt tablet. it better to have morning or night , hlo to be moms....i hv a query...in my 9.5 wk i feel body joint pain like in ankle, knee, wrist, shoulder, toes....pain intensity is high...i cnt sleep....what should i do pls help....cn i cosult my doc., influenza and boostrix injection kisiko laga hai kya 8 month pregnancy me and q lagta hai ye plz reply me, related topics, labour & delivery, baby movements, tips for normal delivery, recently published articles, our most recent articles.

Diet & Nutrition

The Ultimate Guide to Consuming Chia Seeds in Pregnancy

Essential Tips for Normal Delivery After Cesarean

Crab During Pregnancy: Benefits, Risks and Smart Choices

Normal Delivery Tips: An Expecting Mother's Guide to a Smooth Childbirth Experience

Top 10 Panchatantra Stories in English You Must Read to Your Children

Health & Wellness

What Helps in Improving Mental Health of Women

• Childhood Disorders: Meaning, Symptoms & Treatment
• Bleeding During Pregnancy 8 Weeks: Should You See a Doctor?
• The Ultimate Guide to Having Sex After C Section
• The Ultimate Guide to Baby Brain Development Food During Pregnancy
• Nappy Rash: Your Ultimate Guide to Symptoms and Quick Relief
• How to Get Periods Immediately to Avoid Pregnancy?
• Loss of Appetite During Pregnancy: Causes and Solutions
• How to Increase Newborn Baby Weight: Expert Tips and Tricks
• Fertisure M: The Comprehensive Solution to Male Infertility and Reproductive Health
• All You Need to Know About the New COVID Variant: Pirola
• Endometrial Polyp and Pregnancy: How Uterine Polyps Can Affect Your Chances of Conception
• How to Stop Heavy Bleeding During Periods: Home Remedies (Part 2)
• How Many Times Should You Have Sex to Get Pregnant?
• A Guide to Planning the Perfect Godh Bharai for the Mom-to-Be

Start Exploring

• Mylo Care: Effective and science-backed personal care and wellness solutions for a joyful you.
• Mylo Baby: Science-backed, gentle and effective personal care & hygiene range for your little one.
• Mylo Community: Trusted and empathetic community of 10mn+ parents and experts.

Product Categories

baby soap | baby shampoo | baby lotion | baby powder | baby body wash | stretch marks cream | stretch marks oil | baby cream | baby massage oil | baby hair oil |

Enter search terms to find related medical topics, multimedia and more.

Advanced Search:

• Use “ “ for exact phrases.
• For example: “pediatric abdominal pain”
• Use – to remove results with certain keywords.
• For example: abdominal pain -pediatric
• Use OR to account for alternate keywords.
• For example: teenager OR adolescent

Fetal Presentation, Position, and Lie (Including Breech Presentation)

, MD, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia

• 3D Models (0)
• Calculators (0)

Abnormal fetal lie or presentation may occur due to fetal size, fetal anomalies, uterine structural abnormalities, multiple gestation, or other factors. Diagnosis is by examination or ultrasonography. Management is with physical maneuvers to reposition the fetus, operative vaginal delivery Operative Vaginal Delivery Operative vaginal delivery involves application of forceps or a vacuum extractor to the fetal head to assist during the second stage of labor and facilitate delivery. Indications for forceps... read more , or cesarean delivery Cesarean Delivery Cesarean delivery is surgical delivery by incision into the uterus. The rate of cesarean delivery was 32% in the United States in 2021 (see March of Dimes: Delivery Method). The rate has fluctuated... read more .

Terms that describe the fetus in relation to the uterus, cervix, and maternal pelvis are

Fetal presentation: Fetal part that overlies the maternal pelvic inlet; vertex (cephalic), face, brow, breech, shoulder, funic (umbilical cord), or compound (more than one part, eg, shoulder and hand)

Fetal position: Relation of the presenting part to an anatomic axis; for transverse presentation, occiput anterior, occiput posterior, occiput transverse

Fetal lie: Relation of the fetus to the long axis of the uterus; longitudinal, oblique, or transverse

Normal fetal lie is longitudinal, normal presentation is vertex, and occiput anterior is the most common position.

Abnormal fetal lie, presentation, or position may occur with

Fetopelvic disproportion (fetus too large for the pelvic inlet)

Fetal congenital anomalies

Uterine structural abnormalities (eg, fibroids, synechiae)

Multiple gestation

Several common types of abnormal lie or presentation are discussed here.

Fetal position is transverse, with the fetal long axis oblique or perpendicular rather than parallel to the maternal long axis. Transverse lie is often accompanied by shoulder presentation, which requires cesarean delivery.

Breech presentation

There are several types of breech presentation.

Frank breech: The fetal hips are flexed, and the knees extended (pike position).

Complete breech: The fetus seems to be sitting with hips and knees flexed.

Single or double footling presentation: One or both legs are completely extended and present before the buttocks.

Types of breech presentations

Breech presentation makes delivery difficult ,primarily because the presenting part is a poor dilating wedge. Having a poor dilating wedge can lead to incomplete cervical dilation, because the presenting part is narrower than the head that follows. The head, which is the part with the largest diameter, can then be trapped during delivery.

Additionally, the trapped fetal head can compress the umbilical cord if the fetal umbilicus is visible at the introitus, particularly in primiparas whose pelvic tissues have not been dilated by previous deliveries. Umbilical cord compression may cause fetal hypoxemia.

Predisposing factors for breech presentation include

Preterm labor Preterm Labor Labor (regular uterine contractions resulting in cervical change) that begins before 37 weeks gestation is considered preterm. Risk factors include prelabor rupture of membranes, uterine abnormalities... read more

Multiple gestation Multifetal Pregnancy Multifetal pregnancy is presence of > 1 fetus in the uterus. Multifetal (multiple) pregnancy occurs in up to 1 of 30 deliveries. Risk factors for multiple pregnancy include Ovarian stimulation... read more

Uterine abnormalities

Fetal anomalies

If delivery is vaginal, breech presentation may increase risk of

Umbilical cord prolapse

Perinatal death

It is best to detect abnormal fetal lie or presentation before delivery. During routine prenatal care, clinicians assess fetal lie and presentation with physical examination in the late third trimester. Ultrasonography can also be done. If breech presentation is detected, external cephalic version can sometimes move the fetus to vertex presentation before labor, usually at 37 or 38 weeks. This technique involves gently pressing on the maternal abdomen to reposition the fetus. A dose of a short-acting tocolytic ( terbutaline 0.25 mg subcutaneously) may help. The success rate is about 50 to 75%. For persistent abnormal lie or presentation, cesarean delivery is usually done at 39 weeks or when the woman presents in labor.

Face or brow presentation

In face presentation, the head is hyperextended, and position is designated by the position of the chin (mentum). When the chin is posterior, the head is less likely to rotate and less likely to deliver vaginally, necessitating cesarean delivery.

Brow presentation usually converts spontaneously to vertex or face presentation.

Occiput posterior position

The most common abnormal position is occiput posterior.

The fetal neck is usually somewhat deflexed; thus, a larger diameter of the head must pass through the pelvis.

Progress may arrest in the second phase of labor. Operative vaginal delivery Operative Vaginal Delivery Operative vaginal delivery involves application of forceps or a vacuum extractor to the fetal head to assist during the second stage of labor and facilitate delivery. Indications for forceps... read more or cesarean delivery Cesarean Delivery Cesarean delivery is surgical delivery by incision into the uterus. The rate of cesarean delivery was 32% in the United States in 2021 (see March of Dimes: Delivery Method). The rate has fluctuated... read more is often required.

Position and Presentation of the Fetus

If a fetus is in the occiput posterior position, operative vaginal delivery or cesarean delivery is often required.

In breech presentation, the presenting part is a poor dilating wedge, which can cause the head to be trapped during delivery, often compressing the umbilical cord.

For breech presentation, usually do cesarean delivery at 39 weeks or during labor, but external cephalic version is sometimes successful before labor, usually at 37 or 38 weeks.

Drugs Mentioned In This Article

Was This Page Helpful?

Test your knowledge

Brought to you by Merck & Co, Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA (known as MSD outside the US and Canada) — dedicated to using leading-edge science to save and improve lives around the world. Learn more about the Merck Manuals and our commitment to Global Medical Knowledge.

• Permissions
• Cookie Settings
• Terms of use
• Veterinary Manual

• IN THIS TOPIC
• Type 2 Diabetes
• Heart Disease
• Digestive Health
• Multiple Sclerosis
• COVID-19 Vaccines
• Occupational Therapy
• Healthy Aging
• Health Insurance
• Public Health
• Patient Rights
• Caregivers & Loved Ones
• End of Life Concerns
• Health News
• Thyroid Test Analyzer
• Doctor Discussion Guides
• Hemoglobin A1c Test Analyzer
• Lipid Test Analyzer
• Complete Blood Count (CBC) Analyzer
• What to Buy
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Medical Expert Board

What Is Breech?

When a fetus is delivered buttocks or feet first

• Types of Presentation

Risk Factors

Complications.

Breech concerns the position of the fetus before labor . Typically, the fetus comes out headfirst, but in a breech delivery, the buttocks or feet come out first. This type of delivery is risky for both the pregnant person and the fetus.

This article discusses the different types of breech presentations, risk factors that might make a breech presentation more likely, treatment options, and complications associated with a breech delivery.

Verywell / Jessica Olah

Types of Breech Presentation

During the last few weeks of pregnancy, a fetus usually rotates so that the head is positioned downward to come out of the vagina first. This is called the vertex position.

In a breech presentation, the fetus does not turn to lie in the correct position. Instead, the fetus’s buttocks or feet are positioned to come out of the vagina first.

At 28 weeks of gestation, approximately 20% of fetuses are in a breech position. However, the majority of these rotate to the proper vertex position. At full term, around 3%–4% of births are breech.

The different types of breech presentations include:

• Complete : The fetus’s knees are bent, and the buttocks are presenting first.
• Frank : The fetus’s legs are stretched upward toward the head, and the buttocks are presenting first.
• Footling : The fetus’s foot is showing first.

Signs of Breech

There are no specific symptoms associated with a breech presentation.

Diagnosing breech before the last few weeks of pregnancy is not helpful, since the fetus is likely to turn to the proper vertex position before 35 weeks gestation.

A healthcare provider may be able to tell which direction the fetus is facing by touching a pregnant person’s abdomen. However, an ultrasound examination is the best way to determine how the fetus is lying in the uterus.

Most breech presentations are not related to any specific risk factor. However, certain circumstances can increase the risk for breech presentation.

These can include:

• Previous pregnancies
• Multiple fetuses in the uterus
• An abnormally shaped uterus
• Uterine fibroids , which are noncancerous growths of the uterus that usually appear during the childbearing years
• Placenta previa, a condition in which the placenta covers the opening to the uterus
• Preterm labor or prematurity of the fetus
• Too much or too little amniotic fluid (the liquid that surrounds the fetus during pregnancy)
• Fetal congenital abnormalities

Most fetuses that are breech are born by cesarean delivery (cesarean section or C-section), a surgical procedure in which the baby is born through an incision in the pregnant person’s abdomen.

In rare instances, a healthcare provider may plan a vaginal birth of a breech fetus. However, there are more risks associated with this type of delivery than there are with cesarean delivery. 

Before cesarean delivery, a healthcare provider might utilize the external cephalic version (ECV) procedure to turn the fetus so that the head is down and in the vertex position. This procedure involves pushing on the pregnant person’s belly to turn the fetus while viewing the maneuvers on an ultrasound. This can be an uncomfortable procedure, and it is usually done around 37 weeks gestation.

ECV reduces the risks associated with having a cesarean delivery. It is successful approximately 40%–60% of the time. The procedure cannot be done once a pregnant person is in active labor.

Complications related to ECV are low and include the placenta tearing away from the uterine lining, changes in the fetus’s heart rate, and preterm labor.

ECV is usually not recommended if the:

• Pregnant person is carrying more than one fetus
• Placenta is in the wrong place
• Healthcare provider has concerns about the health of the fetus
• Pregnant person has specific abnormalities of the reproductive system

Recommendations for Previous C-Sections

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) says that ECV can be considered if a person has had a previous cesarean delivery.

During a breech delivery, the umbilical cord might come out first and be pinched by the exiting fetus. This is called cord prolapse and puts the fetus at risk for decreased oxygen and blood flow. There’s also a risk that the fetus’s head or shoulders will get stuck inside the mother’s pelvis, leading to suffocation.

Complications associated with cesarean delivery include infection, bleeding, injury to other internal organs, and problems with future pregnancies.

A healthcare provider needs to weigh the risks and benefits of ECV, delivering a breech fetus vaginally, and cesarean delivery.

In a breech delivery, the fetus comes out buttocks or feet first rather than headfirst (vertex), the preferred and usual method. This type of delivery can be more dangerous than a vertex delivery and lead to complications. If your baby is in breech, your healthcare provider will likely recommend a C-section.

A Word From Verywell

Knowing that your baby is in the wrong position and that you may be facing a breech delivery can be extremely stressful. However, most fetuses turn to have their head down before a person goes into labor. It is not a cause for concern if your fetus is breech before 36 weeks. It is common for the fetus to move around in many different positions before that time.

At the end of your pregnancy, if your fetus is in a breech position, your healthcare provider can perform maneuvers to turn the fetus around. If these maneuvers are unsuccessful or not appropriate for your situation, cesarean delivery is most often recommended. Discussing all of these options in advance can help you feel prepared should you be faced with a breech delivery.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. If your baby is breech .

TeachMeObGyn. Breech presentation .

MedlinePlus. Breech birth .

Hofmeyr GJ, Kulier R, West HM. External cephalic version for breech presentation at term . Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2015 Apr 1;2015(4):CD000083. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000083.pub3

By Christine Zink, MD Dr. Christine Zink, MD, is a board-certified emergency medicine with expertise in the wilderness and global medicine. She completed her medical training at Weill Cornell Medical College and residency in emergency medicine at New York-Presbyterian Hospital. She utilizes 15-years of clinical experience in her medical writing.

Variation in fetal presentation

• Report problem with article
• View revision history

Citation, DOI, disclosures and article data

At the time the article was created The Radswiki had no recorded disclosures.

At the time the article was last revised Yuranga Weerakkody had no financial relationships to ineligible companies to disclose.

• Delivery presentations
• Variation in delivary presentation
• Abnormal fetal presentations

There can be many variations in the fetal presentation which is determined by which part of the fetus is projecting towards the internal cervical os . This includes:

cephalic presentation : fetal head presenting towards the internal cervical os, considered normal and occurs in the vast majority of births (~97%); this can have many variations which include

left occipito-anterior (LOA)

left occipito-posterior (LOP)

left occipito-transverse (LOT)

right occipito-anterior (ROA)

right occipito-posterior (ROP)

right occipito-transverse (ROT)

straight occipito-anterior

straight occipito-posterior

breech presentation : fetal rump presenting towards the internal cervical os, this has three main types

frank breech presentation  (50-70% of all breech presentation): hips flexed, knees extended (pike position)

complete breech presentation  (5-10%): hips flexed, knees flexed (cannonball position)

footling presentation  or incomplete (10-30%): one or both hips extended, foot presenting

other, e.g one leg flexed and one leg extended

shoulder presentation

cord presentation : umbilical cord presenting towards the internal cervical os

• 1. Fox AJ, Chapman MG. Longitudinal ultrasound assessment of fetal presentation: a review of 1010 consecutive cases. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;46 (4): 341-4. doi:10.1111/j.1479-828X.2006.00603.x - Pubmed citation
• 2. Merz E, Bahlmann F. Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. Thieme Medical Publishers. (2005) ISBN:1588901475. Read it at Google Books - Find it at Amazon

Incoming Links

• Obstetric curriculum
• Cord presentation
• Polyhydramnios
• Footling presentation
• Normal obstetrics scan (third trimester singleton)

Promoted articles (advertising)

ADVERTISEMENT: Supporters see fewer/no ads

By Section:

• Artificial Intelligence
• Classifications
• Imaging Technology
• Interventional Radiology
• Radiography
• Central Nervous System
• Gastrointestinal
• Gynaecology
• Haematology
• Head & Neck
• Hepatobiliary
• Interventional
• Musculoskeletal
• Paediatrics
• Not Applicable

Radiopaedia.org

• Feature Sponsor
• Expert advisers

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

External cephalic version.

Meaghan M. Shanahan ; Daniel J. Martingano ; Caron J. Gray .

Affiliations

Last Update: December 13, 2023 .

• Continuing Education Activity

In carefully selected patients, an external cephalic version (ECV) may be an alternative to cesarean delivery for fetal malpresentation at term. ECV is a noninvasive procedure that manipulates fetal position through the abdominal wall of the gravida. With the global cesarean section rate reaching 34%, fetal malpresentation ranks as the third most common indication for cesarean delivery, accounting for nearly 17% of cases. Studies suggest a 60% mean success rate for ECV, emphasizing its cost-effectiveness and potential to decrease cesarean delivery rates significantly. While particularly crucial in resource-limited settings where access to medical services during labor is constrained or cesarean delivery is unavailable or unsafe, ECV presents a viable option to improve rates of vaginal delivery in singleton gestations in all settings. 

This activity reviews the indications, contraindications, necessary equipment, preferred personnel, procedural technique, risks, and benefits of ECV and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in caring for patients who may benefit from this procedure.

• Select suitable candidates for an external cephalic version based on their clinical history and presentation.
• Screen patients effectively regarding the risks and benefits of an external cephalic version.
• Apply best practices when performing an external cephalic version.
• Develop and implement effective interpersonal team strategies to improve outcomes for patients undergoing external cephalic version.
• Introduction

The global cesarean section rate has increased from approximately 23% to 34% in the past decade. Fetal malpresentation is now the third-most common indication for cesarean delivery, encompassing nearly 17% of cases. Almost one-fourth of all fetuses are in a breech presentation at 28 weeks gestational age; this number decreases to between 3% and 4% at term. In current clinical practice, most pregnancies with a breech fetus are delivered by cesarean section.

Individual and institutional efforts are increasing to reduce the overall cesarean delivery rate, particularly for nulliparous patients with term, singleton, and vertex gestations. [1] [2]  An alternative to cesarean delivery for fetal malpresentation at term is an external cephalic version (ECV), a procedure to correct fetal malpresentation. ECV may be indicated when the fetus is breech or in an oblique or transverse lie after 37 0/7 weeks gestation. [3]  The overall success rate for ECV approaches 60%, is cost-effective, and can lead to decreased cesarean delivery rates. [4]  ECV is of particular importance in resource-poor environments, where patients may have limited access to medical services during labor and delivery or where cesarean delivery is unavailable or unsafe.

• Anatomy and Physiology

ECV can be attempted when managing breech presentations or fetuses with a transverse or oblique lie. Three types of breech presentation are established concerning fetal attitude: complete, frank, and incomplete, which is sometimes referred to as footling breech. In complete breech, the fetal pelvis engages with the maternal pelvic inlet, and the fetal hips and knees are flexed. In frank breech, the fetal pelvis engages with the maternal pelvic inlet, the fetal hips are flexed, the knees are extended, and the feet are near the head. In incomplete or footling breech, one (single footling) or both (double footling) feet are extended below the level of the fetal pelvis.

A fetus with a transverse lie is positioned with their long axis, defined as the spine, at a right angle to the long axis of the gravida. The fetal head may be to the right or left side of the maternal spine. The fetus may be facing up or down. The long axis of the fetus characterizes an oblique lie at any angle to the maternal long axis that is not 90°. An oblique fetus is usually positioned with their head in the right or left lower quadrants, although this is not universal.

• Indications

ECV may be indicated in carefully selected patients. The fetus must be at or beyond 36 0/7 weeks of gestation with malpresentation, and there must be no absolute contraindications to vaginal delivery, such as placenta previa, vasa previa, or a history of classical cesarean delivery. Fetal status must be reassuring, and preprocedural nonstress testing is recommended. While ECV may be performed as early as 36 0/7 weeks gestation, many practitioners will delay ECV until 37 0/7 weeks gestation to ensure delivery of a term fetus.

ECV is more successful in multigravidas, those with a complete breech or transverse or oblique presentation, an unengaged presenting part, adequate amniotic fluid, and a posterior placenta. Nulliparous patients and those with an anterior, lateral, or cornual placenta have lower success rates. Patients with advanced cervical dilatation, obesity, oligohydramnios, or ruptured membranes also have lower success rates. Additionally, if the fetus weighs less than 2500 g, is at a low station with an engaged presenting part, is frank breech, or the spine is posterior, the success of ECV is decreased. [5]  

Evidence supports the use of parenteral tocolysis, most often with the beta-2-agonist medication terbutaline, to improve the success of ECV; most studies evaluating the various aspects of ECV aspects include using a tocolytic agent. [6] [7] [8] [9]  Data regarding the improved success of ECV incorporating regional anesthesia is inconsistent. 

• Contraindications

Any contraindication to vaginal delivery would also be a contraindication to ECV. These contraindications include but are not limited to placenta previa, vasa previa, active genital herpes outbreak, or a history of classical cesarean delivery. A history of low transverse cesarean delivery is not an absolute contraindication to ECV. [10]  The overall success rate of ECV in patients with a previous cesarean birth ranges from 50% to 84%; no cases of uterine rupture during ECV were reported in the four trials evaluating this outcome in patients with a prior cesarean delivery. [11] [12] [13] [14]

Antepartum ECV is contraindicated in multiple gestations, although it can be utilized for twin gestations that would otherwise be suitable candidates for breech extraction. [15] [16]

Patients with severe oligohydramnios, nonreassuring fetal monitoring, a hyperextended fetal head, significant fetal or uterine anomaly, fetal growth restriction, and maternal hypertension carry a low likelihood of successful ECV and a significantly increased risk of poor fetal outcomes; ECV in such situations requires careful consideration.

If a gravida who is otherwise a suitable candidate for ECV presents in early labor with fetal malpresentation, ECV may be a reasonable option if the presenting part is unengaged, the amniotic fluid index is within the normal range, and there are no contraindications to ECV or vaginal delivery. Data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample from 1998 to 2011 noted a success rate of 65% for ECV performed in carefully selected patients during the admission for delivery. [17]  ECV performed in this circumstance resulted in a significantly lower cesarean birth rate and hospital stay of greater than 7 days compared to patients with a persistent breech presentation at the time of delivery. [17]

External cephalic versions should be attempted only in settings where cesarean delivery services are readily available. Therefore, the required equipment for ECV includes all such requirements for cesarean delivery, including anesthesia services. Access to tocolytic agents, bedside ultrasonography, and external fetal heart rate monitoring equipment is also required. Following ECV, fetal status must be assessed; nonstress testing is preferred. If nonstress testing is unavailable, Doppler indices of the umbilical artery, middle cerebral artery, and ductus venosus may be performed. [18]

The personnel typically required to perform an ECV include:

• Obstetrician
• Labor and delivery nurse.

ECV may only be performed in a setting where cesarean delivery services are readily available. Personnel typically required for cesarean delivery include:

• Surgical first assistant
• Anesthesia personnel
• Surgical technician or operating room nurse
• Circulating or operating room nurse
• Pediatric personnel
• Note: for cesarean delivery, labor and delivery nurses may serve as surgical technicians, circulating, or operating room roles.
• Preparation

Before attempting ECV, informed consent must be obtained; this should include tocolysis and neuraxial analgesia if those procedures will be performed. Some clinicians will obtain consent from the patient for potential emergency cesarean delivery at this time, although this practice is not universal. Additionally, an ultrasound examination should be performed to verify fetal presentation, exclude fetal and uterine anomalies, locate the placental position, and evaluate the amniotic fluid index. Many clinicians will evaluate preprocedural fetal status with a nonstress test. 

The current evidence supports the administration of terbutaline 0.25mg subcutaneously 15 to 30 minutes before the ECV but does not support using calcium channel blockers or nitroglycerin for preprocedural tocolysis. [19]  While multiple studies report the increased success of ECV in patients who are administered epidural or spinal neuraxial anesthesia, overall data is insufficient to warrant a universal recommendation; neuraxial anesthesia may improve success rates for ECV in situations where tocolysis alone was unsuccessful. [20]

• Technique or Treatment

The gravida should be supine with a leftward tilt using a wedge support to relieve pressure on the great vessels. ECV is best performed using a 2-handed approach.

If the fetal presentation is breech, lift the breech out of the pelvis with one hand and apply downward pressure to the posterior fetal head to attempt a forward roll. If a forward roll is unsuccessful, a backward roll can be attempted. If the fetus is in either a transverse or oblique presentation, similar manipulation of the fetus is used to try to move the fetal head to the pelvis. [21]

Fetal well-being should be evaluated intermittently with Doppler or real-time ultrasonography during ECV. ECV should be abandoned if there is significant fetal bradycardia, patient discomfort, or if a version is not achieved easily. After a successful or unsuccessful ECV, external fetal heart rate monitoring should be performed for 30 to 60 minutes. If the gravida is Rh negative, anti-D immune globulin should be administered.

Immediate induction of labor to minimize reversion is not recommended. If the initial attempt at ECV is unsuccessful, additional attempts can be made during the same admission or at a later date.

• Complications

Complications of ECV are rare and occur in only 1% to 2% of attempts. The most common complication associated with ECV is fetal heart rate abnormalities, particularly bradycardia, occurring at a rate of 4.7% to 20%; these abnormalities usually are transient and improve upon completion or abandonment of the procedure.

More severe complications of ECV occur at a rate of less than 1% and include premature rupture of membranes, cord prolapse, vaginal bleeding, placental abruption, fetomaternal hemorrhage, emergent cesarean delivery, and stillbirth. Many of these rare complications require emergent cesarean delivery; some clinicians choose to perform ECV in the operating room, although this is neither necessary nor universal. [22]   

ECV is associated with changes in Doppler indices that may reflect decreased placental perfusion. It appears these changes are short-lived and have no detrimental effects on the outcomes of uncomplicated pregnancies. A recent prospective study investigating the effects of ECV on fetal circulation in the antepartum period noted no differences in the Doppler evaluation of the middle cerebral artery or ductus venosus; all studied patients remained stable and were discharged home after the procedure. [18]  

• Clinical Significance

Some data indicate that only 20% to 30% of eligible candidates are offered ECV. [23]  Patients who undergo a successful ECV procedure have a lower cesarean delivery rate than patients who do not but are still at a higher risk of cesarean delivery than patients with cephalic fetuses who do not require ECV. ECV is cost-effective if the probability of a successful ECV exceeds 32%. Overall, ECV is successful in 58% of attempts, reduces the risk for CS by two-thirds, and enables 80% of these patients to deliver vaginally. [24]

• Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

ECV is not a benign procedure and is most successful when performed under the care of an interprofessional team. Labor and delivery nurses play an integral role in the success of ECV as they frequently assist in the procedure, prepare the patient for ECV, and implement external fetal monitoring before, during, and after the procedure. Additionally, the support of emergent operating room staff promotes the safe delivery of a healthy fetus should complications arise during the ECV procedure. Clear and concise anticipatory interprofessional communication improves safety and outcomes for the gravida and the fetus should complications occur.

• Review Questions
• Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
• Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Meaghan Shanahan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Daniel Martingano declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Caron Gray declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Shanahan MM, Martingano DJ, Gray CJ. External Cephalic Version. [Updated 2023 Dec 13]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

In this Page

Bulk download.

• Bulk download StatPearls data from FTP

Related information

• PMC PubMed Central citations
• PubMed Links to PubMed

Similar articles in PubMed

• Value of routine ultrasound examination at 35-37 weeks' gestation in diagnosis of non-cephalic presentation. [Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2020] Value of routine ultrasound examination at 35-37 weeks' gestation in diagnosis of non-cephalic presentation. De Castro H, Ciobanu A, Formuso C, Akolekar R, Nicolaides KH. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2020 Feb; 55(2):248-256.
• External cephalic version at 38 weeks' gestation at a specialized German single center. [PLoS One. 2021] External cephalic version at 38 weeks' gestation at a specialized German single center. Zielbauer AS, Louwen F, Jennewein L. PLoS One. 2021; 16(8):e0252702. Epub 2021 Aug 30.
• External cephalic version in singleton pregnancies at term: a retrospective analysis. [Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2008] External cephalic version in singleton pregnancies at term: a retrospective analysis. Zeck W, Walcher W, Lang U. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2008; 66(1):18-21. Epub 2008 Jan 30.
• Review [Breech Presentation: CNGOF Guidelines for Clinical Practice - External Cephalic Version and other Interventions to turn Breech Babies to Cephalic Presentation]. [Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol. 2...] Review [Breech Presentation: CNGOF Guidelines for Clinical Practice - External Cephalic Version and other Interventions to turn Breech Babies to Cephalic Presentation]. Ducarme G. Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol. 2020 Jan; 48(1):81-94. Epub 2019 Oct 31.
• Review Association between hospitals' cesarean delivery rates for breech presentation and their success rates for external cephalic version. [Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Bi...] Review Association between hospitals' cesarean delivery rates for breech presentation and their success rates for external cephalic version. Athiel Y, Girault A, Le Ray C, Goffinet F. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2022 Mar; 270:156-163. Epub 2022 Jan 13.

Recent Activity

• External Cephalic Version - StatPearls External Cephalic Version - StatPearls

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

• Trying to Conceive
• Signs & Symptoms
• Fertility Testing
• Fertility Treatment
• Weeks & Trimesters
• Staying Healthy
• Preparing for Baby
• Complications & Concerns
• Pregnancy Loss
• Breastfeeding
• School-Aged Kids
• Raising Kids
• Personal Stories
• Everyday Wellness
• Safety & First Aid
• Immunizations
• Food & Nutrition
• Active Play
• Pregnancy Products
• Nursery & Sleep Products
• Nursing & Feeding Products
• Clothing & Accessories
• Toys & Gifts
• Pregnancy Due Date Calculator
• How to Talk About Postpartum Depression
• Meet Our Review Board

Vertex Position: What It Is, Why It's Important, and How to Get There

Jamie Grill / Getty Images

What Is the Vertex Position?

• Why It's Important

When the Vertex Position Usually Occurs

• How to Get Baby in This Position

Options if Baby Is Not in the Vertex Position

While you are pregnant, you may hear your healthcare provider frequently refer to the position or presentation of your baby, particularly as you get closer to your due date . What they are referring to is which part of your baby is presenting first—or which part is at the lower end of your womb or the pelvic inlet.

Consequently, when they tell you that your baby's head is down, that likely means they are in the vertex position (or another cephalic position). This type of presentation is the most common presentation in the third trimester. Here is what you need to know about the vertex position including how you might get your baby into that position before you go into labor .

The vertex position is a medical term that means the fetus has its head down in the maternal pelvis and the occipital (back) portion of the fetal skull is in the lowest position or presenting, explains Jill Purdie, MD, an OB/GYN and medical director at Northside Women’s Specialists , which is part of Pediatrix Medical Group.

When a baby is in the vertex position, their head is in the down position in the pelvis in preparation for a vaginal birth, adds Shaghayegh DeNoble, MD, FACOG , a board-certified gynecologist and a fellowship-trained minimally invasive gynecologic surgeon. "More specifically, the fetus’s chin is tucked to the chest so that the back of the head is presenting first."

Why the Vertex Position Is Important

When it comes to labor and delivery, the vertex position is the ideal position for a vaginal delivery, especially if the baby is in the occiput anterior position—where the back of the baby's head is toward the front of the pregnant person's pelvis, says Dr. DeNoble.

"[This] is the best position for vaginal birth because it is associated with fewer Cesarean sections , faster births, and less painful births," she says. "In this position, the fetus’s skull fits the birth canal best. In the occiput posterior position, the back of the fetus's head is toward the [pregnant person's] spine. This position is usually associated with longer labor and sometimes more painful birth."

Other fetal positions are sometimes less-than-ideal for labor and delivery. According to Dr. DeNoble, they can cause more prolonged labor, fetal distress, and interventions such as vacuum or forceps delivery and Cesarean delivery.

"Another important fact is that positions other than vertex present an increased risk of cord prolapse, which is when the umbilical cord falls into the vaginal canal ahead of the baby," she says. "For example, if the fetus is in the transverse position and the [pregnant person's] water breaks , there is an increased risk of the umbilical cord prolapsing through the cervix into the vaginal canal."

When it comes to your baby's positioning, obstetricians will look to see what part of the fetus is in position to present during vaginal birth. If your baby’s head is down during labor, they will look to see if the back of the head is facing your front or your back as well as whether the back of the head is presenting or rather face or brow, Dr. DeNoble explains.

"These determinations are important during labor, especially if there is consideration to the use of a vacuum or forceps," she says.

According to Dr. Purdie, healthcare providers will begin assessing the position of the baby as early as 32 to 34 weeks of pregnancy. About 75% to 80% of fetuses will be in the vertex presentation by 30 weeks and 96% to 97% by 37 weeks. Approximately 3% to 4% of fetuses will be in a non-cephalic position at term, she adds.

Typically, your provider will perform what is called Leopold maneuvers to determine the position of the baby. "Leopold maneuvers involve the doctor placing their hands on the gravid abdomen in several locations to find the fetal head and buttocks," Dr. Purdie explains.

If your baby is not in the vertex position, the next most common position would be breech, she says. This means that your baby's legs or buttocks are presenting first and the head is up toward the rib cage.

"The fetus may also be transverse," Dr. Purdie says. "The transverse position means the fetus is sideways within the uterus and no part is presenting in the maternal pelvis. In other words, the head is either on the left or right side of the uterus and the fetus goes straight across to the opposite side."

There is even a chance that your baby will be in an oblique position. This means they are at a diagonal within the uterus, Dr. Purdie says. "In this position, either the head or the buttocks can be down, but they are not in the maternal pelvis and instead off to the left or right side."

If your baby's head is not down, your provider will look to see if the buttocks are in the pelvis or one or two feet, Dr. DeNoble adds. "If the baby is laying horizontally, then the doctor needs to know if the back of the baby is facing downwards or upwards since at a Cesarean delivery it can be more difficult to deliver the baby when the back is down."

How to Get Baby Into the Vertex Position

One way you can help ensure that your baby gets into the vertex position is by staying active and walking, Dr. Purdie says. "Since the head is the heaviest part of the fetus, gravity may help move the head around to the lowest position."

If you already know that your baby is in a non-cephalic position and you are getting close to your delivery date, you also can try some techniques to encourage the baby to turn. For instance, Dr. Purdie suggests getting in the knee/chest position for 10 minutes per day. This has been shown to turn the baby around 60% to 70% of the time.

"In this technique, the mother gets on all fours, places her head down on her hands, and leaves her buttock higher than her head," she explains. "Again, we are trying to allow gravity to help us turn the fetus."

You also might consider visiting a chiropractor to try and help turn the fetus. "Most chiropractors will use the Webster technique to encourage the fetus into a cephalic presentation," Dr. Purdie adds.

There also are some home remedies, including using music, heat, ice, and incense to encourage the fetus to turn, she says. "These techniques do not have a lot of scientific data to support them, but they also are not harmful so can be tried without concern."

You also can try the pelvic tilt , where you lay on your back with your legs bent and your feet on the ground, suggests Dr. DeNoble. Then, you tilt your pelvis up into a bridge position and stay in this position for 10 minutes. She suggests doing this several times a day, ideally when your baby is most active.

"Another technique that has helped some women is to place headphones low down on the abdomen near the pubic bone to encourage the baby to turn toward the sound," Dr. DeNoble adds. "A cold bag of vegetables can be placed at the top of the uterus near the baby’s head and something warm over the lower part of the uterus to encourage the baby to turn toward the warmth. [And] acupuncture has also been used to help turn a baby into a vertex position."

If you are at term and your baby is not in the vertex position (or some type of cephalic presentation), you may want to discuss the option of an external cephalic version (ECV), suggests Dr. Purdie. This is a procedure done in the hospital where your healthcare provider will attempt to manually rotate your baby into the cephalic presentation.

"There are some risks associated with this and not every pregnant person is a candidate, so the details should be discussed with your physician," she says. "If despite interventions, the fetus remains in a non-cephalic position, most physicians will recommend a C-section for delivery."

Keep in mind that there are increased risks for your baby associated with a vaginal breech delivery. Current guidelines by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend a C-section in this situation, Dr. Purdie says.

"Once a pregnant person is in labor, it would be too late for the baby to get in cephalic presentation," she adds.

If your baby is not yet in the vertex position, try not to worry too much. The majority of babies move into either the vertex position or another cephalic presentation before they are born. Until then, focus on staying active, getting plenty of rest, and taking care of yourself.

If you are concerned, talk to your provider about different options for getting your baby to move into the vertex position. They can let you know which tips and techniques might be right for your situation.

American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Obstetrics data definitions .

National Library of Medicine. Vaginal delivery .

Sayed Ahmed WA, Hamdy MA. Optimal management of umbilical cord prolapse .  Int J Womens Health . 2018;10:459-465. Published 2018 Aug 21. doi:10.2147/IJWH.S130879

Hjartardóttir H, Lund SH, Benediktsdóttir S, Geirsson RT, Eggebø TM. When does fetal head rotation occur in spontaneous labor at term: results of an ultrasound-based longitudinal study in nulliparous women .  Am J Obstet Gynecol . 2021;224(5):514.e1-514.e9. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2020.10.054

Management of breech presentation: green-top guideline no. 20b .  BJOG: Int J Obstet Gy . 2017;124(7):e151-e177. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.14465

Kenfack B, Ateudjieu J, Ymele FF, Tebeu PM, Dohbit JS, Mbu RE. Does the advice to assume the knee-chest position at the 36th to 37th weeks of gestation reduce the incidence of breech presentation at delivery?   Clinics in Mother and Child Health . 2012;9:1-5. doi:10.4303/cmch/C120601

Cohain JS. Turning breech babies after 34 weeks: the if, how, & when of turning breech babies .  Midwifery Today Int Midwife . 2007;(83):18-65.

American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. If your baby is breech .

By Sherri Gordon Sherri Gordon, CLC is a published author, certified professional life coach, and bullying prevention expert. 

Occiput or cephalic anterior: This is the best fetal position for childbirth. It means the fetus is head down, facing the birth parent's spine (facing backward). Its chin is tucked towards its chest. The fetus will also be slightly off-center, with the back of its head facing the right or left. This is called left occiput anterior or right ...

This position is called cephalic presentation. But there are other ways a baby may settle just before labor begins. ... This is the most common type of breech presentation. If you are more than 36 weeks into your pregnancy and your baby is in a frank breech presentation, your health care professional may try to move the baby into a head-down ...

In the cephalic presentation, the baby is head down, chin tucked to chest, facing their mother's back. This position typically allows for the smoothest delivery, as baby's head can easily move down the birth canal and under the pubic bone during childbirth. ... There are several different types of breech presentation: Head Up, Legs Up ...

A cephalic presentation or head presentation or head-first presentation is a situation at childbirth where the fetus is in a longitudinal lie and the head enters the pelvis first; the most common form of cephalic presentation is the vertex presentation, where the occiput is the leading part (the part that first enters the birth canal). All other presentations are abnormal (malpresentations ...

The term presentation describes the leading part of the fetus or the anatomical structure closest to the maternal pelvic inlet during labor. The presentation can roughly be divided into the following classifications: cephalic, breech, shoulder, and compound. Cephalic presentation is the most common and can be further subclassified as vertex, sinciput, brow, face, and chin.

The cephalic position is when a fetus is head down when it is ready to enter the birth canal. This is one of a few variations of how a fetus can rest in the womb and is considered the ideal one for labor and delivery. About 96% of babies are born in the cephalic position. Most settle into it between the 32nd and 36th weeks of pregnancy.

Fetal Presentation, Position, and Lie (Including Breech Presentation) - Learn about the causes, symptoms, diagnosis & treatment from the Merck Manuals - Medical Consumer Version. ... Trying to turn the baby is called an external cephalic version and is usually done at 37 or 38 weeks of pregnancy. Sometimes women are given a medication ...

Cephalic presentation occurs in about 97% of deliveries. There are different types of cephalic presentation, which depend on the position of the baby's limbs and head (fetal attitude). If your baby is in any position other than head down, your doctor may recommend a cesarean delivery. Breech presentation is when the baby's bottom is down ...

This is called cephalic presentation. This position makes it easier and safer for your baby to pass through the birth canal. Cephalic presentation occurs in about 97% of deliveries. There are different types of cephalic presentation, which depend on the position of the baby's limbs and head (fetal attitude).

The vertex or cephalic (head), breech, and shoulder are the three types of presentations. In vertex or cephalic, the head comes down first. In breech, the feet or buttocks comes down first, and last-in shoulder, the arm or shoulder comes down first. This is usually referred to as a transverse lie. Figure 10-1. Typical types of presentations.

This is the most common type of breech presentation. Breech babies are difficult to deliver vaginally, so most arrive by c-section. ... This is called an external cephalic version, and it has a 58 percent success rate for turning breech babies. For more information, ...

Cephalic Presentation is the Best Position. The baby's position in the womb tells a lot about the delivery and the complications it may pose during labor. ... There are three types of breech fetal positioning: Frank breech: Your baby's legs stick straight up along with their feet near their head. Footling breech: One or both of your baby ...

Approximately 5 percent of these fetuses are in a cephalic malpresentation, such as occiput posterior or transverse, face ( figure 1A-B ), or brow ( figure 2) [ 1 ]. Diagnosis and management of face and brow presentations will be reviewed here. Other cephalic malpresentations are discussed separately. (See "Occiput posterior position" and ...

Cephalic presentation types . There are different types of cephalic presentation, each influencing the birthing process. The primary types include: 1. Vertex Presentation. The most common type where the baby's head is down, facing the mother's spine. 2. Brow Presentation. The baby's head is slightly extended, and the forehead presents first. 3 ...

There are several types of breech presentation. Frank breech: The fetal hips are flexed, and the knees extended (pike position). ... If breech presentation is detected, external cephalic version can sometimes move the fetus to vertex presentation before labor, usually at 37 or 38 weeks. This technique involves gently pressing on the maternal ...

At full term, around 3%-4% of births are breech. The different types of breech presentations include: Complete: The fetus's knees are bent, and the buttocks are presenting first. Frank: The fetus's legs are stretched upward toward the head, and the buttocks are presenting first. Footling: The fetus's foot is showing first.

Introduction. Cephalic presentation is the most physiologic and frequent fetal presentation and is associated with the highest rate of successful vaginal delivery as well as with the lowest frequency of complications 1.Studies on the frequency of breech presentation by gestational age (GA) were published more than 20 years ago 2, 3, and it has been known that the prevalence of breech ...

breech presentation: fetal rump presenting towards the internal cervical os, this has three main types. frank breech presentation (50-70% of all breech presentation): hips flexed, knees extended (pike position) complete breech presentation (5-10%): hips flexed, knees flexed (cannonball position) footling presentation or incomplete (10-30%): one ...

The global cesarean section rate has increased from approximately 23% to 34% in the past decade. Fetal malpresentation is now the third-most common indication for cesarean delivery, encompassing nearly 17% of cases. Almost one-fourth of all fetuses are in a breech presentation at 28 weeks gestational age; this number decreases to between 3% and 4% at term. In current clinical practice, most ...

Breech presentation is a type of malpresentation and occurs when the fetal head lies over the uterine fundus and fetal buttocks or feet present over the maternal pelvis (instead of cephalic/head presentation). The incidence in the United Kingdom of breech presentation is 3-4% of all fetuses. 1.

404 Not found

• Scriptwriting

How to Write Narration in Documentary Films — Tips, Examples

D ocumentaries use scripts that are somewhat different from traditional scripts. Some of the time, they utilize “documentary narration scripts.” But what is a documentary narration script? We’re going to answer that question by looking at some script examples and what makes them work. By the end, you’ll know everything there is to know about narration in documentary films!

Watch: Anatomy of a Screenplay — Ultimate Guide

Subscribe for more filmmaking videos like this.

Writing Narration for Documentary

Primer on documentary scripts.

Writing a documentary script can be a difficult task. Why? Because you can’t write the majority of it until after you finish researching. Documentaries tend to fall into two camps: pre-planned (Ken Burns’s Baseball , Jazz , etc.) or on-the-fly ( The Jinx , Free Solo ).

Pre-planned documentaries almost always use narration scripts. On-the-fly documentaries use narration script far less frequently. Before we define documentary writing, let’s analyze some conceptual aspects of documentaries. This next video examines the questions you should ask before writing a documentary script.

Documentary Writing  •  Tips and Tricks for Writing Documentary Scripts by Creative North

There’s no doubt about it: every documentary requires research. Remember: documentaries are about finding the truth in a story.

When focusing on a historical subject, you’re going to want to find that truth before you begin writing the script. 

If you’re writing an on-the-fly documentary, then you’re going to have to wait for the truth to reveal itself. 

VOICE OVER NARRATION DOCUMENTARY

How to write pre-planned narration.

Pre-planned documentaries: they’re the type of documentaries we’ve typically seen in school. They focus on historical subjects – and they use primary/secondary sources in conjunction with narration to tell a story.

When conceptualizing a historical documentary, consider writing the narration script as you go. It doesn’t have to be in screenplay format . It could be as simple as a  V.O. montage  or as complex as a research paper.

Whatever it is, just make sure it’s supported by sources.

If you do want to write your narration in script format, consider using  StudioBinder’s screenwriting software . It’s free to get started and it’ll help you properly format your document. This next video does a good job of explaining everything that goes into a documentary narration script.

Narration Documentary  •  A Writer’s Guide to Making a Documentary by Film Courage

When you write a documentary script, you play the role of an editor more than a screenwriter. It’s all about splicing content together to tell a cohesive story. Finding the right spot for narration is an important element in the process. 

Types of Narration in Documentary

How to write a ‘shoot-as-you-go’ script.

“Shoot-as-you-go scripts” are some of the toughest scripts to write because you never know what you’re going to get. These types of scripts are most commonly used in true crime shows where the outcome of the story isn’t known prior to the show’s development.

Take Jean-Xavier de Lestrade’s The Staircase for example: The Staircase was produced over the course of 14 years – and its story never truly ended. So as to say if the story doesn’t end, it can’t stop being written.

Check out the trailer for the series below.

Documentary Writing  •  The Staircase Trailer

Narration isn’t always used in true-crime documentaries. Sometimes, superimposed text does the trick. In some cases, foregoing narration keeps the pace energetic. Either way, you’re going to want to be purposeful with your documentary’s structure.

Narration in Documentary Strength

The benefits of narration in documentary.

There are a lot of benefits to using narration scripts in documentary film production. If you’re making a documentary like Our Planet , there’s no refuting that narration is important.

It’s simply invaluable to have a narrator serve the “teacher” role in the doc. Let’s check out a trailer for the series Our Planet (you won’t want to miss Sir David Attenborough’s narration).

Documentary Voice Over  •  Documentary Narration in Our Planet

What would nature documentaries be without narration? I’d venture to say they’d be less engaging. Narration serves to underscore the educational and emotional tenets of the story.

Don’t forget that documentaries are the intersection of education and entertainment. Keep this point in mind while writing your documentary script.

Documentary Writing

Tips for writing documentary narration.

Ultimately, narration scripts serve to guide us through a documentary. They’re not always needed – but when used effectively, they can add focus to a story. If you’d like to write a documentary narration script, then consider the ideas we referenced in this article:

1) Start with research

2) Transcribe your ideas

3) Follow the story, but don’t try to control it

4) Add narration to give the story focus

These tips should keep your documentary script organized. “Shoot-as-you-go” documentaries are inherently unorganized – so writing a documentary narration script can be an invaluable task. And I’d venture to say narration is essential in historical documentaries. Whenever in doubt, review your favorite documentaries, and reference back to this article for tips and tricks!

Related Posts

• How to Create a Documentary Shot List  →
• How to Create a Documentary Storyboard →
• How to Create a Documentary Shooting Schedule →

How to Make a Documentary

Want to learn more about the ins and outs of documentary production? Check out our next article in which we examine the process of making a documentary: conceptualization through distribution. By the end, you’ll know more than just how to write a documentary; you’ll know how to film one too. 

Up Next: Doc Production Step-by-Step →

Showcase your vision with elegant shot lists and storyboards..

Create robust and customizable shot lists. Upload images to make storyboards and slideshows.

Learn More ➜

Leave a comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Pricing & Plans
• Product Updates
• Featured On
• StudioBinder Partners
• The Ultimate Guide to Call Sheets (with FREE Call Sheet Template)
• How to Break Down a Script (with FREE Script Breakdown Sheet)
• The Only Shot List Template You Need — with Free Download
• Managing Your Film Budget Cashflow & PO Log (Free Template)
• A Better Film Crew List Template Booking Sheet
• Best Storyboard Softwares (with free Storyboard Templates)
• Movie Magic Scheduling
• Gorilla Software
• Storyboard That

A visual medium requires visual methods. Master the art of visual storytelling with our FREE video series on directing and filmmaking techniques.

We’re in a golden age of TV writing and development. More and more people are flocking to the small screen to find daily entertainment. So how can you break put from the pack and get your idea onto the small screen? We’re here to help.

• Making It: From Pre-Production to Screen
• What are the 12 Principles of Animation — Ultimate Guide
• What is Pacing in Writing — And Why It’s So Important
• What Does O.S. Mean in a Script & How to Use It
• What Does a Leadman Do in Film — Job Description Explained
• What is a Unit Production Manager — Job and Role Explained
• 6 Pinterest

The Evolution of Reality TV: from Documentary to Dynasty

This essay about the evolution of reality television traces its origins from early documentary-style programs like “An American Family” to the diverse array of shows dominating today’s entertainment landscape. It highlights the genre’s expansion into various sub-genres, including competition, survival, talent hunts, and lifestyle shows, reflecting society’s changing interests and the universal appeal of real-life stories. The piece discusses how reality TV has adapted to cultural shifts, influencing public opinion on various issues and democratizing celebrity by showcasing ordinary individuals in extraordinary situations. Despite criticism regarding authenticity and ethics, the essay underscores reality TV’s significant impact on the entertainment industry and its enduring connection with viewers through genuine human experiences. At PapersOwl too, you can discover numerous free essay illustrations related to Reality television.

How it works

The realm of reality television has entrenched itself as a cornerstone of contemporary entertainment, presenting spectators with a medley of the commonplace intertwined with the extraordinary. Its origins harken back to the nascent stages of documentary-style programming, striving to encapsulate genuine life occurrences devoid of scripted dialogues and preconceived conclusions. The trajectory from these modest beginnings to the expansive dominion of reality TV witnessed today is an intriguing narrative of ingenuity, adaptation, and the relentless human fascination with the narratives of others.

The genesis of reality television can be retraced to productions like “An American Family,” which graced screens in the early 1970s. This groundbreaking series chronicled the daily routines of the Loud family, proffering an unprecedented glimpse into the triumphs and tribulations of an American household. Diverging from the televisual norm of its era, it laid the groundwork for the reality genre, substantiating the presence of an eager audience for programs mirroring the intricacies of authentic existence.

As time unfolded, reality TV underwent metamorphosis, branching into diverse sub-genres tailored to manifold interests. The latter part of the 20th century witnessed the emergence of competitive and survival shows such as “Survivor” and “Big Brother,” amalgamating real-life challenges with strategic gaming, birthing a novel form of interactive amusement. These productions transcended mere observation, serving as arenas to scrutinize human endurance, intellect, and social dynamics under controlled circumstances.

The early 21st century ushered in another epochal transition in the landscape of reality television, characterized by the rise of talent quests and lifestyle programs. Offerings like “American Idol” and “The Apprentice” showcased individuals vying not solely for accolades but for acknowledgment, career prospects, and the potential to metamorphose their destinies. Concurrently, lifestyle and makeover shows exemplified by “Queer Eye” embraced a more constructive and affirmatory facet of reality TV, spotlighting personal development, empowerment, and societal metamorphosis.

Presently, reality TV manifests as a multifaceted genre encompassing a gamut of spectacles from the voyeuristic pleasures of “Keeping Up with the Kardashians” to the culinary showdowns of “MasterChef.” Its allure lies in its chameleonic capacity to adapt and reflect societal shifts, mirroring evolving interests, concerns, and aspirations. Moreover, reality television has played a pivotal role in shaping public sentiment on sundry issues, be it the significance of mental well-being and self-nurturance or the celebration of diverse cultures and lifestyles.

Despite reservations regarding its veracity and the moral ramifications of exposing personal lives to public scrutiny, reality TV has left an indelible imprint on the entertainment milieu. It has democratized celebrity, debunking the notion that stars solely emanate from the silver screen but can rise from the most quotidian of contexts. Furthermore, it has furnished a storytelling platform unparalleled in its capacity to forge emotional connections with audiences.

In summation, the chronicle of reality television stands as a testament to the genre’s resilience and enduring allure to human inquisitiveness. From its documentary antecedents to its contemporary status as a cultural phenomenon, reality TV perpetually evolves, mirroring the spirit of the age while inviting spectators to perceive the world through the unscripted experiences of others. As it progresses, one can only anticipate the novel trajectories it will embark upon, further obfuscating the boundaries between reality and entertainment in its quest to encapsulate the human saga in its most authentic guise.

Cite this page

The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty. (2024, Mar 01). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/

"The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty." PapersOwl.com , 1 Mar 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/ [Accessed: 23 Apr. 2024]

"The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty." PapersOwl.com, Mar 01, 2024. Accessed April 23, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/

"The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty," PapersOwl.com , 01-Mar-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/. [Accessed: 23-Apr-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Evolution of Reality TV: From Documentary to Dynasty . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-evolution-of-reality-tv-from-documentary-to-dynasty/ [Accessed: 23-Apr-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

Text size: A A A

About the BFI

Strategy and policy

Press releases and media enquiries

Jobs and opportunities

Join and support

Become a Member

Become a Patron

Using your BFI Membership

Corporate support

Trusts and foundations

Make a donation

Watch films on BFI Player

BFI Southbank tickets

• Follow @bfi

Watch and discover

In this section

Watch at home on BFI Player

What’s on at BFI Southbank

What’s on at BFI IMAX

BFI National Archive

Explore our festivals

BFI film releases

Read features and reviews

Read film comment from Sight & Sound

I want to…

Watch films online

Browse BFI Southbank seasons

Book a film for my cinema

Find out about international touring programmes

Learning and training

BFI Film Academy: opportunities for young creatives

Get funding to progress my creative career

Find resources and events for teachers

Join events and activities for families

BFI Reuben Library

Search the BFI National Archive collections

Browse our education events

Use film and TV in my classroom

Read research data and market intelligence

Funding and industry

Get funding and support

Search for projects funded by National Lottery

Apply for British certification and tax relief

Industry data and insights

Inclusion in the film industry

Find projects backed by the BFI

Get help as a new filmmaker and find out about NETWORK

Read industry research and statistics

Find out about booking film programmes internationally

You are here

The essay film

In recent years the essay film has attained widespread recognition as a particular category of film practice, with its own history and canonical figures and texts. In tandem with a major season throughout August at London’s BFI Southbank, Sight & Sound explores the characteristics that have come to define this most elastic of forms and looks in detail at a dozen influential milestone essay films.

Andrew Tracy , Katy McGahan , Olaf Möller , Sergio Wolf , Nina Power Updated: 7 May 2019

from our August 2013 issue

Le camera stylo? Dziga Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera (1929)

I recently had a heated argument with a cinephile filmmaking friend about Chris Marker’s Sans soleil (1983). Having recently completed her first feature, and with such matters on her mind, my friend contended that the film’s power lay in its combinations of image and sound, irrespective of Marker’s inimitable voiceover narration. “Do you think that people who can’t understand English or French will get nothing out of the film?” she said; to which I – hot under the collar – replied that they might very well get something, but that something would not be the complete work.

The Sight & Sound Deep Focus season Thought in Action: The Art of the Essay Film runs at BFI Southbank 1-28 August 2013, with a keynote lecture by Kodwo Eshun on 1 August, a talk by writer and academic Laura Rascaroli on 27 August and a closing panel debate on 28 August.

To take this film-lovers’ tiff to a more elevated plane, what it suggests is that the essentialist conception of cinema is still present in cinephilic and critical culture, as are the difficulties of containing within it works that disrupt its very fabric. Ever since Vachel Lindsay published The Art of the Moving Picture in 1915 the quest to secure the autonomy of film as both medium and art – that ever-elusive ‘pure cinema’ – has been a preoccupation of film scholars, critics, cinephiles and filmmakers alike. My friend’s implicit derogation of the irreducible literary element of Sans soleil and her neo- Godard ian invocation of ‘image and sound’ touch on that strain of this phenomenon which finds, in the technical-functional combination of those two elements, an alchemical, if not transubstantiational, result.

Mechanically created, cinema defies mechanism: it is poetic, transportive and, if not irrational, then a-rational. This mystically-minded view has a long and illustrious tradition in film history, stretching from the sense-deranging surrealists – who famously found accidental poetry in the juxtapositions created by randomly walking into and out of films; to the surrealist-influenced, scientifically trained and ontologically minded André Bazin , whose realist veneration of the long take centred on the very preternaturalness of nature as revealed by the unblinking gaze of the camera; to the trash-bin idolatry of the American underground, weaving new cinematic mythologies from Hollywood detritus; and to auteurism itself, which (in its more simplistic iterations) sees the essence of the filmmaker inscribed even upon the most compromised of works.

It isn’t going too far to claim that this tradition has constituted the foundation of cinephilic culture and helped to shape the cinematic canon itself. If Marker has now been welcomed into that canon and – thanks to the far greater availability of his work – into the mainstream of (primarily DVD-educated) cinephilia, it is rarely acknowledged how much of that work cheerfully undercuts many of the long-held assumptions and pieties upon which it is built.

In his review of Letter from Siberia (1957), Bazin placed Marker at right angles to cinema proper, describing the film’s “primary material” as intelligence – specifically a “verbal intelligence” – rather than image. He dubbed Marker’s method a “horizontal” montage, “as opposed to traditional montage that plays with the sense of duration through the relationship of shot to shot”.

Here, claimed Bazin, “a given image doesn’t refer to the one that preceded it or the one that will follow, but rather it refers laterally, in some way, to what is said.” Thus the very thing which makes Letter “extraordinary”, in Bazin’s estimation, is also what makes it not-cinema. Looking for a term to describe it, Bazin hit upon a prophetic turn of phrase, writing that Marker’s film is, “to borrow Jean Vigo’s formulation of À propos de Nice (‘a documentary point of view’), an essay documented by film. The important word is ‘essay’, understood in the same sense that it has in literature – an essay at once historical and political, written by a poet as well.”

Marker’s canonisation has proceeded apace with that of the form of which he has become the exemplar. Whether used as critical/curatorial shorthand in reviews and programme notes, employed as a model by filmmakers or examined in theoretical depth in major retrospectives (this summer’s BFI Southbank programme, for instance, follows upon Andréa Picard’s two-part series ‘The Way of the Termite’ at TIFF Cinémathèque in 2009-2010, which drew inspiration from Jean-Pierre Gorin ’s groundbreaking programme of the same title at Vienna Filmmuseum in 2007), the ‘essay film’ has attained in recent years widespread recognition as a particular, if perennially porous, mode of film practice. An appealingly simple formulation, the term has proved both taxonomically useful and remarkably elastic, allowing one to define a field of previously unassimilable objects while ranging far and wide throughout film history to claim other previously identified objects for this invented tradition.

Las Hurdes (1933)

It is crucial to note that the ‘essay film’ is not only a post-facto appellation for a kind of film practice that had not bothered to mark itself with a moniker, but also an invention and an intervention. While it has acquired its own set of canonical ‘texts’ that include the collected works of Marker, much of Godard – from the missive (the 52-minute Letter to Jane , 1972) to the massive ( Histoire(s) de cinéma , 1988-98) – Welles’s F for Fake (1973) and Thom Andersen’s Los Angeles Plays Itself (2003), it has also poached on the territory of other, ‘sovereign’ forms, expanding its purview in accordance with the whims of its missionaries.

From documentary especially, Vigo’s aforementioned À propos de Nice, Ivens’s Rain (1929), Buñuel’s sardonic Las Hurdes (1933), Resnais’s Night and Fog (1955), Rouch and Morin’s Chronicle of a Summer (1961); from the avant garde, Akerman’s Je, Tu, Il, Elle (1974), Straub/Huillet’s Trop tôt, trop tard (1982); from agitprop, Getino and Solanas’s The Hour of the Furnaces (1968), Portabella’s Informe general… (1976); and even from ‘pure’ fiction, for example Gorin’s provocative selection of Griffith’s A Corner in Wheat (1909).

Just as within itself the essay film presents, in the words of Gorin, “the meandering of an intelligence that tries to multiply the entries and the exits into the material it has elected (or by which it has been elected),” so, without, its scope expands exponentially through the industrious activity of its adherents, blithely cutting across definitional borders and – as per the Manny Farber ian concept which gave Gorin’s ‘Termite’ series its name –  creating meaning precisely by eating away at its own boundaries. In the scope of its application and its association more with an (amorphous) sensibility as opposed to fixed rules, the essay film bears similarities to the most famous of all fabricated genres: film noir, which has been located both in its natural habitat of the crime thriller as well as in such disparate climates as melodramas, westerns and science fiction.

The essay film, however, has proved even more peripatetic: where noir was formulated from the films of a determinate historical period (no matter that the temporal goalposts are continually shifted), the essay film is resolutely unfixed in time; it has its choice of forebears. And while noir, despite its occasional shadings over into semi-documentary during the 1940s, remains bound to fictional narratives, the essay film moves blithely between the realms of fiction and non-fiction, complicating the terms of both.

“Here is a form that seems to accommodate the two sides of that divide at the same time, that can navigate from documentary to fiction and back, creating other polarities in the process between which it can operate,” writes Gorin. When Orson Welles , in the closing moments of his masterful meditation on authenticity and illusion F for Fake, chortles, “I did promise that for one hour, I’d tell you only the truth. For the past 17 minutes, I’ve been lying my head off,” he is expressing both the conjuror’s pleasure in a trick well played and the artist’s delight in a self-defined mode that is cheerfully impure in both form and, perhaps, intention.

Nevertheless, as the essay film merrily traipses through celluloid history it intersects with ‘pure cinema’ at many turns and its form as such owes much to one particularly prominent variety thereof.

The montage tradition

If the mystical strain described above represents the Dionysian side of pure cinema, Soviet montage was its Apollonian opposite: randomness, revelation and sensuous response countered by construction, forceful argumentation and didactic instruction.

No less than the mystics, however, the montagists were after essences. Eisenstein , Dziga Vertov and Pudovkin , along with their transnational associates and acolytes, sought to crystallise abstract concepts in the direct and purposeful juxtaposition of forceful, hard-edged images – the general made powerfully, viscerally immediate in the particular. Here, says Eisenstein, in the umbrella-wielding harpies who set upon the revolutionaries in October (1928), is bourgeois Reaction made manifest; here, in the serried ranks of soldiers proceeding as one down the Odessa Steps in Battleship Potemkin (1925), is Oppression undisguised; here, in the condemned Potemkin sailor who wins over his imminent executioners with a cry of “Brothers!” – a moment powerfully invoked by Marker at the beginning of his magnum opus A Grin Without a Cat (1977) – is Solidarity emergent and, from it, the seeds of Revolution.

The relentlessly unidirectional focus of classical Soviet montage puts it methodologically and temperamentally at odds with the ruminative, digressive and playful qualities we associate with the essay film. So, too, the former’s fierce ideological certainty and cadre spirit contrast with that free play of the mind, the Montaigne -inspired meanderings of individual intelligence, that so characterise our image of the latter.

Beyond Marker’s personal interest in and inheritance from the Soviet masters, classical montage laid the foundations of the essay film most pertinently in its foregrounding of the presence, within the fabric of the film, of a directing intelligence. Conducting their experiments in film not through ‘pure’ abstraction but through narrative, the montagists made manifest at least two operative levels within the film: the narrative itself and the arrangement of that narrative by which the deeper structures that move it are made legible. Against the seamless, immersive illusionism of commercial cinema, montage was a key for decrypting those social forces, both overt and hidden, that govern human society.

And as such it was method rather than material that was the pathway to truth. Fidelity to the authentic – whether the accurate representation of historical events or the documentary flavouring of Eisensteinian typage – was important only insomuch as it provided the filmmaker with another tool to reach a considerably higher plane of reality.

Dziga Vertov’s Enthusiasm (1931)

Midway on their Marxian mission to change the world rather than interpret it, the montagists actively made the world even as they revealed it. In doing so they powerfully expressed the dialectic between control and chaos that would come to be not only one of the chief motors of the essay film but the crux of modernity itself.

Vertov’s Man with a Movie Camera (1929), now claimed as the most venerable and venerated ancestor of the essay film (and this despite its prototypically purist claim to realise a ‘universal’ cinematic language “based on its complete separation from the language of literature and the theatre”) is the archetypal model of this high-modernist agon. While it is the turning of the movie projector itself and the penetrating gaze of Vertov’s kino-eye that sets the whirling dynamo of the city into motion, the recorder creating that which it records, that motion is also outside its control.

At the dawn of the cinematic century, the American writer Henry Adams saw in the dynamo both the expression of human mastery over nature and a conduit to mysterious, elemental powers beyond our comprehension. So, too, the modernist ambition expressed in literature, painting, architecture and cinema to capture a subject from all angles – to exhaust its wealth of surfaces, meanings, implications, resonances – collides with awe (or fear) before a plenitude that can never be encompassed.

Remove the high-modernist sense of mission and we can see this same dynamic as animating the essay film – recall that last, parenthetical term in Gorin’s formulation of the essay film, “multiply[ing] the entries and the exits into the material it has elected (or by which it has been elected)”. The nimble movements and multi-angled perspectives of the essay film are founded on this negotiation between active choice and passive possession; on the recognition that even the keenest insight pales in the face of an ultimate unknowability.

The other key inheritance the essay film received from the classical montage tradition, perhaps inevitably, was a progressive spirit, however variously defined. While Leni Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will (1935) and Olympia (1938) amply and chillingly demonstrated that montage, like any instrumental apparatus, has no inherent ideological nature, hers were more the exceptions that proved the rule. (Though why, apart from ideological repulsiveness, should Riefenstahl’s plentifully fabricated ‘documentaries’ not be considered as essay films in their own right?)

The overwhelming fact remains that the great majority of those who drew upon the Soviet montagists for explicitly ideological ends (as opposed to Hollywood’s opportunistic swipings) resided on the left of the spectrum – and, in the montagists’ most notable successor in the period immediately following, retained their alignment with and inextricability from the state.

Progressive vs radical

The Grierson ian documentary movement in Britain neutered the political and aesthetic radicalism of its more dynamic model in favour of paternalistic progressivism founded on conformity, class complacency and snobbery towards its own medium. But if it offered a far paler antecedent to the essay film than the Soviet montage tradition, it nevertheless represents an important stage in the evolution of the essay-film form, for reasons not unrelated to some of those rather staid qualities.

The Soviet montagists had created a vision of modernity racing into the future at pace with the social and spiritual liberation of its proletarian pilot-passenger, an aggressively public ideology of group solidarity. The Grierson school, by contrast, offered a domesticated image of an efficient, rational and productive modern industrial society based on interconnected but separate public and private spheres, as per the ideological values of middle-class liberal individualism.

The Soviet montagists had looked to forge a universal, ‘pure’ cinematic language, at least before the oppressive dictates of Stalinist socialist realism shackled them. The Grierson school, evincing a middle-class disdain for the popular and ‘low’ arts, sought instead to purify the sullied medium of cinema by importing extra-cinematic prestige: most notably Night Mail (1936), with its Auden -penned, Britten -scored ode to the magic of the mail, or Humphrey Jennings’s salute to wartime solidarity A Diary for Timothy (1945), with its mildly sententious E.M. Forster narration.

Night Mail (1936)

What this domesticated dynamism and retrograde pursuit of high-cultural bona fides achieved, however, was to mingle a newfound cinematic language (montage) with a traditionally literary one (narration); and, despite the salutes to state-oriented communality, to re-introduce the individual, idiosyncratic voice as the vehicle of meaning – as the mediating intelligence that connects the viewer to the images viewed.

In Night Mail especially there is, in the whimsy of the Auden text and the film’s synchronisation of private time and public history, an intimation of the essay film’s musing, reflective voice as the chugging rhythm of the narration timed to the speeding wheels of the train gives way to a nocturnal vision of solitary dreamers bedevilled by spectral monsters, awakening in expectation of the postman’s knock with a “quickening of the heart/for who can bear to be forgot?”

It’s a curiously disquieting conclusion: this unsettling, anxious vision of disappearance that takes on an even darker shade with the looming spectre of war – one that rhymes, five decades on, with the wistful search of Marker’s narrator in Sans soleil, seeking those fleeting images which “quicken the heart” in a world where wars both past and present have been forgotten, subsumed in a modern society built upon the systematic banishment of memory.

It is, of course, with the seminal post-war collaborations between Marker and Alain Resnais that the essay film proper emerges. In contrast to the striving culture-snobbery of the Griersonian documentary, the Resnais-Marker collaborations (and the Resnais solo documentary shorts that preceded them) inaugurate a blithe, seemingly effortless dialogue between cinema and the other arts in both their subjects (painting, sculpture) and their assorted creative personnel (writers Paul Éluard , Jean Cayrol , Raymond Queneau , composers Darius Milhaud and Hanns Eisler ). This also marks the point where the revolutionary line of the Soviets and the soft, statist liberalism of the British documentarians give way to a more free-floating but staunchly oppositional leftism, one derived as much from a spirit of humanistic inquiry as from ideological affiliation.

Related to this was the form’s problems with official patronage. Originally conceived as commissions by various French government or government-affiliated bodies, the Resnais-Marker films famously ran into trouble from French censors: Les statues meurent aussi (1953) for its condemnation of French colonialism, Night and Fog for its shots of Vichy policemen guarding deportation camps; the former film would have its second half lopped off before being cleared for screening, the latter its offending shots removed.

Night and Fog (1955)

Appropriately, it is at this moment that the emphasis of the essay film begins to shift away from tactile presence – the whirl of the city, the rhythm of the rain, the workings of industry – to felt absence. The montagists had marvelled at the workings of human creations which raced ahead irrespective of human efforts; here, the systems created by humanity to master the world write, in their very functioning, an epitaph for those things extinguished in the act of mastering them. The African masks preserved in the Musée de l’Homme in Les statues meurent aussi speak of a bloody legacy of vanquished and conquered civilisations; the labyrinthine archival complex of the Bibliothèque Nationale in the sardonically titled Toute la mémoire du monde (1956) sparks a disquisition on all that is forgotten in the act of cataloguing knowledge; the miracle of modern plastics saluted in the witty, industrially commissioned Le Chant du styrène (1958) regresses backwards to its homely beginnings; in Night and Fog an unprecedentedly enormous effort of human organisation marshals itself to actively produce a dreadful, previously unimaginable nullity.

To overstate the case, loss is the primary motor of the modern essay film: loss of belief in the image’s ability to faithfully reflect reality; loss of faith in the cinema’s ability to capture life as it is lived; loss of illusions about cinema’s ‘purity’, its autonomy from the other arts or, for that matter, the world.

“You never know what you may be filming,” notes one of Marker’s narrating surrogates in A Grin Without a Cat, as footage of the Chilean equestrian team at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics offers a glimpse of a future member of the Pinochet junta. The image and sound captured at the time of filming offer one facet of reality; it is only with this lateral move outside that reality that the future reality it conceals can speak.

What will distinguish the essay film, as Bazin noted, is not only its ability to make the image but also its ability to interrogate it, to dispel the illusion of its sovereignty and see it as part of a matrix of meaning that extends beyond the screen. No less than were the montagists, the film-essayists seek the motive forces of modern society not by crystallising eternal verities in powerful images but by investigating that ever-shifting, kaleidoscopic relationship between our regime of images and the realities it both reveals and occludes.

— Andrew Tracy

1.   À propos de Nice

Jean Vigo, 1930

Few documentaries have achieved the cult status of the 22-minute A propos de Nice, co-directed by Jean Vigo and cameraman Boris Kaufman at the beginning of their careers. The film retains a spontaneous, apparently haphazard, quality yet its careful montage combines a strong realist drive, lyrical dashes – helped by Marc Perrone’s accordion music – and a clear political agenda.

In today’s era, in which the Côte d’Azur has become a byword for hedonistic consumption, it’s refreshing to see a film that systematically undermines its glossy surface. Using images sometimes ‘stolen’ with hidden cameras, A propos de Nice moves between the city’s main sites of pleasure: the Casino, the Promenade des Anglais, the Hotel Negresco and the carnival. Occasionally the filmmakers remind us of the sea, the birds, the wind in the trees but mostly they contrast people: the rich play tennis, the poor boules; the rich have tea, the poor gamble in the (then) squalid streets of the Old Town.

As often, women bear the brunt of any critique of bourgeois consumption: a rich old woman’s head is compared to an ostrich, others grin as they gaze up at phallic factory chimneys; young women dance frenetically, their crotch to the camera. In the film’s most famous image, an elegant woman is ‘stripped’ by the camera to reveal her naked body – not quite matched by a man’s shoes vanishing to display his naked feet to the shoe-shine.

An essay film avant la lettre , A propos de Nice ends on Soviet-style workers’ faces and burning furnaces. The message is clear, even if it has not been heeded by history.

— Ginette Vincendeau

2. A Diary for Timothy

Humphrey Jennings, 1945

A Diary for Timothy takes the form of a journal addressed to the eponymous Timothy James Jenkins, born on 3 September 1944, exactly five years after Britain’s entry into World War II. The narrator, Michael Redgrave , a benevolent offscreen presence, informs young Timothy about the momentous events since his birth and later advises that, even when the war is over, there will be “everyday danger”.

The subjectivity and speculative approach maintained throughout are more akin to the essay tradition than traditional propaganda in their rejection of mere glib conveyance of information or thunderous hectoring. Instead Jennings invites us quietly to observe the nuances of everyday life as Britain enters the final chapter of the war. Against the momentous political backdrop, otherwise routine, everyday activities are ascribed new profundity as the Welsh miner Geronwy, Alan the farmer, Bill the railway engineer and Peter the convalescent fighter pilot go about their daily business.

Within the confines of the Ministry of Information’s remit – to lift the spirits of a battle-weary nation – and the loose narrative framework of Timothy’s first six months, Jennings finds ample expression for the kind of formal experiment that sets his work apart from that of other contemporary documentarians. He worked across film, painting, photography, theatrical design, journalism and poetry; in Diary his protean spirit finds expression in a manner that transgresses the conventional parameters of wartime propaganda, stretching into film poem, philosophical reflection, social document, surrealistic ethnographic observation and impressionistic symphony. Managing to keep to the right side of sentimentality, it still makes for potent viewing.

— Catherine McGahan

3. Toute la mémoire du monde

Alain Resnais, 1956

In the opening credits of Toute la mémoire du monde, alongside the director’s name and that of producer Pierre Braunberger , one reads the mysterious designation “Groupe des XXX”. This Group of Thirty was an assembly of filmmakers who mobilised in the early 1950s to defend the “style, quality and ambitious subject matter” of short films in post-war France; the signatories of its 1953 ‘Declaration’ included Resnais , Chris Marker and Agnès Varda. The success of the campaign contributed to a golden age of short filmmaking that would last a decade and form the crucible of the French essay film.

A 22-minute poetic documentary about the old French Bibliothèque Nationale, Toute la mémoire du monde is a key work in this strand of filmmaking and one which can also be seen as part of a loose ‘trilogy of memory’ in Resnais’s early documentaries. Les statues meurent aussi (co-directed with Chris Marker) explored cultural memory as embodied in African art and the depredations of colonialism; Night and Fog was a seminal reckoning with the historical memory of the Nazi death camps. While less politically controversial than these earlier works, Toute la mémoire du monde’s depiction of the Bibliothèque Nationale is still oddly suggestive of a prison, with its uniformed guards and endless corridors. In W.G. Sebald ’s 2001 novel Austerlitz, directly after a passage dedicated to Resnais’s film, the protagonist describes his uncertainty over whether, when using the library, he “was on the Islands of the Blest, or, on the contrary, in a penal colony”.

Resnais explores the workings of the library through the effective device of following a book from arrival and cataloguing to its delivery to a reader (the book itself being something of an in-joke: a mocked-up travel guide to Mars in the Petite Planète series Marker was then editing for Editions du Seuil). With Resnais’s probing, mobile camerawork and a commentary by French writer Remo Forlani, Toute la mémoire du monde transforms the library into a mysterious labyrinth, something between an edifice and an organism: part brain and part tomb.

— Chris Darke

4. The House is Black

(Khaneh siah ast) Forough Farrokhzad, 1963

Before the House of Makhmalbaf there was The House is Black. Called “the greatest of all Iranian films” by critic Jonathan Rosenbaum, who helped translate the subtitles from Farsi into English, this 20-minute black-and-white essay film by feminist poet Farrokhzad was shot in a leper colony near Tabriz in northern Iran and has been heralded as the touchstone of the Iranian New Wave.

The buildings of the Baba Baghi colony are brick and peeling whitewash but a student asked to write a sentence using the word ‘house’ offers Khaneh siah ast : the house is black. His hand, seen in close-up, is one of many in the film; rather than objects of medical curiosity, these hands – some fingerless, many distorted by the disease – are agents, always in movement, doing, making, exercising, praying. In putting white words on the blackboard, the student makes part of the film; in the next shots, the film’s credits appear, similarly handwritten on the same blackboard.

As they negotiate the camera’s gaze and provide the soundtrack by singing, stamping and wheeling a barrow, the lepers are co-authors of the film. Farrokhzad echoes their prayers, heard and seen on screen, with her voiceover, which collages religious texts, beginning with the passage from Psalm 55 famously set to music by Mendelssohn (“O for the wings of a dove”).

In the conjunctions between Farrokhzad’s poetic narration and diegetic sound, including tanbur-playing, an intense assonance arises. Its beat is provided by uniquely lyrical associative editing that would influence Abbas Kiarostami , who quotes Farrokhzad’s poem ‘The Wind Will Carry Us’ in his eponymous film . Repeated shots of familiar bodily movement, made musical, move the film insistently into the viewer’s body: it is infectious. Posing a question of aesthetics, The House Is Black uses the contagious gaze of cinema to dissolve the screen between Us and Them.

— Sophie Mayer

5. Letter to Jane: An Investigation About a Still

Jean-Luc Godard & Jean-Pierre Gorin, 1972

With its invocation of Brecht (“Uncle Bertolt”), rejection of visual pleasure (for 52 minutes we’re mostly looking at a single black-and-white still) and discussion of the role of intellectuals in “the revolution”, Letter to Jane is so much of its time as to appear untranslatable to the present except as a curio from a distant era of radical cinema. Between 1969 and 1971, Godard and Gorin made films collectively as part of the Dziga Vertov Group before they returned, in 1972, to the mainstream with Tout va bien , a big-budget film about the aftermath of May 1968 featuring leftist stars Yves Montand and  Jane Fonda . It was to the latter that Godard and Gorin directed their Letter after seeing a news photograph of her on a solidarity visit to North Vietnam in August 1972.

Intended to accompany the US release of Tout va bien, Letter to Jane is ‘a letter’ only in as much as it is fairly conversational in tone, with Godard and Gorin delivering their voiceovers in English. It’s stylistically more akin to the ‘blackboard films’ of the time, with their combination of pedagogical instruction and stern auto-critique.

It’s also an inspired semiological reading of a media image and a reckoning with the contradictions of celebrity activism. Godard and Gorin examine the image’s framing and camera angle and ask why Fonda is the ‘star’ of the photograph while the Vietnamese themselves remain faceless or out of focus? And what of her expression of compassionate concern? This “expression of an expression” they trace back, via an elaboration of the Kuleshov effect , through other famous faces – Henry Fonda , John Wayne , Lillian Gish and Falconetti – concluding that it allows for “no reverse shot” and serves only to bolster Western “good conscience”.

Letter to Jane is ultimately concerned with the same question that troubled philosophers such as Levinas and Derrida : what’s at stake ethically when one claims to speak “in place of the other”? Any contemporary critique of celebrity activism – from Bono and Geldof to Angelina Jolie – should start here, with a pair of gauchiste trolls muttering darkly beneath a press shot of ‘Hanoi Jane’.

6. F for Fake

Orson Welles, 1973

Those who insist it was all downhill for Orson Welles after Citizen Kane would do well to take a close look at this film made more than three decades later, in its own idiosyncratic way a masterpiece just as innovative as his better-known feature debut.

Perhaps the film’s comparative and undeserved critical neglect is due to its predominantly playful tone, or perhaps it’s because it is a low-budget, hard-to-categorise, deeply personal work that mixes original material with plenty of footage filmed by others – most extensively taken from a documentary by François Reichenbach about Clifford Irving and his bogus biography of his friend Elmyr de Hory , an art forger who claimed to have painted pictures attributed to famous names and hung in the world’s most prestigious galleries.

If the film had simply offered an account of the hoaxes perpetrated by that disreputable duo, it would have been entertaining enough but, by means of some extremely inventive, innovative and inspired editing, Welles broadens his study of fakery to take in his own history as a ‘charlatan’ – not merely his lifelong penchant for magician’s tricks but also the 1938 radio broadcast of his news-report adaptation of H.G. Wells’ The War of the Worlds – as well as observations on Howard Hughes , Pablo Picasso and the anonymous builders of Chartres cathedral. So it is that Welles contrives to conjure up, behind a colourful cloak of consistently entertaining mischief, a rueful meditation on truth and falsehood, art and authorship – a subject presumably dear to his heart following Pauline Kael ’s then recent attempts to persuade the world that Herman J. Mankiewicz had been the real creative force behind Kane.

As a riposte to that thesis (albeit never framed as such), F for Fake is subtle, robust, supremely erudite and never once bitter; the darkest moment – as Welles contemplates the serene magnificence of Chartres – is at once an uncharacteristic but touchingly heartfelt display of humility and a poignant memento mori. And it is in this delicate balancing of the autobiographical with the universal, as well as in the dazzling deployment of cinematic form to illustrate and mirror content, that the film works its once unique, now highly influential magic.

— Geoff Andrew

7. How to Live in the German Federal Republic

(Leben – BRD) Harun Farocki, 1990

Harun Farocki ’s portrait of West Germany in 32 simulations from training sessions has no commentary, just the actions themselves in all their surreal beauty, one after the other. The Bundesrepublik Deutschland is shown as a nation of people who can deal with everything because they have been prepared – taught how to react properly in every possible situation.

We know how birth works; how to behave in kindergarten; how to chat up girls, boys or whatever we fancy (for we’re liberal-minded, if only in principle); how to look for a job and maybe live without finding one; how to wiggle our arses in the hottest way possible when we pole-dance, or manage a hostage crisis without things getting (too) bloody. Whatever job we do, we know it by heart; we also know how to manage whatever kind of psychological breakdown we experience; and we are also prepared for the end, and even have an idea about how our burial will go. This is the nation: one of fearful people in dire need of control over their one chance of getting it right.

Viewed from the present, How to Live in the German Federal Republic is revealed as the archetype of many a Farocki film in the decades to follow, for example Die Umschulung (1994), Der Auftritt (1996) or Nicht ohne Risiko (2004), all of which document as dispassionately as possible different – not necessarily simulated – scenarios of social interactions related to labour and capital. For all their enlightening beauty, none of these ever came close to How to Live in the German Federal Republic which, depending on one’s mood, can play like an absurd comedy or the most gut-wrenching drama. Yet one disquieting thing is certain: How to Live in the German Federal Republic didn’t age – our lives still look the same.

— Olaf Möller

8. One Man’s War

(La Guerre d’un seul homme) Edgardo Cozarinsky , 1982

One Man’s War proves that an auteur film can be made without writing a line, recording a sound or shooting a single frame. It’s easy to point to the ‘extraordinary’ character of the film, given its combination of materials that were not made to cohabit; there couldn’t be a less plausible dialogue than the one Cozarinsky establishes between the newsreels shot during the Nazi occupation of Paris and the Parisian diaries of novelist and Nazi officer Ernst Jünger . There’s some truth to Pascal Bonitzer’s assertion in Cahiers du cinéma in 1982 that the principle of the documentary was inverted here, since it is the images that provide a commentary for the voice.

But that observation still doesn’t pin down the uniqueness of a work that forces history through a series of registers, styles and dimensions, wiping out the distance between reality and subjectivity, propaganda and literature, cinema and journalism, daily life and dream, and establishing the idea not so much of communicating vessels as of contaminating vessels.

To enquire about the essayistic dimension of One Man’s War is to submit it to a test of purity against which the film itself is rebelling. This is no ars combinatoria but systems of collision and harmony; organic in their temporal development and experimental in their procedural eagerness. It’s like a machine created to die instantly; neither Cozarinsky nor anyone else could repeat the trick, as is the case with all great avant-garde works.

By blurring the genre of his literary essays, his fictional films, his archival documentaries, his literary fictions, Cozarinsky showed he knew how to reinvent the erasure of borders. One Man’s War is not a film about the Occupation but a meditation on the different forms in which that Occupation can be represented.

—Sergio Wolf. Translated by Mar Diestro-Dópido

9. Sans soleil

Chris Marker, 1982

There are many moments to quicken the heart in Sans soleil but one in particular demonstrates the method at work in Marker’s peerless film. An unseen female narrator reads from letters sent to her by a globetrotting cameraman named Sandor Krasna (Marker’s nom de voyage), one of which muses on the 11th-century Japanese writer  Sei Shōnagon .

As we hear of Shōnagon’s “list of elegant things, distressing things, even of things not worth doing”, we watch images of a missile being launched and a hovering bomber. What’s the connection? There is none. Nothing here fixes word and image in illustrative lockstep; it’s in the space between them that Sans soleil makes room for the spectator to drift, dream and think – to inimitable effect.

Sans soleil was Marker’s return to a personal mode of filmmaking after more than a decade in militant cinema. His reprise of the epistolary form looks back to earlier films such as  Letter from Siberia  (1958) but the ‘voice’ here is both intimate and removed. The narrator’s reading of Krasna’s letters flips the first person to the third, using ‘he’ instead of ‘I’. Distance and proximity in the words mirror, multiply and magnify both the distances travelled and the time spanned in the images, especially those of the 1960s and its lost dreams of revolutionary social change.

While it’s handy to define Sans soleil as an ‘essay film’, there’s something about the dry term that doesn’t do justice to the experience of watching it. After Marker’s death last year, when writing programme notes on the film, I came up with a line that captures something of what it’s like to watch Sans soleil: “a mesmerising, lucid and lovely river of film, which, like the river of the ancients, is never the same when one steps into it a second time”.

10. Handsworth Songs

Black Audio Film Collective, 1986

Made at the time of civil unrest in Birmingham, this key example of the essay film at its most complex remains relevant both formally and thematically. Handsworth Songs is no straightforward attempt to provide answers as to why the riots happened; instead, using archive film spliced with made and found footage of the events and the media and popular reaction to them, it creates a poetic sense of context.

The film is an example of counter-media in that it slows down the demand for either immediate explanation or blanket condemnation. Its stillness allows the history of immigration and the subsequent hostility of the media and the police to the black and Asian population to be told in careful detail.

One repeated scene shows a young black man running through a group of white policemen who surround him on all sides. He manages to break free several times before being wrestled to the ground; if only for one brief, utopian moment, an entirely different history of race in the UK is opened up.

The waves of post-war immigration are charted in the stories told both by a dominant (and frequently repressive) televisual narrative and, importantly, by migrants themselves. Interviews mingle with voiceover, music accompanies the machines that the Windrush generation work at. But there are no definitive answers here, only, as the Black Audio Film Collective memorably suggests, “the ghosts of songs”.

— Nina Power

11.   Los Angeles Plays Itself

Thom Andersen, 2003

One of the attractions that drew early film pioneers out west, besides the sunlight and the industrial freedom, was the versatility of the southern Californian landscape: with sea, snowy mountains, desert, fruit groves, Spanish missions, an urban downtown and suburban boulevards all within a 100-mile radius, the Los Angeles basin quickly and famously became a kind of giant open-air film studio, available and pliant.

Of course, some people actually live there too. “Sometimes I think that gives me the right to criticise,” growls native Angeleno Andersen in his forensic three-hour prosecution of moving images of the movie city, whose mounting litany of complaints – couched in Encke King’s gravelly, near-parodically irritated voiceover, and sometimes organised, as Stuart Klawans wrote in The Nation, “in the manner of a saloon orator” – belies a sly humour leavening a radically serious intent.

Inspired in part by Mark Rappaport’s factual essay appropriations of screen fictions (Rock Hudson’s Home Movies, 1993; From the Journals of Jean Seberg , 1995), as well as Godard’s Histoire(s) de cinéma, this “city symphony in reverse” asserts public rights to our screen discourse through its magpie method as well as its argument. (Today you could rebrand it ‘Occupy Hollywood’.) Tinseltown malfeasance is evidenced across some 200 different film clips, from offences against geography and slurs against architecture to the overt historical mythologies of Chinatown (1974), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) and L.A. Confidential (1997), in which the city’s class and cultural fault-lines are repainted “in crocodile tears” as doleful tragedies of conspiracy, promoting hopelessness in the face of injustice.

Andersen’s film by contrast spurs us to independent activism, starting with the reclamation of our gaze: “What if we watch with our voluntary attention, instead of letting the movies direct us?” he asks, peering beyond the foregrounding of character and story. And what if more movies were better and more useful, helping us see our world for what it is? Los Angeles Plays Itself grows most moving – and useful – extolling the Los Angeles neorealism Andersen has in mind: stories of “so many men unneeded, unwanted”, as he says over a scene from Billy Woodberry’s Bless Their Little Hearts (1983), “in a world in which there is so much to be done”.

— Nick Bradshaw

12.   La Morte Rouge

Víctor Erice, 2006

The famously unprolific Spanish director Víctor Erice may remain best known for his full-length fiction feature The Spirit of the Beehive (1973), but his other films are no less rewarding. Having made a brilliant foray into the fertile territory located somewhere between ‘documentary’ and ‘fiction’ with The Quince Tree Sun (1992), in this half-hour film made for the ‘Correspondences’ exhibition exploring resemblances in the oeuvres of Erice and Kiarostami , the relationship between reality and artifice becomes his very subject.

A ‘small’ work, it comprises stills, archive footage, clips from an old Sherlock Holmes movie, a few brief new scenes – mostly without actors – and music by Mompou and (for once, superbly used) Arvo Pärt . If its tone – it’s introduced as a “soliloquy” – and scale are modest, its thematic range and philosophical sophistication are considerable.

The title is the name of the Québécois village that is the setting for The Scarlet Claw (1944), a wartime Holmes mystery starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce which was the first movie Erice ever saw, taken by his sister to the Kursaal cinema in San Sebastian.

For the five-year-old, the experience was a revelation: unable to distinguish the ‘reality’ of the newsreel from that of the nightmare world of Roy William Neill’s film, he not only learned that death and murder existed but noted that the adults in the audience, presumably privy to some secret knowledge denied him, were unaffected by the corpses on screen. Had this something to do with war? Why was La Morte Rouge not on any map? And what did it signify that postman Potts was not, in fact, Potts but the killer – and an actor (whatever that was) to boot?

From such personal reminiscences – evoked with wondrous intimacy in the immaculate Castillian of the writer-director’s own wry narration – Erice fashions a lyrical meditation on themes that have underpinned his work from Beehive to Broken Windows (2012): time and change, memory and identity, innocence and experience, war and death. And because he understands, intellectually and emotionally, that the time-based medium he himself works in can reveal unforgettably vivid realities that belong wholly to the realm of the imaginary, La Morte Rouge is a great film not only about the power of cinema but about life itself.

Sight & Sound: the August 2013 issue

In this issue: Frances Ha’s Greta Gerwig – the most exciting actress in America? Plus Ryan Gosling in Only God Forgives, Wadjda, The Wall,...

More from this issue

DVDs and Blu Ray

Buy The Complete Humphrey Jennings Collection Volume Three: A Diary for Timothy on DVD and Blu Ray

Humphrey Jennings’s transition from wartime to peacetime filmmaking.

Buy Chronicle of a Summer on DVD and Blu Ray

Jean Rouch’s hugely influential and ground-breaking documentary.

Further reading

Video essay: The essay film – some thoughts of discontent

Kevin B. Lee

The land still lies: Handsworth Songs and the English riots

The world at sea: The Forgotten Space

What I owe to Chris Marker

Patricio Guzmán

His and her ghosts: reworking La Jetée

Melissa Bradshaw

At home (and away) with Agnès Varda

Daniel Trilling

Pere Portabella looks back

John Akomfrah’s Hauntologies

Laura Allsop

The roots of neorealism

Back to the top

Commercial and licensing

BFI distribution

Archive content sales and licensing

BFI book releases and trade sales

Selling to the BFI

Terms of use

BFI Southbank purchases

Online community guidelines

Cookies and privacy

©2024 British Film Institute. All rights reserved. Registered charity 287780.

See something different

Subscribe now for exclusive offers and the best of cinema. Hand-picked.

Thursday, February 23: The Clark Library is closed today.

APA Style (7th Edition) Citation Guide: Films/Videos/TV Shows

• Introduction
• Journal Articles
• Magazine/Newspaper Articles
• Books & Ebooks
• Government & Legal Documents
• Biblical Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Films/Videos/TV Shows
• How to Cite: Other
• Additional Help

Table of Contents

Film or Video

Streaming Video From a Website (YouTube, Vimeo, etc.)

Streaming video from a subscription media website (netflix, amazon prime, hulu, etc.), streaming video from a library database, television series episode.

Note: All citations should be double spaced and have a hanging indent in a Reference List.

A "hanging indent" means that each subsequent line after the first line of your citation should be indented by 0.5 inches.

This Microsoft support page contains instructions about how to format a hanging indent in a paper.

Who to Credit - Film or Video

The director should be credited as the author of a film. If the director is unknown, someone in a similar role, such as a producer and/or writer, can be credited. To clarify what role the person has in the production, their job title such as Director is put after their name in round brackets if the job title is known.

Who to Credit - Streaming Video from a Website

For videos from websites such as YouTube or Vimeo, credit the person who posted the content. If a real name is provided, use that followed by the person's user name in square brackets. If the real name of the person who posted the content is not known, just use their user name without brackets.

Note : It is not necessary to specify how you watched a film or video (e.g. motion picture, DVD, streaming online). 

In the Body of a Paper

Books, Journals, Reports, Webpages, etc.: When you refer to titles of a “stand-alone work,” as the APA calls them on their APA Style website, such as books, journals, reports, and webpages, you should italicize them. Capitalize words as you would for an article title in a reference, e.g., In the book Crying in H Mart: A memoir , author Michelle Zauner (2021) describes her biracial origin and its impact on her identity.

Article or Chapter: When you refer to the title of a part of a work, such as an article or a chapter, put quotation marks around the title and capitalize it as you would for a journal title in a reference, e.g., In the chapter “Where’s the Wine,” Zauner (2021) describes how she decided to become a musician.

The APA Sample Paper below has more information about formatting your paper.

• APA 7th ed. Sample Paper

Film or Video

When the Director, Producer and/or Writer is known:

Director/Producer/Writer's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if given. (Job Title). (Year film was produced).  Title of film: Subtitle if any  [Film]. Production Company.

Note: For other countries, list the city name and the country.

Hallam, J. (Producer, Writer), & Lam, K. (Producer, Director). (2010).  Staff relations in healthcare: Working as a team  [Film]. Insight Media.

• When you have more than one producer, writer and/or writer to credit, separate the names with a comma and put an ampersand (&) before the last person's last name.
• Serling, R. (Executive Producer). (1959–1964). The twilight zone [TV series]. Cayuga Productions; CBS Productions.

In-Text Paraphrase:

(Producer/Director/Writer's Last Name, Year)

Example: (Hallam & Lam, 2010)

Note: This example has two people to credit, so both last names are given)

In-Text Quote:

(Producer/Director/Writer's Last Name, Year, Timestamp)

Example: (Hallam & Lam, 2010, 2:30)

Note: Because the timestamp serves the same purpose in a video as page numbers, paragraph numbers or section headings, you include it in the in-text citation. Include only the beginning timestamp.

When the Director, Producer and/or Writer is not known:  Start the citation with the film title.

Title of film: Subtitle if any  [Film]. (Year film was produced). Production Company if Known.

Era of viruses  [Film]. (2006). Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

( Title of Film , Year)

Example: ( Era of Viruses , 2006)

Note: Italicize the title of the film and capitalize the words for the in-text citation.

( Title of Film , Year, Timestamp)

Example: ( Era of Viruses , 2006, 40:00)

When the Poster's Name is known: 

Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial. of person who posted the video if known. [User name that posted the video]. (Year video was posted, Month Day).  Title of video  [Video]. Website Name. URL

Note: According to APA, for citing purposes the person who posted the video is credited as the author.

Nye, B. [TheRealBillNye]. (2009, April 8).  Bill Nye the science guy on energy  [Video]. YouTube. http://youtu.be/0ASLLiuejAo

(Creator's Last Name, Year)

Example: (Nye, 2009)

(Creator's Last Name, Year, timestamp)

Example: (Nye, 2009, 0:55)

When the Poster's Name is not known: 

User name that posted the video. (Year video was posted, Month Day).  Title of video  [Video]. Website Name. URL

All Aces Media. (2012, January 19).  Often awesome the series  [Video]. Vimeo. http://vimeo.com/35311255

(User name, Year)

Example: (All Aces Media, 2012)

Example: (All Aces Media, 2012, timestamp)

Producer's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if Given. (Producer). (Year of Publication).  Title of Video  [Video]. Website Name. URL

Note:  When you have one producer (Producer) is used after the producer's name. If you have more than one producer use (Producers) instead.

Allen, T., et. al. (Producers). (2017). The story of Diana  [Video]. Netflix. http://www.netflix.com

(Producer Last name, Year)

Example: (Allen, et. al., 2017)

(Producer Last name, Year, Timestamp)

Example: (Allen, et. al., 2017, 6:45)

Name of Company/Organization that Provided Content or Creator's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial. if known. (Year video was created, Month Day if known).  Title of video  [Video]. Database Name.

National Film Board of Canada. (2014).  Making movie history: The women  [Video]. NFB Campus. 

(Name of Company/Organization, Year)

Example: (National Film Board of Canada, 2014)

(Name of Company/Organization, Year, Timestamp)

Writer, Producer and/or Director's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if given. (Job Title) if known. (Year the episode was originally aired). Title of episode (Season No., Episode No.) [TV series episode]. In Executive Producer's First Initial. Last Name (Executive producer) if known,  Television series name . Production Company.

Young, R. (Writer, Producer, Director). (2010). Flying cheap (Season 2010, Episode 2) [TV series episode]. In  Frontline . American University School of Communication's Investigative Reporting Workshop.

(Writer, Producer and/or Director's Last Name, Year)

Example: (Young, 2010)

(Writer, Producer and/or Director's Last Name, Year, Timestamp)

Example: (Young, 2010, 15:38)

Television Series Episode Viewed on a Subscription Media Website 

Writer, Producer and/or Director's Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial if given. (Job Title) if known. (Year the episode was originally aired). Title of episode (Season No., Episode No.) [TV series episode]. In Executive Producer's First Initial. Last Name (Executive producer) if known,  Television series name . Streaming Video Site. URL

Attenborough, D. (Writer). (2001). Ocean world (Season 1, Episode 1) [TV series episode]. In A. Fothergill (Executive producer),  Blue planet: A natural history of the oceans . Netflix. http://www.netflix.com

Example: (Attenborough, 2001)

 (Writer, Producer and/or Director's Last Name, Year, Timestamp)

Example: (Attenborough, 2001, 10:12)

• << Previous: Secondary Sources
• Next: How to Cite: Other >>
• Last Updated: Mar 11, 2024 3:40 PM
• URL: https://libguides.up.edu/apa

How to Write a Film Analysis Essay: Examples, Outline, & Tips

A film analysis essay might be the most exciting assignment you have ever had! After all, who doesn’t love watching movies? You have your favorite movies, maybe something you watched years ago, perhaps a classic, or a documentary. Or your professor might assign a film for you to make a critical review. Regardless, you are totally up for watching a movie for a film analysis essay.

Our specialists will write a custom essay specially for you!

However, once you have watched the movie, facing the act of writing might knock the wind out of your sails because you might be wondering how to write a film analysis essay. In summary, writing movie analysis is not as difficult as it might seem, and Custom-writing.org experts will prove this. This guide will help you choose a topic for your movie analysis, make an outline, and write the text.️ Film analysis examples are added as a bonus! Just keep reading our advice on how to get started.

❓ What Is a Film Analysis Essay?

• 🚦 Film Analysis Types

📽️ Movie Analysis Format

✍️ how to write a film analysis, 🎦 film analysis template, 🎬 film analysis essay topics.

• 📄 Essay Examples

🔗 References

To put it simply, film analysis implies watching a movie and then considering its characteristics : genre, structure, contextual context, etc. Film analysis is usually considered to be a form of rhetorical analysis . The key to success here is to formulate a clear and logical argument, supporting it with examples.

🚦 Film Analysis Essay Types

Since a film analysis essay resembles literature analysis, it makes sense that there are several ways to do it. Its types are not limited to the ones described here. Moreover, you are free to combine the approaches in your essay as well. Since your writing reflects your own opinion, there is no universal way to do it.

• Semiotic analysis . If you’re using this approach, you are expected to interpret the film’s symbolism. You should look for any signs that may have a hidden meaning. Often, they reveal some character’s features. To make the task more manageable, you can try to find the objects or concepts that appear on the screen multiple times. What is the context they appear in? It might lead you to the hidden meaning of the symbols.
• Narrative structure analysis . This type is quite similar to a typical literature guide. It includes looking into the film’s themes, plot, and motives. The analysis aims to identify three main elements: setup, confrontation, and resolution. You should find out whether the film follows this structure and what effect it creates. It will make the narrative structure analysis essay if you write about the theme and characters’ motivations as well.
• Contextual analysis . Here, you would need to expand your perspective. Instead of focusing on inner elements, the contextual analysis looks at the time and place of the film’s creation. Therefore, you should work on studying the cultural context a lot. It can also be a good idea to mention the main socio-political issues of the time. You can even relate the film’s success to the director or producer and their career.
• Mise-en-scene analysis . This type of analysis works with the most distinctive feature of the movies, audiovisual elements. However, don’t forget that your task is not only to identify them but also to explain their importance. There are so many interconnected pieces of this puzzle: the light to create the mood, the props to show off characters’ personalities, messages hidden in the song lyrics.

To write an effective film analysis essay, it is important to follow specific format requirements that include the following:

• Standard essay structure. Just as with any essay, your analysis should consist of an introduction with a strong thesis statement, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The main body usually includes a summary and an analysis of the movie’s elements.
• Present tense for events in the film. Use the present tense when describing everything that happens in the movie. This way, you can make smooth transitions between describing action and dialogue. It will also improve the overall narrative flow.
• Proper formatting of the film’s title. Don’t enclose the movie’s title in quotation marks; instead, italicize it. In addition, use the title case : that is, capitalize all major words.
• Proper use of the characters’ names. When you mention a film character for the first time, name the actor portraying them. After that, it is enough to write only the character’s name.
• In-text citations. Use in-text citations when describing certain scenes or shots from the movie. Format them according to your chosen citation style. If you use direct quotes, include the time-stamp range instead of page numbers. Here’s how it looks in the MLA format: (Smith 0:11:24–0:12:35).

Even though film analysis is similar to the literary one, you might still feel confused with where to begin. No need to worry; there are only a few additional steps you need to consider during the writing process.

Just in 1 hour! We will write you a plagiarism-free paper in hardly more than 1 hour

Need more information? It can be found in the video below.

Starting Your Film Analysis Essay

There are several things you need to do before you start writing your film analysis paper. First and foremost, you have to watch the movie. Even if you have seen it a hundred times, you need to watch it again to make a good film analysis essay.

Note that you might be given an essay topic or have to think of it by yourself. If you are free to choose a topic for your film analysis essay, reading some critical reviews before you watch the film might be a good idea. By doing this in advance, you will already know what to look for when watching the movie.

In the process of watching, keep the following tips in mind:

• Consider your impression of the movie
• Enumerate memorable details
• Try to interpret the movie message in your way
• Search for the proof of your ideas (quotes from the film)
• Make comments on the plot, settings, and characters
• Draw parallels between the movie you are reviewing and some other movies

Making a Film Analysis Essay Outline

Once you have watched and possibly re-watched your assigned or chosen movie from an analytical point of view, you will need to create a movie analysis essay outline . The task is pretty straightforward: the outline can look just as if you were working on a literary analysis or an article analysis.

Receive a plagiarism-free paper tailored to your instructions. Cut 20% off your first order!

• Introduction : This includes the basics of the movie, including the title, director, and the date of release. You should also present the central theme or ideas in the movie and your thesis statement .
• Summary : This is where you take the time to present an overview of the primary concepts in the movie, including the five Ws (who, what, when, where, and why)—don’t forget how!—as well as anything you wish to discuss that relates to the point of view, style, and structure.
• Analysis : This is the body of the essay and includes your critical analysis of the movie, why you did or did not like it, and any supporting material from the film to support your views. It would help if you also discussed whether the director and writer of the movie achieved the goal they set out to achieve.
• Conclusion: This is where you can state your thesis again and provide a summary of the primary concepts in a new and more convincing manner, making a case for your analysis. You can also include a call-to-action that will invite the reader to watch the movie or avoid it entirely.

You can find a great critical analysis template at Thompson Rivers University website. In case you need more guidance on how to write an analytical paper, check out our article .

Writing & Editing Your Film Analysis Essay

We have already mentioned that there are differences between literary analysis and film analysis. They become especially important when one starts writing their film analysis essay.

First of all, the evidence you include to support the arguments is not the same. Instead of quoting the text, you might need to describe the audiovisual elements.

However, the practice of describing the events is similar in both types. You should always introduce a particular sequence in the present tense. If you want to use a piece of a dialogue between more than two film characters, you can use block quotes. However, since there are different ways to do it, confirm with your supervisor.

For your convenience, you might as well use the format of the script, for which you don’t have to use quotation marks:

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

ELSA: But she won’t remember I have powers?

KING: It’s for the best.

Finally, to show off your proficiency in the subject, look at the big picture. Instead of just presenting the main elements in your analysis, point out their significance. Describe the effect they make on the overall impression form the film. Moreover, you can dig deeper and suggest the reasons why such elements were used in a particular scene to show your expertise.

Stuck writing a film analysis essay? Worry not! Use our template to structure your movie analysis properly.

Introduction

• The title of the film is… [title]
• The director is… [director’s name] He/she is known for… [movies, style, etc.]
• The movie was released on… [release date]
• The themes of the movie are… [state the film’s central ideas]
• The film was made because… [state the reasons]
• The movie is… because… [your thesis statement].
• The main characters are… [characters’ names]
• The events take place in… [location]
• The movie is set in… [time period]
• The movie is about… [state what happens in the film and why]
• The movie left a… [bad, unforgettable, lasting, etc.] impression in me.
• The script has… [a logical sequence of events, interesting scenes, strong dialogues, character development, etc.]
• The actors portray their characters… [convincingly, with intensity, with varying degree of success, in a manner that feels unnatural, etc.]
• The soundtrack is [distracting, fitting, memorable, etc.]
• Visual elements such as… [costumes, special effects, etc.] make the film [impressive, more authentic, atmospheric, etc.]
• The film succeeds/doesn’t succeed in engaging the target audience because it… [tells a compelling story, features strong performances, is relevant, lacks focus, is unauthentic, etc.]
• Cultural and societal aspects make the film… [thought-provoking, relevant, insightful, problematic, polarizing, etc.]
• The director and writer achieved their goal because… [state the reasons]
• Overall, the film is… [state your opinion]
• I would/wouldn’t recommend watching the movie because… [state the reasons]
• Analysis of the film Inception by Christopher Nolan .
• Examine the rhetoric in the film The Red Balloon .
• Analyze the visual effects of Zhang Yimou’s movie Hero .
• Basic concepts of the film Interstellar by Christopher Nolan.
• The characteristic features of Federico Fellini’s movies.
• Analysis of the movie The Joker .
• The depiction of ethical issues in Damaged Care .
• Analyze the plot of the film Moneyball .
• Explore the persuasive techniques used in Henry V .
• Analyze the movie Killing Kennedy .
• Discuss the themes of the film Secret Window .
• Describe the role of audio and video effects in conveying the message of the documentary Life in Renaissance .
• Compare and analyze the films Midnight Cowboy and McCabe and Mrs. Miller .
• Analysis of the movie Rear Window .
• The message behind the film Split .
• Analyze the techniques used by Tim Burton in his movie Sleepy Hollow .
• The topic of children’s abuse and importance of trust in Joseph Sargent’s Sybil .
• Examine the themes and motives of the film Return to Paradise by Joseph Ruben .
• The issues of gender and traditions in the drama The Whale Rider.
• Analysis of the film Not Easily Broken by Duke Bill.
• The symbolism in R. Scott’s movie Thelma and Louise .
• The meaning of audiovisual effects in Citizen Kane .
• Analyze the main characters of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo .
• Discuss the historical accuracy of the documentary The Civil War .
• Analysis of the movie Through a Glass Darkly .
• Explore the core idea of the comedy Get Out .
• The problem of artificial intelligence and human nature in Ex Machina .
• Three principles of suspense used in the drama The Fugitive .
• Examine the ideas Michael Bay promotes in Armageddon .
• Analyze the visual techniques used in Tenet by Christopher Nolan.
• Analysis of the movie The Green Mile .
• Discrimination and exclusion in the film The Higher Learning .
• The hidden meaning of the scenes in Blade Runner .
• Compare the social messages of the films West Side Story and Romeo + Juliet .
• Highlighting the problem of children’s mental health in the documentary Kids in Crisis .
• Discuss the ways Paul Haggis establishes the issue of racial biases in his movie Crash .
• Analyze the problem of moral choice in the film Gone Baby Gone .
• Analysis of the historical film Hacksaw Ridge .
• Explore the main themes of the film Mean Girls by Mark Walters .
• The importance of communication in the movie Juno .
• Describe the techniques the authors use to highlight the problems of society in Queen and Slim .
• Examine the significance of visual scenes in My Family/ Mi Familia .
• Analysis of the thriller Salt by Phillip Noyce.
• Analyze the message of Greg Berlanti’s film Love, Simon .
• Interpret the symbols of the film The Wizard of Oz (1939).
• Discuss the modern issues depicted in the film The Corporation .
• Moral lessons of Edward Zwick’s Blood Diamond .
• Analysis of the documentary Solitary Nation .
• Describe the audiovisual elements of the film Pride and Prejudice (2005) .
• The problem of toxic relationships in Malcolm and Marie .

📄 Film Analysis Examples

Below you’ll find two film analysis essay examples. Note that the full versions are downloadable for free!

Film Analysis Example #1: The Intouchables

Raising acute social problems in modern cinema is a common approach to draw the public’s attention to the specific issues and challenges of people facing crucial obstacles. As a film for review, The Intouchables by Oliver Nakache and Éric Toledano will be analyzed, and one of the themes raised in this movie is the daily struggle of the person with severe disabilities. This movie is a biographical drama with comedy elements. The Intouchables describes the routine life of a French millionaire who is confined to a wheelchair and forced to receive help from his servants. The acquaintance of the disabled person with a young and daring man from Parisian slums changes the lives of both radically. The film shows that for a person with disabilities, recognition as a full member of society is more important than sympathy and compassion, and this message expressed comically raises an essential problem of human loneliness.

Movie Analysis Example #2: Parasite

Parasite is a 2019 South Korean black comedy thriller movie directed by Bong Joon-ho and is the first film with a non-English script to win Best Picture at the Oscars in 2020. With its overwhelming plot and acting, this motion picture retains a long-lasting effect and some kind of shock. The class serves as a backbone and a primary objective of social commentary within the South Korean comedy/thriller (Kench, 2020). Every single element and detail in the movie, including the student’s stone, the contrasting architecture, family names, and characters’ behavior, contribute to the central topic of the universal problem of classism and wealth disparity. The 2020 Oscar-winning movie Parasite (2019) is a phenomenal cinematic portrayal and a critical message to modern society regarding the severe outcomes of the long-established inequalities within capitalism.

Want more examples? Check out this bonus list of 10 film analysis samples. They will help you gain even more inspiration.

• “Miss Representation” Documentary Film Analysis
• “The Patriot”: Historical Film Analysis
• “The Morning Guy” Film Analysis
• 2012′ by Roland Emmerich Film Analysis
• “The Crucible” (1996) Film Analysis
• The Aviator’ by Martin Scorsese Film Analysis
• The “Lions for Lambs” Film Analysis
• Bill Monroe – Father of Bluegrass Music Film Analysis
• Lord of the Rings’ and ‘Harry Potter’ Film Analysis
• Red Tails by George Lucas Film Analysis

Film Analysis Essay FAQ

• Watch the movie or read a detailed plot summary.
• Read others’ film reviews paying attention to details like key characters, movie scenes, background facts.
• Compose a list of ideas about what you’ve learned.
• Organize the selected ideas to create a body of the essay.
• Write an appropriate introduction and conclusion.

The benefits of analyzing a movie are numerous . You get a deeper understanding of the plot and its subtle aspects. You can also get emotional and aesthetic satisfaction. Film analysis enables one to feel like a movie connoisseur.

Here is a possible step by step scenario:

• Think about the general idea that the author probably wanted to convey.
• Consider how the idea was put across: what characters, movie scenes, and details helped in it.
• Study the broader context: the author’s other works, genre essentials, etc.

The definition might be: the process of interpreting a movie’s aspects. The movie is reviewed in terms of details creating the artistic value. A film analysis essay is a paper presenting such a review in a logically structured way.

• Film Analysis – UNC Writing Center
• Film Writing: Sample Analysis // Purdue Writing Lab
• Yale Film Analysis – Yale University
• Film Terms And Topics For Film Analysis And Writing
• Questions for Film Analysis (Washington University)
• Resources on Film Analysis – Cinema Studies (University of Toronto)
• Does Film Analysis Take the Magic out of Movies?
• Film Analysis Research Papers – Academia.edu
• What’s In a Film Analysis Essay? Medium
• Analysis of Film – SAGE Research Methods
• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to LinkedIn
• Share to email

A critique paper is an academic writing genre that summarizes and gives a critical evaluation of a concept or work. Or, to put it simply, it is no more than a summary and a critical analysis of a specific issue. This type of writing aims to evaluate the impact of...

What is a creative essay, if not the way to express yourself? Crafting such a paper is a task that allows you to communicate your opinion and tell a story. However, even using your imagination to a great extent doesn’t free you from following academic writing rules. Don’t even get...

A compare and contrast essay — what is it? In this type of paper, you compare two different things or ideas, highlighting what is similar between the two, and you also contrast them, highlighting what is different. The two things might be events, people, books, points of view, lifestyles, or...

What is an expository essay? This type of writing aims to inform the reader about the subject clearly, concisely, and objectively. The keyword here is “inform”. You are not trying to persuade your reader to think a certain way or let your own opinions and emotions cloud your work. Just stick to the...

Have you ever tried to write a story analysis but ended up being completely confused and lost? Well, the task might be challenging if you don’t know the essential rules for literary analysis creation. But don’t get frustrated! We know how to write a short story analysis, and we are...

Have you ever tried to get somebody round to your way of thinking? Then you should know how daunting the task is. Still, if your persuasion is successful, the result is emotionally rewarding. A persuasive essay is a type of writing that uses facts and logic to argument and substantiate...

One of the most critical skills that students gain during their college years is assignment writing. Composing impressive essays and research papers can be quite challenging, especially for ESL students. Nonetheless, before learning the art of academic writing, you may make numerous common essay mistakes. Such involuntary errors appear in:...

You’re probably thinking: I’m no Mahatma Gandhi or Steve Jobs—what could I possibly write in my memoir? I don’t even know how to start an autobiography, let alone write the whole thing. But don’t worry: essay writing can be easy, and this autobiography example for students is here to show...

Some people know which profession to choose from childhood, while others decide much later in life. However, and whenever you come to it, you may have to elaborate on it in your personal statement or cover letter. This is widely known as “Why I Want to Be a Teacher” essay.

Assigned with an essay about friendship? Congrats! It’s one of the best tasks you could get. Digging through your memories and finding strong arguments for this paper can be an enjoyable experience. I bet you will cope with this task effortlessly as we can help you with the assignment. Just...

When you are assigned an autobiography to write, tens, and even hundreds of questions start buzzing in your head. How to write autobiography essay parts? What to include? How to make your autobiography writing flow? Don’t worry about all this and use the following three simple principles and 15 creative...

A life experience essay combines the elements of narration, description, and self-reflection. Such a paper has to focus on a single event that had a significant impact on a person’s worldview and values. Writing an essay about life experience prompts students to do the following: evaluate their behavior in specific...

Have you ever read a review and asked yourself how the critic arrived at a different interpretation for the film? You are sure that you saw the same movie, but you interpreted it differently. Most moviegoers go to the cinema for pleasure and entertainment. There’s a reason why blockbuster movies attract moviegoers – cinema is a form of escape, a way to momentarily walk away from life’s troubles.

It’s an interesting point of view. Thank you for your opinion, Sourav!

EXCELENT COVERAGE!

Thank you, Mike!

Hi Rebecca,

Glad you liked the post. Sure thing, feel free to share the link with your audience!

All the best.

Site Content

Essays on the essay film.

Edited by Nora M. Alter and Timothy Corrigan

Columbia University Press

Pub Date: March 2017

ISBN: 9780231172677

Format: Paperback

List Price: $37.00 £30.00

Shipping Options

Purchasing options are not available in this country.

ISBN: 9780231172660

Format: Hardcover

List Price: $120.00 £100.00

ISBN: 9780231543996

Format: E-book

List Price: $36.99 £30.00

• EPUB via the Columbia UP App
• PDF via the Columbia UP App

Creatively and capaciously, this rich volume gets at the essay film not only by including key critics and practitioners of the form but, importantly, by going beyond the genre itself to broader contributions to essay theorization from philosophy and belles lettres. An exciting, inventive volume with great delights at every turn. Dana Polan, New York University

Alter and Corrigan's masterful new volume on the essay film is rigorous, comprehensive, and refreshingly surprising. Their invaluable collection probes theoretical reflections on the essay as a mode of expression and a way of thinking in light of the creative and political investments of filmmakers around the globe; it also chronicles the essay film's changing countenances, from its prehistory and early signs of life to novel permutations in the present. Featuring a very distinguished cast of players, this collection is a production of the highest order. Eric Rentschler, Harvard University

Nora Alter and Tim Corrigan bring their seasoned literary experience to herd but never tame the unruly essay film. Its prestige soaring, this mode is tethered to a long history of experimental writing that will keep it from disappearing into the bog of blogs and YouTube mashups whose best examples it is already inspiring. The proof is in the Table of Contents: a brilliant litany of sensitive, reliable writers, who dare to take on the most daring forms of image-thought the cinema has produced. Dudley Andrew, Yale University

Recent years have witnessed a rapid growth in interest in the history, concept and diverse manifestations of the essay film. In this essential collection, Nora Alter and Timothy Corrigan have brought together a superb selection of foundational texts with a range of key recent writings by leading scholars and essay filmmakers. The result is an enormously rich resource for anyone interested in the past, present, and future of this most vital of audiovisual forms. Michael Witt, University of Roehampton

About the Author

• Film and Media Studies
• Film History, Theory, and Criticism
• Photography
• Film and Culture Series

• Listening Tests
• Academic Tests
• General Tests
• IELTS Writing Checker
• IELTS Writing Samples
• Speaking Club
• IELTS AI Speaking Test Simulator
• Latest Topics
• Vocabularying
• 2024 © IELTS 69

Describe a TV documentary you watched that was particularly interesting. - what was it about? - why did you decide to watch it? - what did you learn during watching the documentary? v.1

Ielts essay describe a tv documentary you watched that was particularly interesting. - what was it about - why did you decide to watch it - what did you learn during watching the documentary v. 1.

• Structure your answers in logical paragraphs
• ? One main idea per paragraph
• Include an introduction and conclusion
• Support main points with an explanation and then an example
• Use cohesive linking words accurately and appropriately
• Vary your linking phrases using synonyms
• Try to vary your vocabulary using accurate synonyms
• Use less common question specific words that accurately convey meaning
• Check your work for spelling and word formation mistakes
• Use a variety of complex and simple sentences
• Check your writing for errors
• Answer all parts of the question
• ? Present relevant ideas
• Fully explain these ideas
• Support ideas with relevant, specific examples
• ? Currently is not available
• Meet the criteria
• Doesn't meet the criteria
• 7 band 1. WHERE DO YOU WATCH tv programs/shows? (why/why not)2. What is your favorite tv programs/shows? (why/why not)3. Are there any tv programs/shows you do not like watching? (why/why not)4. Will you watch more or fewer programs/shows in future? (why/why not) v. 1 Many people have abandoned traditional way to buy products. These days popular way of shopping is online and it is rising. In my opinion, I believe this have increased problem to our surroundings and also many people are losing jobs. To begin with, Due to rise of live shopping has seriously damaged ...
• 7 band where do i live? Do you think it is interesting to live there? Do you usually wear watch? Do you think time management is important? Why do you think people like to wear an elegant watch? Have you ever received a watch as a gift? Are you ever late for anything? v. 1 For ages, people have been presenting gifts as a gesture of love, good will and affection towards their loved ones. However, in modern times, many would argue that such practices lead to wastage of money as the gifts presented, to the close relatives, often tend to be less useful to them. In my opin ...
• To have another language is to possess a second soul. Charlemagne
• 7.5 band 2061 Describe a sporting event you enjoyed watching. You should say: what event it waswhat happened at this eventwho you watched it withand explain why you enjoyed watching this event. v. 1 Artificial intelligence and automation, produce robotics which will eventually replace humans and take their manual jobs and tasks. However, there are certain drawbacks which cannot be compared to the increase in productivity, profits of these multinational companies and the costs of these robots wh ...
• 7.5 band Describe a TV documentary you watched that was particularly interestingYou should say; what the documentary was aboutwhy you decided to watch itwhat you learnt during the documentary and explain why the documentary was particularly interesting? v. 1 Climate change has emerged as a major problem in recent decades. Many people advocate that trees should be planted on unused land in various cities and towns, whereas others argue building houses is more important. I believe is owed to the environmental challenges being faced by humanity, plantation ...
• Learning another language is not only learning different words for the same things, but learning another way to think about things. Flora Lewis
• 6.5 band Describe an interesting neighbour of yours Please say Who is your neighbour How did you meet him her How often do you see the neighbour v. 1
• 6.5 band Describe a game that you used to play in the past: - Why did you enjoy it? - Was is useful for you? - Who did you play this game with? v. 1
• 6.5 band Describe a relative who you are like. You should say: - who the relative is and how close you are to them - what makes you and your relative alike - why you think you and your relative have these shared qualities. And describe what you enjoy about your re v. 1
• 6.5 band Describe a resource that helped you to do something better than before. Describe it and explain why it was helpful to you. v. 1
• One should not aim at being possible to understand but at being impossible to misunderstand. Marcus Fabius Quintilian

Advertisement

Supported by

Critic’s Pick

‘It’s Only Life After All’ Review: Indigo Girls Laugh Last

The director Alexandria Bombach benefited from the musician Amy Ray’s archivist instincts in this warm, compelling new documentary.

• Share full article

By Elisabeth Vincentelli

Indigo Girls have been going strong for over 40 years now, and maybe the key to their resilience is that they never were cool. Often, they got it worse: Even at their commercial peak in the 1980s and ’90s, Amy Ray and Emily Saliers were routinely mocked for being too earnest, too poetic, too folky, too lesbian. Back then, being labeled a female, gay singer-songwriter was an artistic and commercial curse, as Ray recalls in “It’s Only Life After All,” a smart, compelling new documentary.

The director, Alexandria Bombach, greatly benefited from Ray’s archivist instincts: The musician has held on to decades’ worth of artifacts and opened up her vault — 1981 rehearsals, recorded on cassette when Ray and Saliers were in their teens, are startlingly crisp documents of a budding chemistry, for example.

From this clay Bombach has sculpted an affecting portrait of two women who have stuck to their beliefs and, just as important, their loyalty to each other. Existing fans will be mesmerized, but non-fans like me should also get a kick out of “It’s Only Life After All.” The film is especially good about contextualizing the band’s emergence in the midst of condescension (at best) from the mainstream media — their dramatic, and very funny, reading of a withering 1989 review in The New York Times is a highlight — along with their personal struggles and steadfast political engagement for causes, including the Indigenous-led organization Honor the Earth.

Now that the band is experiencing a cultural moment — its hit “Closer to Fine” was prominently featured in “Barbie,” and an indie jukebox musical movie set to their songs, “Glitter & Doom,” came out last month — it is delightful to see them have the last laugh.

It’s Only Life After All Not rated. Running time: 2 hours 3 minutes. In theaters.

Explore More in TV and Movies

Not sure what to watch next we can help..

As “Sex and the City” became more widely available on Netflix, younger viewers have watched it with a critical eye . But its longtime millennial and Gen X fans can’t quit.

Hoa Xuande had only one Hollywood credit when he was chosen to lead “The Sympathizer,” the starry HBO adaptation of a prize-winning novel. He needed all the encouragement he could get .

Even before his new film “Civil War” was released, the writer-director Alex Garland faced controversy over his vision of a divided America  with Texas and California as allies.

Theda Hammel’s directorial debut, “Stress Positions,” a comedy about millennials weathering the early days of the pandemic , will ask audiences to return to a time that many people would rather forget.

If you are overwhelmed by the endless options, don’t despair — we put together the best offerings   on Netflix , Max , Disney+ , Amazon Prime  and Hulu  to make choosing your next binge a little easier.

Sign up for our Watching newsletter  to get recommendations on the best films and TV shows to stream and watch, delivered to your inbox.