what is the bridge in an essay examples

Bridge Sentences

Imagine a world without bridges, and we mean the bridges that connect pieces of land together for us to travel from one place to another. The bridge could be as short as those build over rivers or as long as the Golden Gate Bridge along the Pacific, yet their purpose remains the same. In a similar sense, bridge sentences in writing and speech serve as transitions to connect two similar or opposing ideas together. In this article, we will discuss the basic function of bridge sentences in communication.

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Defining Bridge Sentences

A bridge sentence, also known as a paragraph bridge, is a type of topic sentence that helps connect an old paragraph or idea to a new one. It conveys what the new paragraph is about and how it relates to the one introduced prior to it. The trick to doing so is to create a smooth shift of thoughts by bringing these ideas closer together. If the bridge isn’t constructed properly, then it will fail to convey the right message to its readers. These transitions can sometimes be found in the first line of the paragraph, but you can also find them at the end of a paragraph in some cases.

1. The Purpose of Bridging Paragraphs

While writing an essay or any academic or business paper, using transitional devices such as bridge sentences is essential in connecting similar thoughts together. This serves as an escort from a previous topic being discussed to a new one.

For example, the bridge sentence of an introductory paragraph is typically found between the ‘hook’ and the thesis statement . The hook is crafted to draw attention, while the bridge sentence is used to slowly introduce the thesis statement to readers. They serve as a clue for readers to understand what was being mentioned in a given article or study, what will be discussed next, and how the two topics relate to one another.

The function of a bridge sentence within multiple paragraphs of an essay writing is also similar to the one previously stated. But, instead of starting each paragraph with a topic sentence, the bridge is used to create a smooth transition of thoughts. Here, the speaker briefly discusses the previous point given in order to tie it to a new point.

2. Types of Transitions

When it comes to writing a paper, bridge sentences are generally referred to as transitional statements. These statements may consist of a few words or they can make up a whole sentence outline or paragraph. But, keep in mind that these transitions would depend on the relationship being conveyed in the write-up. To understand the proper use of these transitions, you can study the following types:

• Sequential Transitions –  Bridge sentences with sequential transitions that demonstrate a logical flow of ideas in a write-up. For example, words such as ‘thus’, ‘therefore’, and ‘then’ show a relationship between the past and the current point being discussed.
• Comparative Transitions –  This type of transitional words and phrases can come in handy, especially when the relationship between two ideas isn’t so obvious. These words serve as an effective instrument in drawing analogies that are difficult to comprehend at first. Examples of such include words and phrases like ‘also’, ‘just as’, ‘like’, and ‘similarly’.
• Contrastive Transitions – For instances when you’re neither looking at similarities nor describing relationships but instead focusing on contrasting qualities, these transitions can be extremely useful. Not only can these transitions help emphasize central ideas in a compare-and-contrast essay, but they can also help debunk a claim or point out the opposite side of an issue. Examples that fall under this category include ‘though’, ‘but’, ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘nonetheless’, ‘then again’, ‘on the other hand’, and ‘at the same time’. You may also see Short Sentence Example .
• Summing Up Transitions –  After proving your point, you’d want to throw in that one last thought, to sum up, every important detail provided. To ensure that readers don’t miss the main idea of your paragraph or article, these transitional sentences can help in introducing your final thought in a quick yet appropriate manner. Transitional words in this category include ‘essentially’, ‘basically’, ‘ultimately’, ‘in short’, and ‘in other words’.

3. Examples of Bridge Sentences

Listed below are brief samples of paragraphs consisting of bridge sentences. The bridge sentence in these examples have been  italicized  for your reference: You may also see Cumulative Sentence Example .

Sandra and her father played out in the rain despite the strong protest coming from her mother. They danced to the tune of the rain and watched as each droplet fell from the dark skies. She smiled, thinking of the days when she and her father listened helplessly to the endless rants of her mother as their soaking bodies form small puddles of water inside the house. You may also see Balanced Sentence Examples .

Now, thirty years later, Sandra looks back to these memories with tears filling her baby blues.

The documentary concluded its feature with North Korean soldiers dumping corpses onto a military truck.

Why would any news program carry such gruesome footage? Surely they knew what the consequences were for doing so… Instead, representatives from the news network considered it newsworthy because the clips featured exclusive content and startling visual images that viewers were interested in . You may also see Complex Sentence Example .

The World Health Organization began forming a highly-classified group of scientists to study the outpouring origins and effects of disease X. Though the disease remains unknown to society, it is likely to be a hybrid of past diseases that have been carried by animals. The team of scientists was tasked to discover the possible symptoms of the disease, along with the regions it is likely to spread in first. You may also see Compound Sentence Examples .

In other words, disease X is an existing, scientifically-generated epidemic that is yet to sweep a mass number of the earth’s population in the near future. 

Ultimately, the main objective of a bridge sentence is to help promote clear communication. By defining the relationship between two separate ideas, readers are able to grasp the connection that exists between them. This creates a smooth flow of thoughts to provide an exceptional reading experience for individuals. You may also see Parallel Sentence Example .

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What is a Bridge in an Essay | Examples

When it comes to crafting an exceptional essay, the way you transition from one idea to another can greatly impact the overall readability and coherence of your writing. This is where a “bridge” in an essay plays a crucial role.

A bridge in an essay is a connecting element that links different sections or paragraphs together. It serves as a transition, guiding readers from one idea to the next while maintaining a logical flow of thoughts. Essentially, a bridge helps readers navigate your essay smoothly, preventing abrupt shifts that could lead to confusion.

Imagine embarking on a journey through a captivating landscape, where each step unveils new vistas and perspectives. In the realm of essay writing, the reader’s experience parallels this voyage, with each idea and argument leading them through a unique intellectual terrain. But how do we ensure this journey remains smooth and engaging? The answer lies in the art of creating bridges within an essay.

Related: Can You Use Contractions in College Essays? Exploring Formality in Academic Writing

The Significance of Bridges:

Bridges are like literary connectors that hold the various parts of your essay together, creating a harmonious reading experience. They allow you to introduce new concepts, provide evidence, or transition between arguments without disorienting your audience. Without effective bridges, an essay can feel disjointed, making it challenging for readers to follow your line of reasoning.

Crafting Effective Bridges: Tips and Techniques

Creating impactful bridges requires finesse and attention to detail. Here are some expert techniques to help you master the art of crafting seamless transitions:

1. Identify Key Ideas :

Before writing your bridge, pinpoint the main ideas in the upcoming section. This will help you establish a clear connection between the current and future content.

2. Use Transitional Phrases :

Incorporate transitional phrases like “Moreover,” “On the other hand,” and “In addition” to signal a shift in focus. These phrases prepare readers for what’s to come.

3. Refer to Previous Points :

Referencing a previous argument or idea within your bridge can remind readers of your essay’s overarching theme and keep them engaged.

4. Foreshadowing :

Provide a sneak peek of the upcoming content without giving away too much. This creates anticipation and encourages readers to continue reading.

5. Rhetorical Questions :

Pose thought-provoking questions that relate to your next point. This encourages readers to ponder the upcoming content and its relevance.

6. Cohesive Vocabulary :

Use vocabulary that naturally bridges the gap between paragraphs. Synonyms, antonyms, and connecting words enhance the flow.

7. Maintain Consistent Tone :

Ensure the tone and style of your bridge align with the rest of your essay. Consistency maintains the reader’s sense of familiarity.

Related: Should College Athletes Be Paid Essay + Example

Examples of Effective Bridges:

Let’s explore a few examples to better understand how bridges function in essays:

Original Paragraph: “Climate change has led to numerous environmental challenges.”

Bridge: “Furthermore, the consequences of these environmental challenges extend beyond ecological concerns.”

In this example, the bridge “Furthermore” smoothly transitions the reader from the discussion of climate change to the broader consequences.

Original Paragraph: “Advancements in technology have revolutionized various industries.”

Bridge: “Considering these advancements, it’s evident that our daily lives have undergone a significant transformation.”

Here, the bridge “Considering these advancements” links the discussion of technology to its impact on daily life.

FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions):

How do i know if my bridge is effective.

An effective bridge connects the current and upcoming content seamlessly. If readers can follow the flow without confusion, your bridge has done its job.

Can I use bridges in different types of essays?

Absolutely! Bridges are versatile and can be used in various essay types, including argumentative, descriptive, and narrative essays.

Should I overuse transitional phrases in my bridges?

While transitional phrases are helpful, using them excessively can make your writing appear mechanical. Strike a balance for a natural flow.

Can a bridge be more than one sentence?

Yes, depending on the complexity of the transition, a bridge can span multiple sentences to ensure clarity and coherence.

Is it essential to write bridges in every essay?

While bridges enhance the reading experience, they may not be necessary in very short essays or those with a single, focused argument.

Should I write the bridge before or after the rest of the essay?

It’s generally advisable to write the bridge after completing the essay’s body. This way, you’ll have a clearer understanding of how to transition smoothly.

Mastering the art of creating effective bridges in your essays can elevate your writing from good to outstanding. By connecting ideas, using transitional techniques, and maintaining a consistent tone, you’ll guide your readers through a seamless journey of exploration. Remember, a well-crafted bridge not only enhances your essay’s coherence but also showcases your expertise in delivering a compelling narrative.

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What Is a Bridge Sentence and How to Write a Transition in an Essay

22 December 2023

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Bridge sentences are important in connecting two independent phrases, expressions, word combinations, or arguments in a paragraph or an essay. Basically, this guideline on how to write a good bridge sentence in an essay or a research article is worth reading because it entails practical ways to write connecting statements. Moreover, the article entails examples of various types of bridge statements, which mean linking phrases that provide concise information on how to ensure a proper flow of ideas in any paper using connecting statements. They allow writers to communicate effectively throughout their essays. The different types of bridge statements include topic, transitional, and concluding sentences with pointers. In this case, topic phrases introduce the main ideas in a passage, while transitional statements create a unique connection between ideas or thoughts. Besides, concluding sentences contain a clear flow of concepts and link them to other sections. However, one must select appropriate transitioning words to create appropriate bridge sentences.

General Aspects of How to Write an Outstanding Bridge Sentence in an Essay

Good essays must have a permanent quality to their content, with a unique flow of ideas and concepts. In this case, bridge sentences are useful in connecting two independent clauses, phrases, word combinations, statements, or claims . Hence, the guideline focuses on how to write a bridge sentence with its definition and meaning and provides clear examples that one can follow to create different types of essays . In turn, people should bother reading this guideline as it focuses on crucial aspects of creating various types of papers , reports, and articles. Because essays are central to advancing knowledge, one must use bridge sentences effectively to ensure effective communication.

Definition of a Bridge Sentence and Its Meaning

From a simple definition, a bridge sentence is a general term that refers to a set of phrases that link ideas and create a smooth transition between concepts in an essay or a research paper . Some examples of bridging phrases include topic, transitional, concluding statements, and pointers. In turn, a single essay or research paper may contain all these types of connecting phrases. Hence, a bridge sentence means many phrases that enable readers to relate all ideas presented in a paper because of an enhanced flow of information and logical order of ideas. A deeper explanation of different types of bridge sentence include:

• Topic Sentence : Topic sentences reveal the main message explained in a single paragraph and its relationship to a central thesis statement . Every paragraph must begin with a single topic sentence that relates to an initial argument of a paper as a sub-theme. This bridge sentence must contain a single main concept discussed in the section.   
• Transitional Sentence: Transitional sentences create a smooth connection between ideas presented in one passage. A good paragraph in an essay should have a chronological and logical flow of ideas. These bridge sentences allow a sequential presentation of thoughts.     
• Concluding Sentence: Concluding sentences summarize information and provide a link between two paragraphs, such as a current passage and a next one. In this case, good paragraphs contain a clear summary of all presented ideas. A concluding statement should appear at the end of a single passage as a bridge sentence to tie all the thoughts together.    
• Pointer Sentence : Pointers are useful in clarifying the main claim by guiding readers through the structure and argument of an essay or a research paper. For example, pointers refer readers to the previous claim, paragraph, argument, or thesis statement. In this case, they allow the audience to relate concepts and gain better insights into the presented ideas.  

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Unique Features of Writing Bridge Sentences in Essays or Research Papers & Examples

Bridge sentences are different, with unique features. What comes after a hook in an essay introduction is a transitional word. For example, a scholarly article or an academic essay may have various connecting statements. Their features depend on the purpose and location within a particular passage. Besides, authors may choose linking phrases to invoke unique thoughts or create desirable emotions. The following are descriptions and examples of different bridge sentences. 

🔹 Transitional Sentences & Bridge Example

Transition sentences are unique because they show readers how different sections of an essay connect. Transition sentences are useful in linking the college essay introduction , body, and conclusion paragraphs to create a well-organized flow of information. Placing this bridge claim at the beginning of a new paragraph helps to link it to the previous one. An example of a transition sentence is:

Further evidence supporting the hypothesis is that psychological well-being promotes student performance due to increased concentration levels.

This sentence contains information that complements the previous paragraph by providing more support for the same concept.

🔹 Topic Sentences & Bridge Example

Topic sentences are unique because they indicate the paragraph’s subject and central point. Every paragraph in an essay must begin with a topic sentence. This opening statement in a paragraph may provide a connection between the main ideas and indicate how they connect to one of three themes of a 3-point thesis . Besides, this bridge sentence forms the foundation of the supporting evidence. An example of a topic sentence is:

Existing research has consistently shown that the meat industry is unsustainable due to its detrimental environmental impacts.

This phrase introduces the passage’s main point and focuses on the meat industry’s negative environmental impacts, like other thesis statement examples . The entire paragraph should expound on this issue by using and citing credible sources .

🔹 Concluding Sentences & Bridge Example

A concluding sentence is unique because it acts as an indicator that a specific paragraph is coming to an end. This bridge sentence contains a summary of the information presented in a section. However, a conclusion does not include any new information. A practical example of a concluding statement to end a paragraph in an essay is:

Evidently, the meat industry contributes to greenhouse emissions due to methane released from animal manure.

This assertion summarizes the facts presented in a single paragraph on how the meat industry affects the environment, like other conclusion examples .  

🔹 Pointers & Bridge Example

Pointers refer to information that enables readers to understand a situation or a piece of information. These bridge statements work as topic sentences for entire sections of an essay or a research paper. In this case, they inform readers that a paper is taking a turn in its core argument. For instance, a pointer may indicate that the writer is delving into a related topic, like a counterargument, stepping up its claims with complex details, or pausing to give important historical or scholarly background. Moreover, these bridge sentences remind readers about what an essay is about and why it is written. An example of a pointer is:

For people to understand the causes of riots, it would be useful to apply sociological theories, like psychoanalytical social contagion.

This sentence points the readers to a change in the explanation strategy to include sociological theories to understand the main subject.  

🔹 Classical Bridge Sentences & Bridge Example

A classic bridge sentence is unique because it helps authors to point to previous paragraphs and introduce the topics for a new paragraph. This bridge statement is useful when writing texts with multiple passages having related information. An example of a classic bridge sentence structure is:

This advantage makes transformational leadership effective in promoting employee collaboration. However, besides enhancing communication and cooperation, it is important to mention that transformational leadership allows people to set goals and higher expectations, eventually achieving higher performances.

This phrase, which consists of two sentences, points to the previous paragraph by mentioning the advantage of transformational leadership. Furthermore, this bridge claim introduces the theme for the next passage by mentioning how this leadership style empowers employees to create achievable goals.

🔹 Question-Answer Sentences & Bridge Example

Question-answer bridge is unique because it points to the previous paragraph and introduces the main argument of the next passage. In this case, questions serve as the pointer to the previous section, and the answer connects and introduces the theme for the current passage. An example of a question-answer bridge sentence structure is:

But does transformational leadership promote employee collaboration? Surely yes, because this leadership enhances communication and cooperation among employees. When comparing transformational leadership to other management strategies, it allows people to set goals and higher expectations to achieve higher performances.

🔹 Reiteration Sentence & Bridge Example

A reiteration bridge sentence is unique because it allows writers to use repetition to transition between ideas. This type of bridge statement allows people to emphasize important concepts that the audience should acknowledge in an essay. For instance, a reiteration bridge sentence may involve the incorporation of opposite meanings. An example of a reiteration bridge is:

Demonstrations and picketing lead to unity and victory on the one hand and defeat and loss of life on the other.

This bridge sentence has phrases with contrasting meanings that point to the previous passage and provide a link to the current one. The first part points to the previous passage on the advantages of protests and strikes. The second part introduces the information presented in the current paragraph, which relates to the negative impacts of the dissent march.    

🔹 Complication Sentence & Bridge Example

A complication bridge sentence is unique since it contains a pointer, a transition word, a reference to a previous paragraph, and states the main point of the current paragraph. An example of this bridge sentence structure is:

Such advantages of transformational leadership encourage employees to cooperate in making important decisions; however, it is not as effective in democratic governance in enabling leaders to engage their subordinates in addressing emerging and existing issues.

This example has a pointer, “such,” as a bridge claim that refers to the previous paragraph. The transition word, “however,” signals to readers that transformational leadership is ineffective compared to other governance styles. Finally, it references the previous paragraph and states the main argument for the current passage that democratic leadership is better.

Schematic Examples for Writing Purposeful Bridge Sentences in an Essay

• Making an example: (The next idea) clearly illustrates / indicates / suggests / means / underlines that (the previous idea) by / in / from / on / with / within … (explanation).

Enhanced employee productivity clearly illustrates that management by walking around is better than autocratic governance because it enables leaders to identify and address problems.

• Showing a cause-effect relationship: (The previous idea) led to / results in / has allowed / improved / significantly impacted / directly caused / was the reason / (the next idea) … (explanation).

Implementing peer support to new employees improved department cooperation and innovation .

• Giving a counterexample: Even though / although / even if (the previous idea) is ‘describing the situation,’ (the next idea ) … (explanation).

Even though rewarding employees is the accepted way to enhance productivity, allowing them free time to work on interesting concepts promotes innovativeness and efficiency.

• Emphasizing a point: (The previous idea) is important / significant / crucial / essential / vital / or cannot be omitted / denied / ignored because / since (the next idea) … (explanation).

Engaging workers in identifying and addressing problems is essential in management because it enables them to feel acknowledged by the company’s top leadership.

• Contrasting: (The previous idea) differs from / can be contrasted with / is not the same as (the next idea) in how / because / since … (explanation).

Disciplining children through corporal punishment differs from empowering them because it instills fear instead of encouraging them to engage in constructive behaviors.

• Comparing: (The previous idea) is similar to / can be compared with / is the same as / has some vivid similarities with (the next idea) because / since … (explanation).

Brachytherapy resembles external beam radiotherapy because it mainly aims to shrink cancerous tumors.

• Bridge sequencing: (The previous idea) comes before / starts with / comes after (the next idea) … (explanation).

Establishing strategic goals for a company comes before performance appraisals and signing performance contracts.

• Proving: (The previous idea) means / suggests / indicates / proves / states / implicates that (the next idea) … (explanation).

Declining academic performance among adolescents indicates an inability to cope with emerging social challenges.

• Complicating: Yes / sure / arguably / indeed, (the previous idea), but because of that / however / on the other hand, (the next idea) … (explanation).

Yes, academic advancements among staff members should lead to promotions, but because of that, many people may obtain academic papers fraudulently.

• Adding a bridge precision: The researchers / authors / scholars / experts / professionals explain in more detail / provide more insight / analyzed / included (the previous idea) in their paper / article / work / investigation / study / research regarding (the next idea ) … (explanation).

The authors explain in more detail that using renewable energy sources lowers the cost of manufacturing products in their paper regarding sustainable management.

• Clarifying: Yes / sure / arguably / indeed, (the previous idea) is sometimes ‘describing the situation,’ but this aspect / feature / concept / element / characteristic doesn’t mean / work / result in (the next point) … (explanation).

Poor prognosis is sometimes the case in chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments, but this aspect does not mean cancer is incurable.

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Writing Types of Transition Elements in Bridge Sentences

💠 sequential bridge transitions.

Bridge sentences that contain statements on order and sequence of information should have sequential transitions. These transitioning words or bridge phrases allow one to organize essays or research papers by numerical sequence. Moreover, they indicate a continuation of thoughts or actions by referring to previously mentioned information, indicating excursions, and concluding or summing up ideas. Sequential connecting words allow readers to understand the logical development of concepts presented in an essay. Some examples of sequential transitions include:

• further on,
• consequently,
• incidentally.    

💠 Comparative Bridge Transitions

Comparison transition words in an essay establish a relationship between things or ideas. In this case, comparative bridge words and phrases are essential in explaining what two things have in common. Writers can use comparison words to demonstrate similarities between thoughts, objects, or concepts. Moreover, these bridge elements focus on similitudes only as opposed to variations in a sentence. Some examples of comparative transitions include:

• in the same way,
• regardless,
• at the same time,
• in like manner,
• compared to,
• nonetheless.

💠 Contrastive Bridge Transitions

Contrastive bridge words indicate the difference between ideas or objects. These bridge sentence transitions are important when presenting polar, different, or conflicting ideas. Contrastive transitions allow authors to connect opposing ideas and thoughts understandably. Including conflicting thoughts or ideas in an essay can enhance its quality by allowing readers to evaluate them critically. In an essay, contrastive bridge elements become crucial in presenting contradictory thoughts and opinions. Some examples of contrastive transitions include:

• in contrast,
• conversely,
• dissimilarly,
• on the contrary,
• nevertheless,
• on the one hand,
• contrasted with,
• even though
• alternatively.

💠 Summing-Up Bridge Transitions

Summing-up bridge transitions are useful in drawing the reader’s attention to the main argument. In this case, one must use appropriate transitions to summarize a discussion or a paragraph. For instance, outstanding essays should have a summary of the main ideas in their conclusions. Summing-up bridge sentences are common when writers use statements to conclude a paragraph or summarize an essay. Some examples of summing-up transitions include:

• essentially,
• in conclusion,
• summing up,
• in other words,
• the main point is,
• this boils down to,
• in this case,
• as a result
• for that reason,
• conclusively.

Examples of Transition Elements

• Introduce the next idea: as such, essentially, therefore, for instance, basically, in particular, notably, hence.
• Referring to the previous idea: indeed, moreover, furthermore, also, according to, additionally, so.
• Introducing a conclusion paragraph: in summary, in conclusion, thus, summing up, to conclude.
• Showing a similarity: in like manner, equally, likewise, at the same time.
• Showing a contrast : contrarywise, opposite to, dissimilarly, nonetheless, but, instead.
• Giving an example: such as, perhaps, for example, to demonstrate, to suppose, to consider.
• Showing a bridge causation: consistent with, because of, owing to, by reason of, subsequently, given that.
• Showing time relations: subsequently, then, later, next, formerly, each time, whereas.
• Showing space relations: directly above, flanking, under, outside, at this point, opposite, neighboring, reverse.

Summing Up on How to Write a Perfect Bridge Sentence in an Essay or a Research Paper

• Bridge sentences help to connect two independent phrases, expressions, or arguments.
• Writers must provide concise information to ensure the organic flow of information in an essay using connecting sentences.
• Effective use of bridge statements allows writers to communicate effectively throughout their essays or research papers.
• Topic sentences reveal the main message explained in a single paragraph and its relationship to a central thesis statement.
• Transitional sentences create a smooth connection between ideas presented in one passage.
• Concluding sentences summarize information and provide a link between two paragraphs.
• Bridge sentences require an appropriate selection of transitioning words for writing an essay.

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Topic sentences and signposts make an essay's claims clear to a reader. Good essays contain both.  Topic sentences   reveal the main point of a paragraph. They show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report.  Signposts , as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction. They show how far the essay's argument has progressed vis-ˆ-vis the claims of the thesis. 

Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They are neither the first thing a writer needs to address (thesis and the broad strokes of an essay's structure are); nor are they the last (that's when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing). Topic sentences and signposts deliver an essay's structure and meaning to a reader, so they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer—they let you know if your thesis is arguable—and essential guides to the reader

Forms of Topic Sentences

 Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim, explaining it further. Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions: How does the phenomenon you're discussing operate? Why does it operate as it does?

There's no set formula for writing a topic sentence. Rather, you should work to vary the form your topic sentences take. Repeated too often, any method grows wearisome. Here are a few approaches.

Complex sentences.   Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate and independent clauses, as in the example below.

 Although  Young Woman with a Water Pitcher  depicts an unknown, middle-class woman at an ordinary task, the image is more than "realistic"; the painter [Vermeer] has imposed his own order upon it to strengthen it. 

This sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information.  The subordinate clause (from "although" to "task") recaps information from previous paragraphs; the independent clauses (starting with "the image" and "the painter") introduce the new information—a claim about how the image works ("more than Ôrealistic'") and why it works as it does (Vermeer "strengthens" the image by "imposing order"). 

Questions.   Questions, sometimes in pairs, also make good topic sentences (and signposts).  Consider the following: "Does the promise of stability justify this unchanging hierarchy?" We may fairly assume that the paragraph or section that follows will answer the question. Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.

Bridge sentences.   Like questions, "bridge sentences" (the term is John Trimble's) make an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses: "But there is a clue to this puzzle." 

Pivots.   Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot." This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence: a paragraph starts out conceding a point or stating a fact ("Psychologist Sharon Hymer uses the term Ônarcissistic friendship' to describe the early stage of a friendship like the one between Celie and Shug"); after following up on this initial statement with evidence, it then reverses direction and establishes a claim ("Yet ... this narcissistic stage of Celie and Shug's relationship is merely a transitory one. Hymer herself concedes . . . "). The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face. It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.

Signposts operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background. Because they reveal the architecture of the essay itself, signposts remind readers of what the essay's stakes are: what it's about, and why it's being written. 

Signposting can be accomplished in a sentence or two at the beginning of a paragraph or in whole paragraphs that serve as transitions between one part of the argument and the next. The following example comes from an essay examining how a painting by Monet,  The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train,  challenges Zola's declarations about Impressionist art. The student writer wonders whether Monet's Impressionism is really as devoted to avoiding "ideas" in favor of direct sense impressions as Zola's claims would seem to suggest. This is the start of the essay's third section:

It is evident in this painting that Monet found his Gare Saint-Lazare motif fascinating at the most fundamental level of the play of light as well as the loftiest level of social relevance.  Arrival of a Train  explores both extremes of expression. At the fundamental extreme, Monet satisfies the Impressionist objective of capturing the full-spectrum effects of light on a scene.

 The writer signposts this section in the first sentence, reminding readers of the stakes of the essay itself with the simultaneous references to sense impression ("play of light") and intellectual content ("social relevance"). The second sentence follows up on this idea, while the third serves as a topic sentence for the paragraph. The paragraph after that starts off with a topic sentence about the "cultural message" of the painting, something that the signposting sentence predicts by not only reminding readers of the essay's stakes but also, and quite clearly, indicating what the section itself will contain. 

Copyright 2000, Elizabeth Abrams, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

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What Is a Bridge Statement in English Homework?

How to Write a Thesis & Introduction for a Critical Reflection Essay

A writer uses a bridge statement, or bridge sentence, to link one idea to another and create a smooth transition between ideas. John Trimble explains in "Writing with Style: Conversations on the Art of Writing" that essays should maintain a steady flow by "bridging" ideas for the reader. Instead of starting each paragraph with a topic sentence, you can use a bridge sentence to show how the previous idea relates to the idea your article is about to introduce.

Using Bridge Statements

One of the most important bridge statements in an essay, within the introductory paragraph, sets the scene for the reader. The opening statement usually functions as a "hook" or attention grabber to draw in the reader. After this comes your bridge statement, which explains how the opening is relevant to the thesis. The last sentence of the introductory paragraph contains the thesis statement, which demonstrates or sets the stage for what the reader can expect from the rest of your paper.

Paragraph Bridges

Instead of starting with a topic sentence for each paragraph, the writer uses a bridge to make a smooth transition into a new paragraph. Also called a transition idea or transition sentence, it usually discusses the previous point and how it ties in to the new point. The goal is to weave words and ideas together to create a seamless rhetorical tapestry. Your essay should not be a patchwork quilt of jumbled ideas. Bridge sentences provide the chain link between one concept and the next.

Purpose of Bridge Sentences

Bridge sentences resemble topic sentences in the essay structure. They clue in the reader to what the article just mentioned and what will come up next, and how the two topics relate to each other. Expository essays -- the most common essay assigned to students -- inform the reader or give an explanation of a topic based on fact. Persuasive or argumentative essays aim to convince the reader to agree with your point of view by addressing both sides of an argument and refuting the opposition, often in a bridge statement. All essay types make use of bridge statements. For instance, bridge statements in expository essays build a foundation of knowledge by slowly adding on to what has already been presented. Persuasive essays may use bridge statements to introduce a counter argument to hold the reader's attention.

Transitional Keywords

The words you use in your bridge sentences help define the relationship between the paragraphs or ideas you seek to connect. Words such as "consequentially," "therefore" or "accordingly" demonstrate a cause-effect relationship. Words like "whereas," "although" or "nevertheless" establish a contrast between concepts, while "furthermore," "in addition" or "similarly" help you further expand an idea.

Related Articles

How to Write an Introduction to a Reflective Essay

How to write an essay with a thesis statement.

The Functions of Conjunctions in English Argumentative Writing

Ideas for an Imaginative Essay

Comparative Phrases for Essays

How to Write an Introduction to an Analytical Essay

What Is a Diagnostic Paragraph?

How to Write a Comparative Analytical Essay

• Writing Center at Harvard University; Topic Sentences and Signmosting; Elizabeth Abrams; 2000
• The University of Oklahoma: Bridge Sentences
• Long Beach City College: Writing Introductory Paragraphs For Essays
• Purdue University Online Writing Laboratory: Writing Transitions
• DeAnza College: Writing with Style by John R. Trimble

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Organizing Your Argument

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This page summarizes three historical methods for argumentation, providing structural templates for each.

How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the  Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The  Toulmin Method  is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in  The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method  is as follows:

Claim:  In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds):  You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge):  In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation):  Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim:  You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective.   If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal:  In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim:  Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:  Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1:  Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2:  Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2:  Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3:  Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3:  The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim:  Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal:  While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method  (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

• your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
• you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method  is as follows:

Introduction:  Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position:  By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits:  You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction:  The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View:  Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts:  However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits:  Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method  is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.  

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.  

Example of the Classical Method:  

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally,   worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

Home » Writers-House Blog » English Homework: Bridge Statements

English Homework: Bridge Statements

Writers use bridge sentences, or bridge statements, to connect ideas and to create a smooth transition between them. To make an essay easy to read, you need to connect your ideas, ensuring a smooth flow. Bridge sentences can be used instead of topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph to explain how previous ideas relate to the new idea that you’re going to introduce in the next paragraph. Learn more about bridge statements with WritersHouse expert opinion.

How to Use Bridge Statements

A bridge statement in the introductory paragraph is especially important because it sets the context for your readers. Usually, the opening statement acts as a hook that grabs attention and makes your audience want to read more. A bridge statement follows the hook, explaining why the opening is relevant to your thesis statement. The last sentence of the introduction must contain the thesis statement, explaining what your readers should expect from the rest of the paper.

Paragraph Bridges

You can start each paragraph with a topic sentence, or you can use a bridge to create a smooth transition to the next paragraph. It is also called a transition sentence or transition idea. Usually, it focuses on the previous point and leads readers to the next point, connecting them logically. Your goal is to make a seamless transition so that your essay will look natural and be easy to read. Bridge sentences help connect different concepts so that you can make sure that your essay makes sense.

The Purpose of Bridge Sentences

Bridge sentences are similar to topic sentences because they perform the same functions in the essay structure. They help readers remember what the writer has mentioned before, connecting this information to the new facts and ideas that will come up next. Simply put, these sentences help explain how different topics relate to each other. Bridge sentences can be used in different essays. For example, expository essays are one of the most common types of writing assignments that are aimed to inform readers or to explain a certain topic based on facts. Argumentative or persuasive essays should convince the audience to agree with the author’s opinion by addressing different perspectives and refuting the opposite opinion. Quite often, writers do it in a bridge statement. When writing an expository essay, your bridge statement may simply add some new information to what you have already presented. In persuasive essays, bridge statements can address a counterargument.

Transitional Keywords

Various transitional words can help you indicate the relationship between different ideas. For example, such words as “accordingly,” “therefore,” and “consequently” illustrate a cause-effect relationship. “Similarly,” “in addition,” and “furthermore” can help you expand your idea, while “nevertheless,” “although,” and “whereas” can establish a contrast.

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• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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Questions arise amid the collapse of the Key bridge in Baltimore

Nell Greenfieldboyce

The bridge collapse in Baltimore has raised questions about engineering, safety and construction. Experts are trying to understand what happened and why — and what can be done to protect other bridge

AILSA CHANG, HOST:

We go to a story in Baltimore, where federal investigators are trying to understand what led to the collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge. A massive container ship struck one of the bridge's supports early this morning, bringing the main span of the bridge crashing down into the Patapsco River. Searchers are still looking for six people who were working on the bridge when it was hit. The catastrophe raises many questions about engineering and safety and what can be done to protect other bridges. Joining us now to talk about all of this are NPR's Nell Greenfieldboyce and Joel Rose. Hey to both of you.

JOEL ROSE, BYLINE: Hey, Ailsa.

NELL GREENFIELDBOYCE, BYLINE: Hey there.

CHANG: So, Joel, I want to start with you. What are investigators saying at this point about what exactly happened?

ROSE: Not a lot, and that is typical at this point. The National Transportation Safety Board wants to gather information. They will look at a lot of things - the ship's records, safety inspections. They will try to recover the voyage data recorder from the ship, which is like the black box on an airplane. And investigators will also look at the bridge itself. Here's NTSB chair Jennifer Homendy this afternoon.

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

JENNIFER HOMENDY: Part of our investigation will be, how was this bridge constructed? It will look at the structure itself. Should there be any sort of safety improvements?

ROSE: Homendy says much of this, though, will have to wait until the search and rescue phase of this is over.

CHANG: Well, about the structure, I mean, Nell, watching the video of the accident, I mean, the bridge seemed to have collapsed so quickly once the ship hit it. Can you tell us more about, like, what kind of bridge this is, why the collapse was so immediate?

GREENFIELDBOYCE: Right. So I talked to Rachel Sangree. She's a bridge engineering expert at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. And she told me she woke up today and saw the video, and here's how she reacted.

RACHEL SANGREE: I wasn't shocked to see the whole bridge collapse as a result of that impact.

GREENFIELDBOYCE: That's because this is a continuous truss bridge, which basically means that each section is connected together, and she told me that's why damage to a primary support can just take down the whole thing.

CHANG: Wow. Was the bridge just too old or out of date in any way?

GREENFIELDBOYCE: Well, it was built back in the 1970s, and it was built before the terrible Sunshine Skyway accident in Florida. That was in 1980, and that disaster brought a lot of attention to the need to protect bridges from ship strikes. Interestingly, though, a few months after that Florida accident, a cargo ship actually ran into the Key Bridge in Baltimore, and back then, its protective measures worked. There was this concrete structure around the bridge support that was destroyed, but the bridge itself was unharmed. And that was seen as a success story. But that was a long time ago, decades ago, and in general, cargo ships weren't nearly as big as they are today. And it seems that in this case, this huge cargo ship overwhelmed whatever protection system the Key Bridge had around its supports.

CHANG: Well, Joel, the ship - it was clearly off course. What do we know so far about how that happened?

ROSE: Yeah. This ship is called the Dali. It's a big ship - nearly a thousand feet long, can carry nearly 100,000 tons. And it appeared to suffer an electrical failure. In the video footage from the moments before the accident, you can see the lights on the ship going on and off. The Port of Singapore says the ship's management company reported that it has - it suffered a momentary loss of propulsion. And I talked to David McFarlane. He is a maritime safety expert in the U.K. McFarlane says there would be backup power systems on a ship like this, but they do not kick in instantly.

DAVID MCFARLANE: Losing propulsion can mean you lose steerage as well, and it doesn't take long to veer off course, which seems to be the case here. The ship's crew were in a dreadful predicament.

ROSE: I should caution, though, it is still very early. We're going to learn a lot more about what happened, but initially, that is where a lot of attention is focused.

CHANG: Well, Nell, what can we do to avoid catastrophic accidents at bridges like this in the future?

GREENFIELDBOYCE: Well, you know, the experts I spoke to pointed to a lot of different things - more substantial protection around the bridge supports. Of course, there's other bridge designs that are not so continuous. And, you know, it's fair to say that most likely, whatever is rebuilt there is going to look very different from the bridge that was constructed nearly 50 years ago.

CHANG: Yeah. That is NPR's Nell Greenfieldboyce and Joel Rose. Thank you so much to both of you.

ROSE: You're welcome.

GREENFIELDBOYCE: Thank you.

Copyright © 2024 NPR. All rights reserved. Visit our website terms of use and permissions pages at www.npr.org for further information.

NPR transcripts are created on a rush deadline by an NPR contractor. This text may not be in its final form and may be updated or revised in the future. Accuracy and availability may vary. The authoritative record of NPR’s programming is the audio record.

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USF research reveals language barriers limit effectiveness of cybersecurity resources

• April 1, 2024

Research and Innovation

By: John Dudley , University Communications & Marketing

The idea for Fawn Ngo’s latest research came from a television interview.

Ngo, a University of South Florida criminologist, had spoken with a Vietnamese language network in California about her interest in better understanding how people become victims of cybercrime.

Afterward, she began receiving phone calls from viewers recounting their own experiences of victimization.

Fawn Ngo, associate professor in the USF College of Behavioral and Community Sciences

“Some of the stories were unfortunate and heartbreaking,” said Ngo, an associate professor in the USF College of Behavioral and Community Sciences. “They made me wonder about the availability and accessibility of cybersecurity information and resources for non-English speakers. Upon investigating further, I discovered that such information and resources were either limited or nonexistent.”

The result is what’s believed to be the first study to explore the links among demographic characteristics, cyber hygiene practices and cyber victimization using a sample of limited English proficiency internet users.

Ngo is the lead author of an article, “Cyber Hygiene and Cyber Victimization Among Limited English Proficiency (LEP) Internet Users: A Mixed-Method Study,” which just published in the journal Victims & Offenders. The article’s co-authors are Katherine Holman, a USF graduate student and former Georgia state prosecutor, and Anurag Agarwal, professor of information systems, analytics and supply chain at Florida Gulf Coast University. 

Their research, which focused on Spanish and Vietnamese speakers, led to two closely connected main takeaways:

• LEP internet users share the same concern about cyber threats and the same desire for online safety as any other individual. However, they are constrained by a lack of culturally and linguistically appropriate resources, which also hampers accurate collection of cyber victimization data among vulnerable populations.
• Online guidance that provides the most effective educational tools and reporting forms is only available in English. The most notable example is the website for the Internet Crime Complaint Center, which serves as the FBI’s primary apparatus for combatting cybercrime.

As a result, the study showed that many well-intentioned LEP users still engage in such risky online behaviors as using unsecured networks and sharing passwords. For example, only 29 percent of the study’s focus group participants avoided using public Wi-Fi over the previous 12 months, and only 17 percent said they had antivirus software installed on their digital devices.

Previous research cited in Ngo’s paper has shown that underserved populations exhibit poorer cybersecurity knowledge and outcomes, most commonly in the form of computer viruses and hacked accounts, including social media accounts. Often, it’s because they lack awareness and understanding and isn’t a result of disinterest, Ngo said.

“According to cybersecurity experts, humans are the weakest link in the chain of cybersecurity,” Ngo said. “If we want to secure our digital borders, we must ensure that every member in society, regardless of their language skills, is well-informed about the risks inherent in the cyber world.”

The study’s findings point to a need for providing cyber hygiene information and resources in multiple formats, including visual aids and audio guides, to accommodate diverse literacy levels within LEP communities, Ngo said. She added that further research is needed to address the current security gap and ensure equitable access to cybersecurity resources for all internet users.

In the meantime, Ngo is working to create a website that will include cybersecurity information and resources in different languages and a link to report victimization.

“It’s my hope that cybersecurity information and resources will become as readily accessible in other languages as other vital information, such as information related to health and safety,” Ngo said. “I also want LEP victims to be included in national data and statistics on cybercrime and their experiences accurately represented and addressed in cybersecurity initiatives.” 

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One Problem With Making Bridges Stronger? Ships Getting Bigger.

Experts have long pondered the question of improving protections, and several bridges have undergone adjustments. But the size of today’s vessels leads to immense challenges.

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By David W. Chen and Mike Baker

• March 28, 2024

As larger and faster container ships began to chug up the Delaware River in recent years, transportation officials feared the prospect of one going astray that would lead to a repeat, or worse, of what happened in 1969 , when a tanker struck the Delaware Memorial Bridge and caused significant damage.

So last year, work began on a $93 million project to build eight massive cylinders that would stand guard in front of the bridge’s piers in order to protect a system that carries tens of thousands of vehicles a day.

“The tankers and cargo ships of 1950 aren’t the tankers and cargo ships of today,” said James Salmon, a spokesman for the Delaware River and Bay Authority.

The collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore after a cargo ship nearly three football fields long crashed into it, claiming the lives of six people, has prompted questions about whether similar disasters could happen elsewhere.

But the work on the Delaware Memorial Bridge reflects the fact that some transportation and maritime experts have been mulling the hazards of new cargo ships squeezing under decades-old bridges for some time. The problem is that there are no easy answers, in part because ships just keep getting bigger.

Michael Rubino, a retired chief harbor pilot for the Port of Los Angeles, said the air drafts — the distance between the water to the highest point on a vessel — of some newer ships have gotten so big that some vessels need to fold down their antennae and masts to squeeze under a bridge.

“People don’t realize how massive these ships are,” he said.

Joseph Ahlstrom, a professor at SUNY Maritime College, a ship captain and a commissioner for the New York State pilot’s board, said that commercial ships have gotten so big in recent years that they are much more likely to do damage to infrastructure such as bridges.

“It’s going to do a number on them,” he said of a modern ship and the hazard it poses to a bridge like the one in Baltimore. “It’s going to bring it down, which it did.”

Many transportation officials say drawing parallels to the Key Bridge is difficult because what happened in Baltimore appeared to be such an unusual event — a confluence of factors at the worst possible time. As the ship, the Dali, hurtled through the harbor without a tugboat connected to it, it experienced a “complete blackout” and lost control, then struck a pier that had small protective barriers.

The situation with the Key Bridge is “unique,” said Jim Tymon, executive director of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, which represents state transportation departments. “This is not something that we can really draw a comparison to.”

Even so, officials with the National Transportation Safety Board said Wednesday that they were not only examining the protection system around the Key Bridge, but also seeking records about the protections around other bridges in Maryland.

Stray ships have long been viewed as a risk to bridges, particularly after a freighter slammed into the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay in 1980, killing 35 people.

After that disaster, officials in Maryland acknowledged that the Key Bridge, which opened in 1977, could be knocked down by a direct hit. But they said that the concrete barriers that had been installed in the river were intended to deflect or slow an out-of-control vessel.

The final contact might therefore be just a “glancing blow,” John Snyder, the director of engineering for the state Toll Facilities Administration, told The Baltimore Sun at the time.

As part of the rebuild in Tampa Bay, officials prioritized protection against a future disaster. They built a network of large concrete islands, called dolphins, that could absorb the impact of an out-of-control vessel. Since then, officials around the country have increasingly focused on strategies to enhance shields around bridges.

“Some modern bridges around the world, especially after the 1980 Tampa incident, have been designed with different features to mitigate impacts and protect their piers,” Pete Buttigieg, the U.S. transportation secretary, said on Wednesday. “Right now, I think there’s a lot of debate taking place among the engineering community about whether any of those features could have had any role in a situation like this.”

Efforts to enhance bridges are frequently slowed because of the many state and federal governmental entities involved, the often glacial pace of funding and the construction time required for such large-scale projects. Still, some places have seen results.

In Minnesota, a boat pushing 12 barges rammed into a Union Pacific railroad bridge near St. Paul in 2017, damaging a century-old pier. A protection system was subsequently built around the new pier.

In New York, the Bayonne Bridge was raised by 64 feet — or roughly seven stacked shipping containers — in 2019 to accommodate increasingly larger vessels calling at the container ports in New Jersey and Staten Island.

In Long Beach, Calif., the new Gerald Desmond Bridge was raised by 50 feet in 2020.

And in New Orleans, officials have installed a sophisticated oceanographic system , courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, to broadcast the vertical clearance to boats approaching two bridges to avoid collisions. The technology will soon be installed at five more bridges along the Mississippi River, and “we actually got notice of funding availability on Monday morning,” said Matt Gresham, the chief of governmental relations for the Port of New Orleans.

In Delaware, officials wanted the bridge to be able to withstand modern vessels, so they came up with a design that could handle ships even larger than the Dali. It was funded in part by the federal government.

The final product will include eight cylindrical islands, each 80 feet in diameter, strengthened by 540 tons of steel and filled with tens of thousands of cubic yards of sand, stone and boulders. The pilings will be buried 45 feet deep in the river bed.

But even if solutions like the one in Delaware are applied, the work is not over.

Hyun-Joong Kim, an assistant professor of civil engineering at Liberty University who has studied dolphin protection systems around bridges, said the vulnerabilities around bridges need to be reviewed regularly to ensure that protection systems — many of which were installed decades ago — are able to handle modern threats.

“If they see much bigger ships are coming back and forth, maybe they need to revisit the risk assessment,” he said.

Michael Forsythe contributed reporting.

David W. Chen reports on state legislatures, state level policymaking and the political forces behind them. More about David W. Chen

Mike Baker is a national reporter for The Times, based in Seattle. More about Mike Baker

Lessons from Skyway disaster failed to help protect Baltimore bridge

• Justin Garcia Times staff
• Jay Cridlin Times staff

After the Sunshine Skyway bridge was hit by a freighter and collapsed in 1980, new protection measures were installed around the supports that hold the bridge up.

Engineers put in place islandlike mounds of rocks that shore up the tallest support columns and huge, disclike structures called dolphins that act as bumpers blocking wayward ships. Engineers around the country followed suit to help strengthen bridge protections.

But when a ship struck the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore on Tuesday , video of the bridge’s catastrophic collapse seemed to show that the structures protecting the supports of the bridge were minimal compared to the Skyway. Engineering experts and maritime lawyers say not enough safeguards were in place.

“From what I have seen so far, there was basically no protection around the two main piers in the channel,” said Joseph McHugh, a forensic consultant with more than 40 years of highway, bridge and building construction experience. “With the kind of traffic that bridge gets and the large vessels that frequent that port, I just think someone dropped the ball here.”

McHugh said the Skyway’s safeguards seem strong. He isn’t sure why the bridge in Baltimore wasn’t better protected — Baltimore, like Tampa, has one of the busiest ports in America — but that engineers probably aren’t to blame. He said that more funds need to be given to bridge and infrastructure projects.

“We all pay a certain tax on every gallon of gasoline that we put into our vehicles, and all of that money is supposed to go to infrastructure,” McHugh said. “But of course, politicians often take money from that and use it elsewhere.”

Steve Yerrid, a lawyer who represented the harbor pilot who crashed the Summit Venture into the Skyway 44 years ago, told the Tampa Bay Times that the piers of the Francis Scott Key bridge were “naked.”

“There were no big concrete abutments surrounding it, no dry land like the Skyway has,” Yerrid said. “I feel for those people that lost loved ones, because there’s nothing worse than losing someone prematurely and, worst of all, unnecessarily. That bridge should have been protected.”

Some Maryland officials knew it decades ago. The day of the Skyway disaster, the director of the state’s toll and bridge agency told the Baltimore Sun that the Francis Scott Key Bridge had some concrete dolphins protecting piers on both sides, but that they would not protect the bridge from a strike from a ship that large.

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Lessons from the Skyway bridge disaster were highlighted in guidelines published by the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials in 1991. The group explained requirements for new bridges, gave guidance for retrofitting old structures and recommended stronger protections.

Jose R. Cot, a maritime lawyer in New Orleans, said the kind of dolphin protection around the Sunshine Skyway isn’t mandated by law, but that increased safeguards are a standard in the bridge building industry and have been for decades.

“They are guidelines in the industry that certainly point to what should be done to protect bridge piers from situations like this,” Cot said.

Cot said adding layers of security protections can increase the cost of bridge projects, which may be why the guidelines weren’t made mandatory.

Since the fall of the Skyway, Yerrid has educated himself on bridge protections and advocates for safer practices. He wonders why updates weren’t put in place for the Baltimore bridge.

“I would love to hear the explanation as to why that wasn’t done for 44 years after we knew how to do it,” Yerrid said.

Maryland officials didn’t respond Wednesday to questions about protections in place at the Francis Scott Key Bridge. A spokesperson referred the Times to statements made by U.S. Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg, but did not clarify which of the many statements they were referring to.

During a White House news briefing Wednesday, Buttigieg said the Key “was simply not made to withstand a direct impact on a critical support pier from a vessel that weighs about 200 million pounds.” Asked if the bridge should have had dolphins or other protective measures, Buttigieg demurred.

“I don’t want to get ahead of any investigation,” he said. “Part of what’s being debated is whether any design feature now known would have made a difference in this case. We’ll get more information on that as the investigation proceeds.”

At the time of the Skyway collapse, there was little federal oversight of measures designed to keep bridges safe from ships. The original Skyway had much smaller, fenderlike barriers made of aging timber.

Adding dolphins around the base, while expensive, was among the first suggested improvements after the disaster. Plans for the new Skyway called for 36 dolphins at a cost of $36 million. They would contain up to 6,700 tons of crushed rock and be able to withstand nearly 30 million pounds of pressure — more than enough to have stopped the Summit Venture.

By the time the bridge opened in 1987, only four dolphins had been completed. But their impact was proven the day before the Skyway’s grand opening, when a 70-foot shrimp boat with a malfunctioning autopilot rammed into one about a third of a mile from the site of the 1980 crash.

Dolphins have been credited with stopping other ship disasters. In 2011, a runaway barge on the Mississippi River bounced off a dolphin below a rail bridge in La Crescent, Minnesota, causing only superficial damage to the bridge itself.

Other bridges near major shipping ports also have protective measures. There are dolphins around the Dames Point Bridge in Jacksonville and barrier islands surrounding the pylons of the Sydney Lanier Bridge in Brunswick, Georgia. The Delaware Memorial Bridge, a gateway to Philadelphia’s port, is in the midst of a nearly $100 million collision mitigation project that includes eight 80-foot dolphins.

Florida Department of Transportation spokesperson Michael Williams said the state “maintains continuous coordination” with agencies that have a stake in shipping channels, including local law enforcement, port authorities and the U.S. Coast Guard, to make sure safety measures are “comprehensive.”

“The safety and integrity of our bridge infrastructure is a fundamental commitment that we rigorously uphold,” Williams said in an email.

Justin Garcia is the state and local accountability reporter, with a focus on law enforcement and the judicial system. Reach him at [email protected].

Jay Cridlin is a reporter covering politics. He can be reached at [email protected].

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