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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on June 20, 2018 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on May 31, 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews , surveys , experiments ) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

Documentaries

If you are researching the causes of World War II, a recent documentary about the war is a secondary source . But if you are researching the filmmaking techniques used in historical documentaries, the documentary is a primary source .

Reviews and essays

If your paper is about the novels of Toni Morrison, a magazine review of one of her novels is a secondary source . But if your paper is about the critical reception of Toni Morrison’s work, the review is a primary source .

Newspaper articles

If your aim is to analyze the government’s economic policy, a newspaper article about a new policy is a secondary source . But if your aim is to analyze media coverage of economic issues, the newspaper article is a primary source .

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in evaluating the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

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Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research. Tertiary sources are often used in the first, exploratory stage of research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review or meta analysis, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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• ChatGPT citations
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• Using ChatGPT for your studies
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• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
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• Common knowledge

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 31). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

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Primary Sources

• Primary vs Secondary Sources
• So, Basically...
• Searching Tip: Which word(s) to use?

PRIMARY Sources:

• First-hand accounts by people who experienced event.
• A person's account of own feelings, actions, or experiences.
• Object or document that comes directly from person/place/event researched.

SECONDARY Sources:

• Second-hand accounts by people who did not experience event.
• One person's account of someone else's feelings, actions, or experiences.
• Object or document that originates much later than person/place/event researched.
• Contains INTERPRETATIONS, analysis, synthesis.

Content Versus Format:

• Is a newspaper always primary, and is a book always secondary? NO.
• "Primary" and "secondary" relate to the CONTENT, not the format.
• Primary sources OFTEN appear in document types such as letters and newspapers, but a source doesn't have to be primary just because of its format. The same is true of sources on paper versus sources on the Internet, and sources which are duplicated as they appear (by scanning or photographing) versus sources which are transcribed (retyped word for word in plain text) -- it's the content that counts.

It's All About CONTEXT:

• There is nothing inherent in a document or object that automatically makes it always "primary" or "secondary."
• YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION determines whether the source is primary or secondary for YOUR research.
• The same document could be a primary source for one paper and a secondary source for another paper.
• Example: 1975 biography about Abraham Lincoln would probably be a... -- Secondary source if you are studying Lincoln’s life. -- Primary source if you are studying how people wrote historical biographies in the 1970s.

How to Evaluate a Source

First, read the source!! Then ask yourself:

• What kind of document/object is this?
• Who created it? What is his role/occupation?
• When was it written/created? (And when was the event I am researching?)
• What information does this source convey?

Try to fill in this sentence: "This is a _____ written by ____, who is ____. It was written in ____ and it contains _____."

Then read that sentence aloud and ask yourself: Primary or Secondary?

Content courtesy of Erin Cassidy, Sam Houston State University Library 2013

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Distinguish between primary and secondary sources.

• Further Information

Introduction

1. Introduction

Whether conducting research in the social sciences, humanities (especially history), arts, or natural sciences, the ability to distinguish between primary and secondary source material is essential. Basically, this distinction illustrates the degree to which the author of a piece is removed from the actual event being described, informing the reader as to whether the author is reporting impressions first hand (or is first to record these immediately following an event), or conveying the experiences and opinions of others—that is, second hand .  

2. Primary sources

These are contemporary accounts of an event, written by someone who experienced or witnessed the event in question. These original documents (i.e., they are not about another document or account) are often diaries, letters, memoirs, journals, speeches, manuscripts, interviews and other such unpublished works. They may also include published pieces such as newspaper or magazine articles (as long as they are written soon after the fact and not as historical accounts), photographs, audio or video recordings, research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or theatrical works.  

3. Secondary sources

The function of these is to interpret primary sources , and so can be described as at least one step removed from the event or phenomenon under review. Secondary source materials, then, interpret, assign value to, conjecture upon, and draw conclusions about the events reported in primary sources. These are usually in the form of published works such as journal articles or books, but may include radio or television documentaries, or conference proceedings.  

4. Defining questions

When evaluating primary or secondary sources, the following questions might be asked to help ascertain the nature and value of material being considered:

• How does the author know these details (names, dates, times)? Was the author present at the event or soon on the scene?
• Where does this information come from—personal experience, eyewitness accounts, or reports written by others?
• Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence, or have many sources been taken into account (e.g., diary entries, along with third-party eyewitness accounts, impressions of contemporaries, newspaper accounts)?

Ultimately, all source materials of whatever type must be assessed critically and even the most scrupulous and thorough work is viewed through the eyes of the writer/interpreter. This must be taken into account when one is attempting to arrive at the 'truth' of an event.

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• Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples

Published on 4 September 2022 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on 15 May 2023.

When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources.

Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books . A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesises primary sources.

Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and secondary sources.

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Table of contents

What is a primary source, what is a secondary source, primary and secondary source examples, how to tell if a source is primary or secondary, primary vs secondary sources: which is better, frequently asked questions about primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs, newspapers ).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media texts).

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A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information from primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books , articles and documentaries that synthesise information on a topic
• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopaedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyse it directly. Instead, you’ll probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

Examples of sources that can be primary or secondary

A secondary source can become a primary source depending on your research question . If the person, context, or technique that produced the source is the main focus of your research, it becomes a primary source.

To determine if something can be used as a primary or secondary source in your research, there are some simple questions you can ask yourself:

• Does this source come from someone directly involved in the events I’m studying (primary) or from another researcher (secondary)?
• Am I interested in analysing the source itself (primary) or only using it for background information (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary) or does it comment upon information from other sources (secondary)?

Most research uses both primary and secondary sources. They complement each other to help you build a convincing argument. Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but secondary sources show how your work relates to existing research.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries
• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how other researchers have approached it. They often synthesise a large number of primary sources that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic
• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review , you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Remember that all primary and secondary sources must be cited to avoid plagiarism . You can use Scribbr’s free citation generator to do so!

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of sources are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analysing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyse language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analysing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Streefkerk, R. (2023, May 15). Primary vs. Secondary Sources | Difference & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/primary-vs-secondary-sources/

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Primary Sources: A Research Guide

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Primary Sources

Texts of laws and other original documents.

Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or wrote.

Original research.

Datasets, survey data, such as census or economic statistics.

Photographs, video, or audio that capture an event.

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources are one step removed from primary sources, though they often quote or otherwise use primary sources. They can cover the same topic, but add a layer of interpretation and analysis. Secondary sources can include:

Most books about a topic.

Analysis or interpretation of data.

Scholarly or other articles about a topic, especially by people not directly involved.

Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

When is a Primary Source a Secondary Source?

Whether something is a primary or secondary source often depends upon the topic and its use.

A biology textbook would be considered a secondary source if in the field of biology, since it describes and interprets the science but makes no original contribution to it.

On the other hand, if the topic is science education and the history of textbooks, textbooks could be used a primary sources to look at how they have changed over time.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Sources

Adapted from Bowling Green State University, Library User Education, Primary vs. Secondary Sources .

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Research Basics

• What Is Research?
• Types of Research
• Secondary Research | Literature Review
• Developing Your Topic
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Evaluating Sources
• Responsible Conduct of Research
• Additional Help

What Is a Primary or Secondary Source?

At its simplest, a primary source is an account of something that happened by the people who were there, such as participants or witnesses. A secondary source is an account of something that happened by people who were NOT there, often framed as a review, summary, or analysis. Technically, a secondary source is a review or analysis of primary sources—there’s also what’s called a tertiary source, that analyzes secondary sources, and so on.

What Does That Mean to Me As a Student or Researcher at Illinois Tech?

The most common type of primary source used at Illinois Tech is the research paper written by the researcher(s) who actually carried out the work. These papers are typically published as articles in peer-reviewed journals but could also be in the form of a thesis or dissertation, research report, case study, clinical trial, etc. In addition to written reports, various ancillary materials can be primary sources. These include data, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, computer code, images, and other supporting materials that were generated or collected as part of the work.

Secondary sources may be published in peer-reviewed journals as well but most often occur in popular media, like websites, blogs, newspapers, etc. Secondary sources in peer-reviewed journals are easy to identify because they use the word “review” in the title or abstract and don’t present any new research. Also considered as secondary sources are any ancillary materials that were re-used or repurposed from other research.

Interestingly, primary source research papers almost always include a review of prior research as part of the introduction or as a “literature review” section. The primary source material only includes those parts that talk about the new research: the methodology, results, discussion of results, conclusions, or other similar sections.

Why Is It Important to Use Primary Sources?

Simply put, people make mistakes. There’s an old party game called Telephone where a phrase is whispered from one person to the next around the room and at the end of the game, everybody is amused at how the phrase or its meaning has changed. Using secondary, tertiary, or other sources is like playing Telephone with your research. Reviews and other secondary accounts are summaries, so even at their best they omit parts of the original research and lack the detail and nuance of the original paper. At worst, a review author could entirely misunderstand or misrepresent the original research.

Does That Mean I Should Only Use Primary Sources?

No, not at all. For older, well-established research that’s had ample time to be reviewed and consolidated into the general knowledge of the field, there’s no need to go back to primary source material unless you’re challenging the conventional interpretation.

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Performing Academic Research: Primary and secondary sources

• The research process
• Creating a research plan
• Primary and secondary sources
• Academic vs. non-academic information
• Evaluating information: The PAARC test

Identifying Primary and Secondary Sources

What is a primary source.

Primary sources are firsthand accounts of events, ideas, or statements. They are usually created at the time of an event or very soon after.

Primary sources can come in many different forms, including diaries, letters, photographs, art, maps, video and film, sound recordings, interviews, newspapers, magazines, novels, poems, short stories, autobiographies, or memoirs. The exact form of a primary source is not important. It is the content and context of the material that makes it a primary source.  For example, a novel written in 2012 about the Peloponnesian War isn’t a primary source for information about the Peloponnesian War (unless the author is somehow over two thousand years old). However, the same novel is a primary source for information about the author’s ideas, philosophy, and writing style.

When trying to identify a Primary Source, ask yourself:

• Was it created at the time of an event, or very soon after?
• Was it created by someone who saw or heard an event themselves?
• Is it a personal record of an event?

If you answer to any of the above is “yes,” then it is likely that you are looking at a Primary Source.

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources report, describe, comment on, or analyze the experiences or work of others.

A secondary source is at least once removed from the primary source. It reports on the original work, the direct observation, or the firsthand experience. It will often use primary sources as examples.

Secondary sources can include books, textbooks, newspapers, biographies, journal articles, movies and magazines. As with primary sources, the format is less important than the information being presented. If the source seeks to report, describe, comment on or analyze an original work, direct observation, or firsthand experience of another person, it is a secondary source.

Eamon, Michael. “Defining Primary and Secondary Sources.” Library and Archives Canada , Library and Archives Canada,

27 May 2010, https://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/education/008-3010-e.html.

Payton, Melissa. The Prentice Hall Guide to Evaluating Online Resources with Research Navigator 2004 . Pearson Education Inc., 2004.

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Primary and Secondary Sources

Interviews: are they a primary source?

Interviews can add tremendously to your research project. Read on to quickly learn when an interview is considered a primary source.

Is a documentary a secondary source? [with examples]

You are not sure if a documentary is a secondary source? We show you when and why is a documentary either a secondary or a tertiary source.

Is a letter a primary source?

Letters are frequently used in historical research. Read on to see when a letter qualifies as a primary source.

Is a map a primary source? [with examples]

Are you not sure if a map is a primary source? This guide will show you when and why a map is a primary or a secondary source.

Is a painting a primary source? [with examples]

Are you unsure if a painting is a primary source? This guide will show you when and why a painting is either a primary or a secondary source.

Is a textbook a secondary source?

Are you unsure if a textbook is a secondary source? Learn in this guide when and why a textbook is either a primary, secondary, or tertiary source.

Is an autobiography a primary source?

Are you not sure if an autobiography is a primary source? We show you when and why an autobiography is either a primary or secondary source.

Is an encyclopedia a primary source?

Are you unsure if an encyclopedia is a primary source? Find your answer and learn the right way to reference an encyclopedia in this guide.

Is census data a primary source?

You are not sure if census data is a primary source? We will show you when and why census data is a primary source and where to get it.

Is the US Constitution a primary source?

Are you wondering if the US Constitution is a primary source? Find the answer to your question in this guide.

Newspaper articles: primary or secondary sources?

Learn what questions to ask to see if a newspaper article really qualifies as a primary source.

Primary vs. secondary sources: how to distinguish them

Primary and secondary sources are the foundations of every research project. Learn about their differences and when to use them.

What is a primary source?

Primary sources are the most important sources when undertaking a research project. We answer the 5 most asked questions about primary sources.

What is a secondary source?

Secondary sources are your starting point when undertaking a research project. We answer the 5 most asked questions about secondary sources.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Primary sources are materials that are eyewitness accounts or as close to the original source as possible.

Qualitative data:

• What people say. They are usually Speeches , Interviews and Conversations, and they may be captured in Videos, Audio Recordings, or transcribed into text.
• What people write.  These include Autobiographies, Memoirs, Personal Journals and Diaries, Letters, Emails, Blogs, Twitter Feeds and other forms of Social Media.
• Images and Videos.
• Government Documents-- U.S . and rest of the world.
• Laws, Court Cases and Decisions, Treaties.
• Newspapers.

Quantitative data:

• Statistics and Data .
• Polls and Public Opinions .

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find both primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

When Secondary Sources Become Primary Sources

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that newspapers can often be considered either primary or secondary.
• Last Updated: Aug 11, 2023 3:44 PM
• URL: https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/primary

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources: A Quick Guide: Primary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources

What is a Primary Source?

Here are two definitions that try to capture the elusive nature of primary documents.

A definition from Cornell University:

A definition from Yale University:

"What are primary sources? Primary sources provide firsthand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic or question under investigation.

They are usually created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or conditions being documented. Often these sources are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring, but primary sources can also include autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories recorded later." [ Primary Sources at Yale . Yale University.] Also on this site: Primary Sources come in all shapes and sizes.

A Photograph Can be a Primary Source

Antietam, Md. President Lincoln with Gen. George B. McClellan and group of officers. [October 3, 1862] Gardner, Alexander, 1821-1882, photographer. Source : Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division

Online Collections of Primary Sources: Examples

• Library of Congress. Digital Collections. Washington: Library of Congress, National Digital Library Program, 1994- .
• History: Primary Sources Databases. Cornell University Library.
• Making of America: The Cornell University Library MOA collection Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library, 1996- .
• Valley of the Shadow: Two Communities in the American Civil War

Permissions Information

If you wish to use or adapt any or all of the content of this Guide go to Cornell Library's Research Guides Use Conditions to review our use permissions and our Creative Commons license.

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• Last Updated: Jan 26, 2024 3:27 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sources

Research Process :: Step by Step

• Introduction
• Select Topic
• Identify Keywords
• Background Information
• Develop Research Questions
• Refine Topic
• Search Strategy
• Popular Databases
• Evaluate Sources
• Types of Periodicals
• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Primary & Secondary Sources
• Organize / Take Notes
• Writing & Grammar Resources
• Annotated Bibliography
• Literature Review
• Citation Styles
• Paraphrasing
• Privacy / Confidentiality
• Research Process
• Selecting Your Topic
• Identifying Keywords
• Gathering Background Info
• Evaluating Sources

PEN America Digital Archive

• PEN America Digital Archive The PEN America Digital Archive captures more than 50 years of cultural programming at the intersection of literature and freedom of expression advocacy. With generous support from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the digital archive makes available long-inaccessible but valuable public and private programming featuring the world’s foremost writers, intellectuals, and artists in candid and often heated discourse about the most relevant cultural and political issues of our times.

US History -- Primary Sources

• Primary Sources for US History This guide provides links to important, substantial, and freely available collections of primary sources dealing with American history. Each source has been chosen, evaluated, and annotated by librarians.
• Primary Sources for Historical Research This guide explains how to identify primary sources and provides an overview of the different kinds of primary sources.

When evaluating the quality of the information you are using, it is useful to identify if you are using a primary, secondary, or tertiary source . By doing so, you recognize if the author is reporting on his/her own first-hand experiences or relying on the views of others.

Primary Sources : : Defined

Primary sources provide firsthand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic or question under investigation.  They are usually created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or conditions being documented. Often these sources are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring.

"Primary sources . . . are defined as the direct evidence of a time and place that you are studying – any material (documents, objects, etc.) that was produced by eyewitnesses to or participants in an event or historical moment under investigation. Secondary sources, in contrast, are interpretations – often generated by scholars – that are based upon the examination of multiple primary sources."  (from  Primary Source.org )

Types of Primary Sources

What types of primary sources might have been produced that would be relevant to your topic?

Which persons or organizations might have produced materials?

Possible formats include:

• Photographs, images
• Magazines, newspapers
• Advertisements
• Movies, videos, DVDs
• Memoirs, d iaries, journals
• Audio recordings
• Interviews , l etters , s peeches
• Research data, statistics
• Documents produced by organizations
• Documents produced by government agencies

Find Primary Sources

• Special Collections
• Digital Collections

On the 6th floor of Central Library,  Special Collections  specializes in  (PRINT)  historical materials relating to

• the U.S. War with Mexico (1846-1848)
• the cartographic (maps) history of Texas and the Gulf of Mexico
• Mexico from 1810-1920.

Texas Archival Resources Online (TARO)

(TARO) contains Special Collections' detailed guides. (SEARCH FOR: University of Texas at Arlington Library, Special Collections in drop down menu)

• Archives & Locating Archives Collections Guide on archival field and using archives in the UTA Libraries Special Collections.
• Sabin Americana, 1500-1926 This link opens in a new window This digital collection contains primary works about the Americas published throughout the world from 1500 to the early 1900's. more... less... Sabin Americana, 1500-1926 offers full-text access to more than 29,000 titles about the Americas including accounts of exploration, trade, colonialism, Native Americans, etc. Primary sources include books, pamphlets, serials, broadsides, and other historical documentation that describe the society, politics, religious beliefs, customs, and momentous events that characterized life in the Americas.
• Oral History Online This link opens in a new window Oral History Online is a database of English language oral histories. more... less... Oral History Online contains more than 34,000 pages of full-text content including Ellis Island oral history narratives and rare Black Panther Party interviews. It is also an index to free oral history information on the Web. Indexed oral histories represent information from archives, repositories, and individuals around the world.
• Early Encounters in North America: Peoples, Cultures and the Environment This link opens in a new window This full-text work in progress documents the relationships among peoples in North America from 1534 to 1850 more... less... This full-text work in progress documents the relationships among peoples in North America from 1534 to 1850. It focuses on personal accounts of traders, slaves, missionaries, explorers, soldiers, native peoples, and officials. Source materials include narratives, diaries, journals, and letters.
• Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives, 1960-1974 This link opens in a new window For scholars and students researching this important period in American history, culture, and politics. more... less... The Sixties: Primary Documents and Personal Narratives 1960-1974 contains diaries, letters, autobiographies and other memoirs, written and oral histories, manifestos, government documents, memorabilia, and scholarly commentary. Spanning 1960 to 1974, The Sixties is centered on key themes that provide insight into the issues that shaped America and that still resonate in today's debates: Arts, Music, and Leisure; Civil Rights; Counter-Culture; Environmental Movement; Gay and Lesbian Rights; Law and Government; Mass Media; New Left and Emerging Neo-Conservative Movement; Science and Technology; Student Activism; Vietnam War; and Women's Movement.
• Gerritsen Collection - Women's History Online 1543-1945 This link opens in a new window A collection of books, pamphlets and periodicals reflecting the evolution of a feminist consciousness and the movement for women's rights more... less... A collection of books, pamphlets and periodicals reflecting the evolution of a feminist consciousness and the movement for women's rights. The collection consists of 265 periodicals and 4471 monographs from continental Europe, the U.S., the United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand. The ASCII text is searchable by keyword and Boolean operators, and records are linked to the corresponding full-text page images.
• North American Immigrant Letters, Diaries, and Oral Histories This link opens in a new window This work in progress is composed of the personal narratives of immigrants to North America, including Canada more... less... This work in progress is composed of the personal narratives of immigrants to North America, including Canada. Included are letters, diaries, autobiographies, and oral histories. This database provides perspectives both on North America and on the immigrants' countries of origin.

The New York Times (1851-2007) Offers full-page and article images with search-able full-text back to the first issue.

Dallas Morning News Historical Archive(1885-1984)  Important resource for Texas History.

Chicago Defender (1956-1973) The Chicago Defender has been a leading voice of the black community, with more than two-thirds of its readership outside Chicago. A full-image is provided for the newspaper.

• ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Wall Street Journal (1889 - 2011) This link opens in a new window A full-image archive that includes the entire historical run of the newspaper from 1889 - 2011. See also The Wall Street Journal archive (1984 - Current) . more... less... ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Wall Street Journal (1889 - 2002): In 1889, Dow Jones & Company first published The Wall Street Journal (formerly known as the Customers' Afternoon Letter) as a markets-focused newspaper for the country's then-fewer than 200,000 shareholders. Today, it focuses not only on the stock market, but on all aspects of global business, economics, consumer affairs, and trends and issues. Online researchers have access to more than 100 years of The Journal's accurate reporting, exclusive analysis, agenda setting, editorials, and controversial opinions. In addition to the printed stories, researchers also can study the charts, stock tables, graphics, and illustrations featured in the publication. With this resource, users can study the development of industries and companies across decades, monitor the implementation and effects of fiscal policies on the global economy, study opposing viewpoints at critical times in the world's history, and more. This title is especially appealing to those interested in business, finance, economics, and journalism.

Cartographic Connections

Here are some of the maps from Special Collections

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Integrated Social Sciences Program: Primary and Secondary Sources

A guide to primary and secondary sources.

Spider Martin.   Two Minute Warning . 1965. Photo from the  IIP Photo Archive , licensed under CC BY 2.0  

Primary Sources

A primary source is an original document that contains firsthand information about a topic or an event. Primary sources exist on a spectrum and different fields of study may use different types of primary source documents. For example, the field of History may use diary entries and letters as primary source evidence, while the Sciences may use a publication of original research as a primary source. Being an interdisciplinary program, ISS courses and topics will require a range of understandings and approaches to primary sources. Here are some common examples of primary source documents:

• Historical documents (letters, pamphlets, political tracts, manifestos) 
• Data and Research Results (scientific article presenting original findings, statistics)
• Original works of art
• Video footage & photographs
• Works of literature
• Interview transcripts 
• Eyewitness accounts, newspapers articles & autobiographies 
• Blogs articles, tweets and other social media entries
• Lab notebooks and case studies

Primary Source Research

Primary sources can be found in a plethora of databases and through search engines such as Google. Here are some starting points to searching for historical and primary source documents. When deciding where to look for primary sources, first think about the  type  of information you are seeking, and from what time period. This will help to narrow down your choices.

• Independent Voices This link opens in a new window US alternative press publications dating mostly from the 1960s-1990s; includes ethnic, feminist, underground, antiwar, etc.

• Many Paths, Many Voices: Oral Histories from the UW Special Collections Regional oral histories from various local communities from the 1960s to present
• Primary Sources for History UW Libraries comprehensive list of primary source documents commonly used in History, including government documents, images, letters & diaries, newspapers, magazine articles, maps and oral histories
• UW Special Collections UW Libraries' major resource for rare and archival materials covering a broad range of topics, formats and periods.
• E-Newspaper Databases Global and local information in the news from both past and present

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is an  interpretation, analysis, discussion or  evaluation  of an event or issue that is based on primary source evidence. Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate information and studies so as to draw conclusions or present on the current state of knowledge on a topic. Secondary sources are often in the form of scholarly discourse or reviews. Secondary sources are useful to introducing a topic and providing historical or broader context. Common examples of secondary sources are:

• Biographies
• Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies
• Journal articles
• Literary criticism
• Monographs written about the topic
• Reviews of books, movies, musical recordings, works of arts, etc
• Newsletters and professional news sources

Secondary Source Research

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be found in a plethora of databases and through search engines such as Google Scholar. Because secondary sources are commentary on other works, they tend to be easier to find through library databases. To make a general search in article databases or the UW Libraries search, make sure to use the filters to choose publication type (peer-review article, newspaper, etc). Below are some starting points to help you begin your search for secondary sources:

• Article Databases Article databases provide a subject-specific search for scholarly articles, conference proceedings, newspaper articles and more. For databases specific to ISS topics, check out the Article Databases tab on this guide.
• Encyclopedia Entries Encyclopedia entries provide a broad overview of a topic or subject. They are always commentary and provide context for a topic at large.
• Newspapers Newspapers can be primary or secondary sources, depending on the context of your research inquiry. This guide provides global and local information in the news both past and present.
• Books Guide to finding and accessing e-books at the UW libraries.
• Google Scholar Provides a simple and free way to broadly search for scholarly literature. Search for articles, theses, nooks, abstracts and court opinions.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

The differences between a primary and a secondary source can be ambiguous. A source may be primary in one context and secondary in another. What determines whether it's a primary source is both the discipline and the research question. For example this article, South Persia and the Great War , was published in 1921 and provides a history of the war (a secondary source). But it is written by Percy Sykes who led a British military force there (a primary source). Here are a set of questions that may help you to determine and evaluate the nature of the source being used: 

• How does the creator of the source know the information? Was the creator present at the event or experience the topic at hand? 
• Where does the information come from? Is it personal experience, eyewitness accounts, reports written by others or commentary/interpretation? 
• Are the author's conclusions based on a single piece of evidence or do they have multiple sources taken into account? 

Research Minute: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

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Research Process

• Brainstorming
• Explore Google This link opens in a new window
• Explore Web Resources
• Explore Background Information
• Explore Books
• Explore Scholarly Articles
• Narrowing a Topic
• Primary and Secondary Resources
• Academic, Popular & Trade Publications
• Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed Journals
• Grey Literature
• Clinical Trials
• Evidence Based Treatment
• Scholarly Research
• Database Research Log
• Search Limits
• Keyword Searching
• Boolean Operators
• Phrase Searching
• Truncation & Wildcard Symbols
• Proximity Searching
• Field Codes
• Subject Terms and Database Thesauri
• Reading a Scientific Article
• Website Evaluation
• Article Keywords and Subject Terms
• Cited References
• Citing Articles
• Related Results
• Search Within Publication
• Database Alerts & RSS Feeds
• Personal Database Accounts
• Persistent URLs
• Literature Gap and Future Research
• Web of Knowledge
• Annual Reviews
• Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
• Finding Seminal Works
• Exhausting the Literature
• Finding Dissertations
• Researching Theoretical Frameworks
• Research Methodology & Design
• Tests and Measurements
• Organizing Research & Citations This link opens in a new window
• Scholarly Publication
• Learn the Library This link opens in a new window

Primary Sources

Primary resources contain first-hand information, meaning that you are reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event that s/he participated in. Examples of primary resources include scholarly research articles, books, and diaries. Primary sources such as research articles often do not explain terminology and theoretical principles in detail. Thus, readers of primary scholarly research should have foundational knowledge of the subject area. Use primary resources to obtain a first-hand account to an actual event and identify original research done in a field. For many of your papers, use of primary resources will be a requirement.

Examples of a primary source are:

• Original documents such as diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, records, eyewitness accounts, autobiographies
• Empirical scholarly works such as research articles, clinical reports, case studies, dissertations
• Creative works such as poetry, music, video, photography

How to locate primary research in NU Library:

• From the Library's homepage, begin your search in NavigatorSearch or select a subject-specific database from the A-Z Databases .
• Use the Scholarly/Peer-Reviewed Journal limiter to narrow your search to journal articles.
• Once you have a set of search results, remember to look for articles where the author has conducted original research. A primary research article will include a literature review, methodology, population or set sample, test or measurement, discussion of findings and usually future research directions.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources describe, summarize, or discuss information or details originally presented in another source; meaning the author, in most cases, did not participate in the event. This type of source is written for a broad audience and will include definitions of discipline specific terms, history relating to the topic, significant theories and principles, and summaries of major studies/events as related to the topic. Use secondary sources to obtain an overview of a topic and/or identify primary resources. Refrain from including such resources in an annotated bibliography for doctoral level work unless there is a good reason.

Examples of a secondary source are:

• Publications such as textbooks, magazine articles, book reviews, commentaries, encyclopedias, almanacs

Locate  secondary resources in NU Library within the following databases:

• Annual Reviews (scholarly article reviews)
• Credo Reference (encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks & more)
• Ebook Central (ebooks)
• ProQuest (book reviews, bibliographies, literature reviews & more )
• SAGE Reference Methods, SAGE Knowledge & SAGE Navigator (handbooks, encyclopedias, major works, debates & more)
• Most other Library databases include secondary sources. 

Beginning the Resarch Process Workshop

This workshop introduces to the beginning stages of the research process, focusing on identifying different types of information, as well as gathering background information through electronic books.

• Beginning the Research Process Workshop Outline

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Primary vs Secondary Research: Differences, Methods, Sources, and More

Table of Contents

Primary vs Secondary Research – What’s the Difference?

In the search for knowledge and data to inform decisions, researchers and analysts rely on a blend of research sources. These sources are broadly categorized into primary and secondary research, each serving unique purposes and offering different insights into the subject matter at hand. But what exactly sets them apart?

Primary research is the process of gathering fresh data directly from its source. This approach offers real-time insights and specific information tailored to specific objectives set by stakeholders. Examples include surveys, interviews, and observational studies.

Secondary research , on the other hand, involves the analysis of existing data, most often collected and presented by others. This type of research is invaluable for understanding broader trends, providing context, or validating hypotheses. Common sources include scholarly articles, industry reports, and data compilations.

The crux of the difference lies in the origin of the information: primary research yields firsthand data which can be tailored to a specific business question, whilst secondary research synthesizes what's already out there. In essence, primary research listens directly to the voice of the subject, whereas secondary research hears it secondhand .

When to Use Primary and Secondary Research

Selecting the appropriate research method is pivotal and should be aligned with your research objectives. The choice between primary and secondary research is not merely procedural but strategic, influencing the depth and breadth of insights you can uncover.

Primary research shines when you need up-to-date, specific information directly relevant to your study. It's the go-to for fresh insights, understanding consumer behavior, or testing new theories. Its bespoke nature makes it indispensable for tailoring questions to get the exact answers you need.

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Secondary research is your first step into the research world. It helps set the stage by offering a broad understanding of the topic. Before diving into costly primary research, secondary research can validate the need for further investigation or provide a solid background to build upon. It's especially useful for identifying trends, benchmarking, and situating your research within the existing body of knowledge.

Combining both methods can significantly enhance your research. Starting with secondary research lays the groundwork and narrows the focus, whilst subsequent primary research delves deep into specific areas of interest, providing a well-rounded, comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Primary vs Secondary Research Methods

In the landscape of market research, the methodologies employed can significantly influence the insights and conclusions drawn. Let's delve deeper into the various methods underpinning both primary and secondary research, shedding light on their unique applications and the distinct insights they offer.

Primary Research Methods:

• Surveys: Surveys are a cornerstone of primary research, offering a quantitative approach to gathering data directly from the target audience. By employing structured questionnaires, researchers can collect a vast array of data ranging from customer preferences to behavioral patterns. This method is particularly valuable for acquiring statistically significant data that can inform decision-making processes and strategy development. The application of statistical approaches for analysing this data, such as key drivers analysis, MaxDiff or conjoint analysis can also further enhance any collected data.
• One on One Interviews: Interviews provide a qualitative depth to primary research, allowing for a nuanced exploration of participants' attitudes, experiences, and motivations. Conducted either face-to-face or remotely, interviews enable researchers to delve into the complexities of human behavior, offering rich insights that surveys alone may not uncover. This method is instrumental in exploring new areas of research or obtaining detailed information on specific topics.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small, diverse group of participants to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject, product, or idea. This interactive setting fosters a dynamic exchange of ideas, revealing consumers' perceptions, experiences, and preferences. Focus groups are invaluable for testing concepts, exploring market trends, and understanding the factors that influence consumer decisions.
• Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies involve the systematic watching, recording, and analysis of behaviors and events in their natural setting. This method offers an unobtrusive way to gather authentic data on how people interact with products, services, or environments, providing insights that can lead to more user-centered design and marketing strategies.

Secondary Research Methods:

• Literature Reviews: Literature reviews involve the comprehensive examination of existing research and publications on a given topic. This method enables researchers to synthesize findings from a range of sources, providing a broad understanding of what is already known about a subject and identifying gaps in current knowledge.
• Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion. This method is particularly useful in secondary research for aggregating findings across different studies, offering a more robust understanding of the evidence on a particular topic.
• Content Analysis: Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing texts, media, or other content to quantify patterns, themes, or biases . This approach allows researchers to assess the presence of certain words, concepts, or sentiments within a body of work, providing insights into trends, representations, and societal norms. This can be performed across a range of sources including social media, customer forums or review sites.
• Historical Research: Historical research involves the study of past events, trends, and behaviors through the examination of relevant documents and records. This method can provide context and understanding of current trends and inform future predictions, offering a unique perspective that enriches secondary research.

Each of these methods, whether primary or secondary, plays a crucial role in the mosaic of market research, offering distinct pathways to uncovering the insights necessary to drive informed decisions and strategies.

Primary vs Secondary Sources in Research

Both primary and secondary sources of research form the backbone of the insight generation process, when both are utilized in tandem it can provide the perfect steppingstone for the generation of real insights. Let’s explore how each category serves its unique purpose in the research ecosystem.

Primary Research Data Sources

Primary research data sources are the lifeblood of firsthand research, providing raw, unfiltered insights directly from the source. These include:

• Customer Satisfaction Survey Results: Direct feedback from customers about their satisfaction with a product or service. This data is invaluable for identifying strengths to build on and areas for improvement and typically renews each month or quarter so that metrics can be tracked over time.
• NPS Rating Scores from Customers: Net Promoter Score (NPS) provides a straightforward metric to gauge customer loyalty and satisfaction. This quantitative data can reveal much about customer sentiment and the likelihood of referrals.
• Ad-hoc Surveys: Ad-hoc surveys can be about any topic which requires investigation, they are typically one off surveys which zero in on one particular business objective. Ad-hoc projects are useful for situations such as investigating issues identified in other tracking surveys, new product development, ad testing, brand messaging, and many other kinds of projects.
• A Field Researcher’s Notes: Detailed observations from fieldwork can offer nuanced insights into user behaviors, interactions, and environmental factors that influence those interactions. These notes are a goldmine for understanding the context and complexities of user experiences.
• Recordings Made During Focus Groups: Audio or video recordings of focus group discussions capture the dynamics of conversation, including reactions, emotions, and the interplay of ideas. Analyzing these recordings can uncover nuanced consumer attitudes and perceptions that might not be evident in survey data alone.

These primary data sources are characterized by their immediacy and specificity, offering a direct line to the subject of study. They enable researchers to gather data that is specifically tailored to their research objectives, providing a solid foundation for insightful analysis and strategic decision-making.

Secondary Research Data Sources

In contrast, secondary research data sources offer a broader perspective, compiling and synthesizing information from various origins. These sources include:

• Books, Magazines, Scholarly Journals: Published works provide comprehensive overviews, detailed analyses, and theoretical frameworks that can inform research topics, offering depth and context that enriches primary data.
• Market Research Reports: These reports aggregate data and analyses on industry trends, consumer behavior, and market dynamics, providing a macro-level view that can guide primary research directions and validate findings.
• Government Reports: Official statistics and reports from government agencies offer authoritative data on a wide range of topics, from economic indicators to demographic trends, providing a reliable basis for secondary analysis.
• White Papers, Private Company Data: White papers and reports from businesses and consultancies offer insights into industry-specific research, best practices, and market analyses. These sources can be invaluable for understanding the competitive landscape and identifying emerging trends.

Secondary data sources serve as a compass, guiding researchers through the vast landscape of information to identify relevant trends, benchmark against existing data, and build upon the foundation of existing knowledge. They can significantly expedite the research process by leveraging the collective wisdom and research efforts of others.

By adeptly navigating both primary and secondary sources, researchers can construct a well-rounded research project that combines the depth of firsthand data with the breadth of existing knowledge. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the research topic, fostering informed decisions and strategic insights.

Examples of Primary and Secondary Research in Marketing

In the realm of marketing, both primary and secondary research methods play critical roles in understanding market dynamics, consumer behavior, and competitive landscapes. By comparing examples across both methodologies, we can appreciate their unique contributions to strategic decision-making.

Example 1: New Product Development

Primary Research: Direct Consumer Feedback through Surveys and Focus Groups

• Objective: To gauge consumer interest in a new product concept and identify preferred features.
• Process: Surveys distributed to a target demographic to collect quantitative data on consumer preferences, and focus groups conducted to dive deeper into consumer attitudes and desires.
• Insights: Direct insights into consumer needs, preferences for specific features, and willingness to pay. These insights help in refining product design and developing a targeted marketing strategy.

Secondary Research: Market Analysis Reports

• Objective: To understand the existing market landscape, including competitor products and market trends.
• Process: Analyzing published market analysis reports and industry studies to gather data on market size, growth trends, and competitive offerings.
• Insights: Provides a broader understanding of the market, helping to position the new product strategically against competitors and align it with current trends.

Example 2: Brand Positioning

Primary Research: Brand Perception Analysis through Surveys

• Objective: To understand how the brand is perceived by consumers and identify potential areas for repositioning.
• Process: Conducting surveys that ask consumers to describe the brand in their own words, rate it against various attributes, and compare it to competitors.
• Insights: Direct feedback on brand strengths and weaknesses from the consumer's perspective, offering actionable data for adjusting brand messaging and positioning.

Secondary Research: Social Media Sentiment Analysis

• Objective: To analyze public sentiment towards the brand and its competitors.
• Process: Utilizing software tools to analyze mentions, hashtags, and discussions related to the brand and its competitors across social media platforms.
• Insights: Offers an overview of public perception and emerging trends in consumer sentiment, which can validate findings from primary research or highlight areas needing further investigation.

Example 3: Market Expansion Strategy

Primary Research: Consumer Demand Studies in New Markets

• Objective: To assess demand and consumer preferences in a new geographic market.
• Process: Conducting surveys and interviews with potential consumers in the target market to understand their needs, preferences, and cultural nuances.
• Insights: Provides specific insights into the new market’s consumer behavior, preferences, and potential barriers to entry, guiding market entry strategies.

Secondary Research: Economic and Demographic Analysis

• Objective: To evaluate the economic viability and demographic appeal of the new market.
• Process: Reviewing existing economic reports, demographic data, and industry trends relevant to the target market.
• Insights: Offers a macro view of the market's potential, including economic conditions, demographic trends, and consumer spending patterns, which can complement insights gained from primary research.

By leveraging both primary and secondary research, marketers can form a comprehensive understanding of their market, consumers, and competitors, facilitating informed decision-making and strategic planning. Each method brings its strengths to the table, with primary research offering direct consumer insights and secondary research providing a broader context within which to interpret those insights.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Primary and Secondary Research?

When it comes to market research, both primary and secondary research offer unique advantages and face certain limitations. Understanding these can help researchers and businesses make informed decisions on which approach to utilize for their specific needs. Below is a comparative table highlighting the pros and cons of each research type.

Navigating the Pros and Cons

• Balance Your Research Needs: Consider starting with secondary research to gain a broad understanding of the subject matter, then delve into primary research for specific, targeted insights that are tailored to your precise needs.
• Resource Allocation: Evaluate your budget, time, and resource availability. Primary research can offer more specific and actionable data but requires more resources. Secondary research is more accessible but may lack the specificity or recency you need.
• Quality and Relevance: Assess the quality and relevance of available secondary sources before deciding if primary research is necessary. Sometimes, the existing data might suffice, especially for preliminary market understanding or trend analysis.
• Combining Both for Comprehensive Insights: Often, the most effective research strategy involves a combination of both primary and secondary research. This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the market, leveraging the broad perspective provided by secondary sources and the depth and specificity of primary data.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary]     * Biographical works     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography     * Commentaries, criticisms     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary]     * Histories     * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary]     * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline]     * Textbooks [also considered tertiary]     * Web site [also considered primary]

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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

• Source Types
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• Examples by Discipline

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

• Journal articles
• Monographs (books written on a single subject)
• Newspaper or magazine articles
• Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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I have to write a research paper using primary sources. where do i start.

• What are Special Collections and Archives?
• What is the difference between Primary and Secondary sources?
• How do I cite primary source materials?

Primary sources are created by individuals who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event.

Explanation:

A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source.

Deeds, wills, court documents, military records, tax records, census records, diaries, journals, letters, account books, advertisements, newspapers, photographs, and maps are primary sources.

Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, and to help familiarize ourselves with a topic and compare that topic with other events in history.

History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic articles are secondary sources.

If you've never written a research paper using primary sources, it is important to understand that the process is different from using only secondary sources. Many students discover that finding and gaining access to primary source documents can be difficult. The Library website has a valuable guide to locating primary source documents. Follow the link below to be redirected to that guide:

https://libguides.furman.edu/resources/primary-sources

• Students are encouraged to seek help from the Special Collections Librarian or Research Librarians to aid in their research projects. Librarians will be able to aid students in a variety of ways including helping to locate primary source materials.

After locating appropriate primary sources, it is necessary for students to analyze and interpret them. To many students, this task can seem arduous, if not overwhelming. There are many resources available in the library as well as online, which are helpful. The National Archives website has very useful analysis worksheets that can help students to determine the significance of primary source documents. Links to PDF files of these worksheets are listed below:

Written Document | Artifact | Cartoon | Map | Motion Picture | Photograph | Poster | Sound Recording

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Source Types & Their Uses

When doing most kinds of research, you will use a variety of source types for different purposes. For example, a professor asks you to find and evaluate a Scholarly Source  for a research paper on the pros and cons of harm reduction programs in the treatment of addiction in the United States. In this case, it's likely  you'll be looking for a research study   that presents  primary data  and subsequent results and conclusions. 

What does this mean? How is a scholarly source different from other types of sources, like a newspaper or magazine article?

Sources can be split into several major categories, including: 

• Information Content (primary v. secondary)
• Publication/Creator (e.g. scholarly sources, popular sources, trades, etc.)

Depending on the research, its creator(s), and the audience it's intended for, certain sources may work better than others. To determine the appropriateness of a source to your research, it's important to understand the differences between each type and their uses in research. 

It is essential to understand which source type will best support the purpose , evidence , and needs of your research , particulary if it's academic in nature. It is also important to keep your audience  in mind. Writing a paper for a class taught by an English professor with a PhD will likely require different source types than gathering raw data sets for a Market Research Report given in a Business Seminar. 

• Types of Sources by Information
• Types of Sources by Publication
• Machine Readable Types of Sources Infographic

There are three different classes of information types: primary, secondary , and tertiary , though some consider secondary and tertiary sources to be grouped together.

• Primary sources include original, unanalyzed information.
• Secondary sources include analyses or use of that original information.
• Tertiary sources are collections of secondary source information. 

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources and information are used in most kinds of academic, scientific, and business research, but examples vary within certain disciplines. For example, a primary source in the context of history research could be the text of a letter written by President John Adams to his wife, Abigail Adams, in 1799, while a primary source in the medical field would be the results of a clinical trial on the effects of harm reduction treatment on adults aged 18-24.

For examples of each type by discipline, please refer to the table below. 

(Credit to the UC Merced Library, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources LibGuide.)

(Credit to the  Suffolk County Community College Library)

Sources may also be grouped in specific Publication Types, such as scholarly sources , popular sources , trade publications , and more! 

Scholarly sources are those created BY and FOR scholars in a particular academic discipline and/or field. You may find these kinds of sources in an academic journal or from a book published by a University Press. These sources also go through a rigorous, multi-step peer-review process where fellow scholars within the same discipline read, evalaute, and provide constructive critique of paticular research to make sure its methods, evidence, and conclusions are well-developed and worthy of publication. This level of peer-review encoruages healthy scholarly debate. 

By contrast, popular sources  are created for a general audience by journalists, professional writers, and others. These sources are created and written to appeal to a wide swath of people, either to inform or entertain.   For example, magazine and newspaper articles are considered popular sources. These types of sources are NOT necessarily peer-reviewed, and rarely include the level of citations and credibility exhibited schoalrly sources. However, they can still be useful for a variety of research needs.  

Finally, trade publications   are similar to scholarly sources in that they are created by and for a specific community or field, but they do NOT go through such a rigorous peer-review and publishing process. Examples of these sources would be The Hollywood Reporter, The Financial Times, and/or  Library Journal . 

For more information, please refer to the following table detailing the differences between each source publication type: 

( Credit to University of North Carolina at Greensboro Libraries)

Access the next tab in this box to open a Machine Readable PDF version of the Comparing Scholarly versus Popular Sources Infographic.

• Comparing Scholarly & Popular Sources Infographic
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