case study method in teaching foreign languages

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Case Method As Means Of Forming Intercultural Competence In Teaching Foreign Languages

The purpose of this paper is to study the conditions of successful implementing the "case study" method in the process of teaching a foreign language. The analysis of theoretical base of this research, particularly, works on theory and methodology of Russian and foreign scientists, is given. Complex description of distinctive features of the "case study" method, the history of its development and the scope of its application are suggested in the article. Experimental part of the study demonstrates the stages of implementing and the factors of effective case for forming intercultural competence of the student. The results of the research showed that it is necessary to carry out thorough preparation in order to compile an effective case. Preparation includes highlighting the problem, collecting the appropriate material, adapting the material to the language level of students. The content of the case should be authentic; it should reflect modern realities and encourage students to analyse and to compare different cultures, to communicate with each other and to develop the ability to make joint decisions. It is necessary to have preliminary language training with students for more effective application of this method. This process demands introducing basic terminology, clichés and linguistic structures for work in a certain thematic area. Keywords: Intercultural communication interactive technologies communicative competence vocational-oriented learning

Introduction

Intercultural communication is actively become integrated as one of the leading disciplines of humanitarian directions in modern educational system. In connection with this scientists and methodologists are actively searching for ways of forming and monitoring intercultural competence. Foreign and Russian scientists identify a number of universal approaches and methods for the formation of various aspects of intercultural competence. Such universal means include questionnaires, the method of intercultural assimilator, as well as various types of interactive exercises ( Safina, & Amurskaja, 2017 ).

The most effective interactive method for the formation of intercultural communication is “the case method”. The advantage of this procedure is that it provides students’ independent foreign language activity under artificially created professional conditions. The application of this particular method assumes active interaction of students during the process of studying foreign language and solving professional problems.

It is to be emphasized that this method should be used to comprehend, critically to analyze certain situations and to solve specific problems. It is a kind of tool that provides a basis for imitating real life in the classroom. This procedure is readily adaptable to real situations. Cases are usually prepared in written form and are based on real facts ( Lozovskaya, 2015 ).

Turning to the history of the development of this technology, it is necessary to mention that the case method was used for the first time in the USA at the Harvard Business School in 1921. The method was most successful when applied to administrative disciplines, particularly, to the precedents of legal and business practice. Along with the classical Harvard school, there is the Manchester West European Case Study School, which, unlike the former, seeks to find not only the correct solution, but suggests the multitudinous solution of the problem.

The method considered is concerned with modern education in foreign countries. We illustrate the case method by considering its active use in business education, in teaching medicine, law, economics and management, as one of the most effective ways of teaching skills for solving standard professional problems.

Attention should be given to introducing this method in teaching foreign languages. A fundamental advantage of this procedure is that the content aspect and professional orientation of teaching cause greater interest and motivation for studying foreign language and culture. We discuss the case-study technology which can be applied to the domestic and socio-cultural sphere in standard situations of business communication and educational and professional activities.

Case-method contributes to the solution of a number of important tasks, creating the necessary language environment and motivating students to use a foreign language for real communication. This methodology promotes the effective development of the skills of all types of speech activity, helps to form the skills of business communication, as well as a number of analytical, creative and social skills ( Drutsko, 2014 ).

Ryndina highlights a potential advantage of this procedure. It lies in the fact that “the emphasis is not on communicating ready-made knowledge, but on encouraging students to think, to independently search for information, to make independent conclusions and messages, as well as “to ransfer to oneself” that is an appeal to life and speech experience of students” ( Ryndina, 2013 ).

Pakhtusova notes that this approach is oriented towards the formation of the ability to learn, the paradigm shift of thinking, the ability to process huge amounts of information, and the ability to systematically and effectively perform when some crises occur ( Pakhtusova, 2014 ).

The method is found to be successful on a wide range of the formation of intercultural competence of students, since this competence presupposes the ability to orient oneself in a foreign culture, the ability to adapt to other people's norms and rules of conduct. Among the most important conditions and factors for successful formation of intercultural competence, Maksimova singles out the use of materials that contain the cultural and socio-cultural aspects of the language being studied. It is also important to develop students’ ability to compare the cultural realities of their native country and the country of the language they study; to motivate independent students’ work with the material relating to those cultures and languages ( Maksimova, 2015, p.133 ).

The principles of compilation and stages of implementation of case technology in foreign language classes are described in the works of a number of scientists. The method to be described here involves important and significant information for students; clear and understandable instructions from a teacher; the necessary sources of information; clearly planned time-table for solving different problems (Zolotova, & Demina, 2015).

The procedure is most simply and successfully followed for the case of careful reading the terms of the method; highlighting its key points; searching for the necessary information missing in the text of the case itself; distributing the functions and roles of the participants; developing a unified position of the group and presenting results in a comprehensive manner ( Aikina, 2013 ).

At present methodologists distinguish different types of training cases. According to the volume and complexity of the tasks there exist: 1) full cases for work in a team during several days and 2) incomplete mini cases. When we deal with structured cases, situations are briefly described with a small amount of digital data. But when we deal with unstructured cases, a large amount of material and statistics is presented. The main purpose of such cases is the ability to distinguish the main things from the secondary ones and to assess the situation for a certain period of time ( Ovchinnikova, & Kulgavyuk, 2014 ).

A review of theoretical literature has shown advantages and disadvantages of the case study strategy in various areas of vocational education. The essential idea behind this approach in teaching a foreign language is that as an effective means it increases students’ motivation, improves their communicative, cognitive and strategic competencies during the process of studying foreign languages.

Problem Statement

The most widely accepted modern theories of teaching a foreign language suggest that students must acquire not only communicative skills, but also be capable of effective professional activities in a foreign environment, which requires the formation of various aspects of intercultural competence, development of the ability to analyze and compare the characteristics of different cultures, be able to make decisions in standard situations and when things are coming to a crisis.

The task of this study is to identify factors for successful appliance of the case study method during the process of studying and teaching a foreign language. By this method it will be possible to develop strategic skills, to work in a team, to determine the role of the teacher and the role of students in organizing an effective process of studying and teaching a foreign language.

Research Questions

scope, varieties and target settings of the case method;

the main stages and principles of preparing the case during the process of teaching foreign languages;

the conditions for the formation of intercultural competence.

Purpose of the Study

The main objective of this study is to identify basic principles for successful appliance of the case-study method during the process of studying and teaching a foreign language; to create intercultural competence of students.

Following these studies, experiments concerning the case method named “The magistrates in Germany” were carried out. Experiments investigated and showed that there are different stages of the case-study procedure; the method is applicable to a group of students. From the results of the experiments it is found that communicative skills, understanding of intercultural differences, personal experience may be obtained by means of case method.

Research Methods

Theoretical base of this research are works on theory and methodology of such scientists Ryndina ( 2013 ), Pakhtusova ( 2014 ), Aikina ( 2013 ), Lozovskaya ( 2015 ) and others. A corresponding analysis of works on theory and methodology relating to the use of the case method during the process of teaching a foreign language has been supplemented by empirical research methods, such as questionnaires, testing, discussions and interactive exercises.

Let us consider an experiment in which the 4 year students of philology department took part. The case study “The magistrates in Germany” was suggested. It was drawn as close as possible to the real educational and professional life.

In the course of experimental work, it was sometimes necessary to refer to the methodological principles developed by Aikina ( 2013 ). The scientist assumes that the following stages of work do exist: getting to know the case, analyzing information, finding a solution, identifying the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, evaluating alternative solutions, presenting results, assessing students’ work and summarizing the whole work ( Aikina, 2013 ).

The case “The magistrates in Germany” consists of several consecutive stages. It combines an individual work of each student with general search tasks of the group and vice versa group discussion of the problem and proposals prepared by each member of the team are assumed. The full set of tasks was worked out for 5 academic hours. General linguistic and country study information was introduced beforehand. Lexical skills concerning the topic “Education system in Germany” were practiced during the preliminary lessons of practice of foreign language.

The goal of the case was formulated as follows: “Imagine that you have received a grant for a study tour to Germany. The purpose of the tour is to get acquainted with the education system in Germany and to choose the university in which you would like to obtain a Master’s degree. Your task is to develop a trip route, to work out a plan for visiting German universities and to present the university you study at to your German colleagues”.

As an official document, students received a fictitious invitation from the German Academic Exchange Service, executed according to all standards of such documents. The invitation included specific dates, names of students and the total amount of money allocated for organizing the trip. In addition, the list of universities, in which there are Master’s programs having the direction of “Germanic philology”, was attached to the invitation. The task of the students at the first stage was to determine the overall plan of the working trip: which cities and when they intend to visit during a two-week trip. As a result of individual research work and a joint discussion during the lesson, five cities and universities were defined. They aroused the greatest interest. The result of the first lesson was writing the working plan of the trip.

The students were divided into 5 groups during the second lesson. Every group was to prepare a presentation about the city it has chosen. Then every group was to review the structure and curriculum of the university that was planned to attend. After the presentations a discussion was organized. The theme “Higher education in Germany and Russia” was suggested. The students highlighted common and distinctive features of the structure of education and peculiarities of content of the curriculum of universities both in Germany and Russia.

The third stage of work had a practical trend. It assumed a solution of such problem as allocating funds of the grant to organizing the study tour. It was necessary to choose the most profitable type of transport for a trip to Germany and to choose the most appropriate transport links between German cities.

The next task of organizing the trip was search of hotels and hostels. Every mini group offered various options for living in the cities assigned to them. They actively discussed actual prices for various vehicles. At last, thanks to joint discussion of the opportunities optimum accommodation and transfer options for all groups were selected.

The next task was connected with planning meetings with German professors and students, preparing questions about Master’s curriculum and student life, creating a presentation about the Kazan federal university. The task was carried out in groups. Positive and negative sides were pointed out in each presentation. At the end of the lesson the most successful presentation was mentioned depending on its’ content and design. Then the results were summed up.

At the last lesson the students were offered to speak out on the topic “Positive and negative aspects of the Bologna process in the higher education system”. The students exchanged their views. They discussed such points as changes in education systems of universities of Russia and Germany, attraction of Master’s curriculum in Russia and Germany. They gave their positive and negative arguments and shared their plans for the future.

As a final task, students were asked to fill in a questionnaire. They had to analyze how their perception of higher education in Germany had changed, to assess the improvement of their language skills and to point out the positive aspects they had found out for themselves by carrying out the tasks of this case.

The students were motivated to analyze and discuss a large amount of information related to the education system in Germany and Russia. They were able to think over and discuss possible solutions of such practical issues as transport, accommodation, prices of different services and other issues associated with staying in a foreign country. The participants of this case discussed indirect difficulties and contradictions that Russian students may face when studying in Germany.

The questionnaire survey showed a high level of satisfaction with the search and analytical work done: the students demonstrated expansion of their information resources about Germany in general and about the education system in particular. Their motivation to learn the language and improve language skills increased. In addition, four of the fifteen students expressed their desire to hold the Master’s degree in Germany and they made their choice concerning a particular institute.

The main difficulties in managing the tasks were: inability to convince the interlocutors, to argue their own position and to allocate the time and responsibilities among the participants within the team. Also there were positive moments of work and managing the tasks of the case: finding out new information, dynamics, and the ability to share and discuss different points of view, practical value of new information.

The studies clearly demonstrate high efficiency and wide possibilities of the case method. It is obvious that the method is aimed at creating intercultural competence of students. On the one hand, case technology promotes the realization of such educational tasks as gaining new knowledge about foreign culture, acquiring the skills of analysis of intercultural differences, on the other hand, this technique contributes to the development of independent critical thinking, the ability to argue and convince the interlocutor, to improve the skills of strategic performing and decision-making.

As the main advantages of the case method, it is important to note that such qualities as dynamism, teamwork, increasing motivation to learn a foreign language were realized during the work. In addition, country study material is absorbed more deeply due to independent search for the solution of the situational task. This method allows students to become keen on the work having different language levels. It contributes to collective creative thinking, motivates students to profound penetration into lingua-cultural and mental features of the foreign language and culture. It is worth remarking that the use of case studies method during intercultural communication classes is of great value.

• Aikina, T. Y. (2013). Case-study in forming of communicative competence of students. Bulletin of Tomsk State Pedagogical University, 1(129), 58-60.
• Drutsko, N. A. (2014). Case Technology and project teaching as an instrument of intercultural competence Development for university students. Society: sociology, psychology, pedagogy, 1, 79-83.
• Grosse, U. (1988). The case study Approach to teaching business English. English for Specific Purposes, 7, 131-132.
• Lozovskaya, T. V. (2015). The Methodology of cases selection for the teaching foreign speech to the students of non-linguistic specialties. Crimean Scientific Bulletin, 5, 63-68
• Maksimova, E. V. (2015). Conditions for forming of intercultural competence of non-linguistic university students in the process of foreign languages teaching​. Socio-economic and technical systems: research, design, optimization, 3(66), 129-138.
• Ovchinnikova, V. B, & Kulgavyuk V.V. (2014). Case study method as an integral part of vocational training for students in foreign-language communication. Development of education, pedagogy and psychology in the modern world, 91-94.
• Pakhtusova, E. E. (2014). Case method in teaching a foreign language in a university. Young scientist, 7, 532-534.
• Ryndina, Y. V. (2013). Individual-differentiated approach in teaching foreign language to students of non-linguistic specialties. Young Scientist, 10(57), 610-612.
• Safina, R., & Amurskaja, O. (2017). The Technology of Development of Intercultural Competence at Russian and Foreign Universities. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 727-734Zolotova, M. V., & Demina, O. A. (2015). Concerning some aspects of using the case-study method in teaching a foreign language. Theory and practice of social development, 4, 133-136.

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Safina, R. A., & Salieva, R. N. (2018). Case Method As Means Of Forming Intercultural Competence In Teaching Foreign Languages. In R. Valeeva (Ed.), Teacher Education - IFTE 2018, vol 45. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 909-915). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2018.09.106

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Case study research on language learning and use.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2014

Case study research has played a very important role in applied linguistics since the field was established, particularly in studies of language teaching, learning, and use. The case in such studies generally has been a person (e.g., a teacher, learner, speaker, writer, or interlocutor) or a small number of individuals on their own or in a group (e.g., a family, a class, a work team, or a community of practice). The cases are normally studied in depth in order to provide an understanding of individuals’ experiences, issues, insights, developmental pathways, or performance within a particular linguistic, social, or educational context. Rather than discuss constructs, hypotheses, and findings in terms of statistical patterns or trends derived from a larger sample or survey of a population of language learners, as in some quantitative research, a qualitative case study of a person presents a contextualized human profile. Case study has contributed substantially to theory development, generating new perspectives or offering a refutation or refinement of earlier theories in applied linguistics by analyzing linguistic, cultural, and social phenomena associated with children, adolescents, young adults, and older adults.

In recent years, the purview of case studies in applied linguistics has expanded to include many previously underrepresented topics, linguistic situations, theoretical perspectives, and populations. This article provides an overview of some traditional areas of coverage and then newer foci in terms of methodology, thematic areas, and findings pertaining to language learners in transnational, multilingual, and diaspora contexts especially.

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Annotated bibliography.

Duff , P. A. ( 2008 a). Case study research in applied linguistics . New York, NY : Erlbaum/Taylor & Francis .

This book focuses on case studies in applied linguistics research dealing with language learners (since the volume is in a series on research methods in second language acquisition). Providing first an in-depth analysis and discussion of a Cambodian learner's English development, followed by a methodological overview of the history and development of case study research, the book then surveys representative L2 case studies across a wide range of topics, contexts, and age groups. Themes, issues, priorities, principles, and strategies for conducting and reporting on case studies in our field are identified.

Dyson , A. H. , & Genishi , C. ( 2005 ). On the case: Approaches to language and literacy research . New York, NY : Teachers College Press .

This very accessible book is part of a series of research methods texts commissioned by the U.S. National Conference on Research in Language and Literacy designed specifically for graduate students planning to undertake qualitative research in language and literacy education. Detailed examples reflect the authors’ own primary interests and extensive research in the social, cultural, and linguistic practice of literacy and its development in early childhood in elementary school classrooms in the United States. Principles and strategies are provided for framing and addressing research questions, negotiating access to research sites (and individuals), and generating, analyzing, and interpreting data. The final chapter deals with generalization in case studies. The book provides a solid foundation for those wishing to conduct school-based case studies on literacy.

Yin , R. K. ( 2014 ). Case study research: Design and methods ( 5th ed. ). Los Angeles, CA : Sage .

Now in its fifth edition some 30 years after its first publication, Yin's book has become a classic in interdisciplinary case study research. Its coverage extends well beyond education, with examples sprinkled throughout the book from sociology, comparative politics, health sciences, business and industry, and criminology. Appendices provide an in-depth discussion of case studies in psychology and evaluation. The book includes some welcome updates: additional case studies and reviews of new case study methodology studies and overviews, seven tutorials, a discussion of ethics, a glossary, and a better format and presentation than earlier editions. Yin, who earned his doctorate in experimental psychology, takes a decidedly more realist and positivist orientation to case study than Duff (2008a) and Dyson and Genishi (2005) do, thus readers will encounter much more terminology typically associated with quantitative research (e.g., reliability , validity , hypotheses , causal explanations , chains of evidence , and replication logic ). It is nevertheless a helpful resource for many case study researchers and this edition includes more interpretive work.

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• Patricia A. Duff
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190514000051

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Case Studies in the Foreign Language Classroom

Case Studies / Simulations

Recent developments in our societies bring about an increased sense of urgency and desire for the ability to create and sustain peaceful relationships . This website is the result of an interdisciplinary, cross-institutional collaboration funded by AGREC, with the goal to contribute to positive, peaceful societal change locally and globally by way of nurturing linguistic and communicative diversity, honing “global mindset “ defined as “the ability to perceive, analyze, and decode behaviors and situations in multiple cultural contexts and to use that insight to build productive relationships with individuals and organizations across cultural boundaries” (Cabrera & Unruh, citing Mansour Javidan, 2012, p.33). We seek to approach this goal by leveraging the case study method in the foreign language classroom to develop intercultural communicative competence .

The case study method originated during the inception of the Harvard Business School in the early 20 th century, when business was not yet an academic field and educational materials were not available. Faculty members set out to remedy this shortcoming by interviewing leading business professionals and writing detailed accounts of the dilemmas they faced and what they were doing to address them. In the FL classroom, recounting real decision dilemmas , case studies present an effective experiential learning tool to better prepare students for the demands of a global life and work environment and foster their foreign language communicative skills at the same time (e.g., Frederico, 2010; Gonglewski & Helm, 2013; Martin, 2020). Case studies, as conceived here, are applied pedagogical tools that place students at the center of difficult decisions, forcing them to wrestle with the complexities, ambiguities, and uncertainties confronted by real or fictional decision-makers (Franke, 2011).

They can range from role play simulations (where the student interacts within a “world” defined by the instructor), decision-forcing cases (where the student solves problems based on the information provided), or vignettes (short written or visual stories where students respond to). (In that sense, case studies as defined here are distinct from “global simulations” in the sense of Levine (2004).)

Our vision for our students is to help them towards a deeper understanding of the varying viewpoints locally and globally and develop a differentiated and interculturally competent approach to real-world conflicts and communicative situations. We desire our students to not only grow their foreign language and culture skills but employ analytical and critical thinking skills at the same time by wrestling with complex situations while engaging actively with the target language and considering the cultural consequences.

Our long-term vision for our project is to create a community of practice , instructors of all levels and languages and across institutions, who are passionate about graduating interculturally competent citizens with a global mindset that contribute to a peaceful society, and who a committed to developing and implementing the case study method in their classroom.

Developing intercultural communicative competence and a “global mindset” in students by

• Exposing students to real-world dilemmas and decision-making
• Fostering their foreign language skills
• Engaging students with intercultural and global issues

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The Case Method In English As A Foreign Language In The Classroom

The following article shows the research process done in a Bogota school as applying the case method in English as a foreign language in the classroom. The paper illustrates what the research objective was and how design was done. In order to apply the Case Method into the school context, a definition of critical thinking was given, critical thinking more exactly, and the cognitive processes established by Bloom's taxonomy were integrated to the Case Method theory to analyze the role of the Case Method as developer of effective thinkers. The research method used in this study was action research since its qualitative nature, the teacher-researcher role and the need to integrate the practice and the theory during investigation aiming to reach a combination between the theory and the context where it was applied. The result of this process is shown at the end of this article, as well as the resources used through it.

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This article describes Indonesian university students’ perspectives of critical thinking on their language learning in the class. Regarding that critical thinking has an important point to the students’ language learning development, such as problem solving, reasoning, etc. University in Indonesia has already implied this skill to their curriculum but most of teacher were focusing on the language skill development without paying attention of students thinking development, in which makes students have difficulties on thinking critically. This research is using qualitative research that aims to investigate Indonesian student’s perception of having critical thinking class that separated from the language skill class, in order to make them focus in developing their critical thinking. The subject of this research is taken from 15 participants from different city and university in Indonesia. The data resulted that every student realized that critical thinking is very important to their la...

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Key Foreign Language Teaching Methods

How do you teach your foreign language students?

Consider for a moment the manners in which you teach reading , writing, listening, speaking, grammar and culture . Why do you use those methods?

In my experience, knowing the history of how your subject has been taught will help you understand your teaching methods.

It will also help you learn to select the best ones for your students at any given moment.

Read on for the most common foreign language teaching methods of today, as well as how to choose which ones to employ.

Grammar-translation

Audio-lingual, total physical response, communicative, task-based learning, community language learning, the silent way, functional-notional, other methods, how to choose a foreign language teaching method.

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Those who’ve studied an ancient language like Latin or Sanskrit have likely used this method . It involves learning grammar rules, reading original texts and translating both from and into the target language.

You don’t really learn to speak—although, to be fair, it’s hard to practice speaking languages that have no remaining native speakers.

For the longest time, this approach was also commonly used for teaching modern foreign languages. Though it’s fallen out of favor, there are some benefits to it for occasional use.

With grammar-translation , you might give your students a brief passage in the target language, provide the new vocabulary and give them time to try translating. The reading might include a new verb tense, a new case or a complex grammatical construction.

When it occurs, speaking might only consist of a word or phrase and is typically in the context of completing the exercises. Explanations of the material are in the native language.

After the assignment, you could give students a series of translation sentences or a brief paragraph in the native language for them to translate into the target language as homework.

The direct method , also known as the natural approach, was a response to the grammar-translation method. Here, the emphasis is on the spoken language.

Based on observations of children learning their native tongues, this approach centers on listening and comprehension at the beginning of the language learning process.

Lessons are taught in the target language —in fact, the native language is strictly forbidden. A typical lesson might involve viewing pictures while the teacher repeats the vocabulary words, then listening to recordings of these words used in a comprehensible dialogue.

Once students have had time to listen and absorb the sounds of the target language, speaking is encouraged at all times, especially because grammar instruction isn’t taught explicitly.

Rather, students should learn grammar inductively. Allow them to use the language naturally, then gently correct mistakes and give praise to proper language usage. (Note that many have found this method of grammar instruction insufficient.)

Direct method activities might include pantomiming, word-picture association, question-answer patterns, dialogues and role playing.

The theory behind the audio-lingual approach is that repetition is the mother of all learning. This methodology emphasizes drill work in order to make answers to questions instinctive and automatic.

This approach gives highest priority to the spoken form of the target language. New information is first heard by students; written forms come only after extensive drilling. Classes are generally held in the target language.

An example of an audio-lingual activity is a substitution drill. The instructor might start with a basic sentence, such as “I see the ball.” Then they hold up a series of other photos for students to substitute for the word “ball.” These exercises are drilled into students until they get the pronunciations and rhythm right.

The audio-lingual approach borrows from the behaviorist school of psychology, so languages are taught through a system of reinforcement . Reinforcements are anything that makes students feel good about themselves or the situation—clapping, a sticker, etc.

Full immersion is difficult to achieve in a foreign language classroom—unless, of course, you’re teaching that language in a country where it’s spoken and your students are doing everything in the target language.

For example, ESL students have an immersion experience if they’re studying in an Anglophone country. In addition to studying English, they either work or study other subjects in English for the complete experience.

Attempts at this methodology can be seen in foreign language immersion schools, which are becoming popular in certain districts in the US. The challenge is that, as soon as students leave school, they are once again surrounded by the native language.

One way to get closer to the core of this method is to use an online language immersion program, such as FluentU . The authentic videos are made by and for native speakers and come with a multitude of learning tools.

Expert-vetted, interactive subtitles provide definitions, photo references, example sentences and more. Each lesson contains a quiz personalized to every individual student.

You can also import your own flashcard lists and assign tasks directly to learners with FluentU in order to encourage immersive learning outside of class.

Also known as TPR , this teaching method emphasizes aural comprehension. Gestures and movements play a vital role in this approach.

Children learning their native language hear lots of commands from adults: “Catch the ball,” “Pick up your toy,” “Drink your water.” TPR aims to teach learners a second language in the same manner with as little stress as possible.

The idea is that when students see movement and move themselves, their brains create more neural connections, which makes for more efficient language acquisition.

In a TPR-based classroom, students are therefore trained to respond to simple commands: stand up, sit down, close the door, open your book, etc.

The teacher might demonstrate what “jump” looks like, for example, and then ask students to perform the action themselves. Or, you might simply play Simon Says!

This style can later be expanded to storytelling , where students act out actions from an oral narrative, demonstrating their comprehension of the language.

The communicative approach is the most widely used and accepted approach to classroom-based foreign language teaching today.

It emphasizes the learner’s ability to communicate various functions, such as asking and answering questions, making requests, describing, narrating and comparing.

Task assignment and problem solving —two key components of critical thinking—are the means through which the communicative approach operates.

A communicative classroom includes activities where students can work out a problem or situation through narration or negotiation—composing a dialogue about when and where to eat dinner, for instance, or creating a story based on a series of pictures.

This helps them establish communicative competence and learn vocabulary and grammar in context. Error correction is de-emphasized so students can naturally develop accurate speech through frequent use. Language fluency comes through communicating in the language rather than by analyzing it.

Task-based learning is a refinement of the communicative approach and focuses on the completion of specific tasks through which language is taught and learned.

The purpose is for language learners to use the target language to complete a variety of assignments. They will acquire new structures, forms and vocabulary as they go. Typically, little error correction is provided.

In a task-based learning environment, three- to four-week segments are devoted to a specific topic, such as ecology, security, medicine, religion, youth culture, etc. Students learn about each topic step-by-step with a variety of resources.

Activities are similar to those found in a communicative classroom, but they’re always based around the theme. A unit often culminates in a final project such as a written report or presentation.

In this type of classroom, the teacher serves as a counselor rather than an instructor.

It’s called community language learning because the class learns together as one unit —not by listening to a lecture, but by interacting in the target language.

For instance, students might sit in a circle. You don’t need a set lesson since this approach is learner-led; the students will decide what they want to talk about.

Someone might say, “Hey, why don’t we talk about the weather?” The student will turn to the teacher ( standing outside the circle ) and ask for the translation of this statement. The teacher will provide the translation and ask the student to say it while guiding their pronunciation.

When the pronunciation is correct, the student will repeat the statement to the group. Another student might then say, “I had to wear three layers today!” And the process repeats.

These conversations are always recorded and then transcribed and mined for lesson continuations featuring grammar, vocabulary and subject-related content.

Proponents of this approach believe that teaching too much can sometimes get in the way of learning. It’s argued that students learn best when they discover rather than simply repeat what the teacher says.

By saying as little as possible, you’re encouraging students to do the talking themselves to figure out the language. This is seen as a creative, problem-solving process —an engaging cognitive challenge.

So how does one teach in silence ?

You’ll need to employ plenty of gestures and facial expressions to communicate with your students.

You can also use props.  A common prop is Cuisenaire Rods —rods of different colors and lengths. Pick one up and say “rod.” Pick another, point at it and say “rod.” Repeat until students understand that “rod” refers to these objects.

Then, you could pick a green one and say “green rod.” With an economy of words, point to something else green and say, “green.” Repeat until students get that “green” refers to the color.

The functional-notional approach recognizes language as purposeful communication. That is, we use it because we need to communicate something.

Various parts of speech exist because we need them to express functions like informing, persuading, insinuating, agreeing, questioning, requesting, evaluating, etc. We also need to express notions (concepts) such as time, events, action, place, technology, process, emotion, etc.

Teachers using the functional-notional method must evaluate how the students will be using the language .

For example, very young kids need language skills to help them communicate with their parents and friends. Key social phrases like “thank you,” “please” or “may I borrow” are ideal here.

For business professionals, you might want to teach the formal forms of the target language, how to delegate tasks and how to vocally appreciate a job well done. Functions could include asking a question, expressing interest or negotiating a deal. Notions could be prices, quality or quantity.

You can teach grammar and sentence patterns directly, but they’re always subsumed by the purpose for which the language will be used.

A student who wants to learn with the reading method probably never intends to interact with native speakers in the target language.

Perhaps they’re a graduate student who simply needs to read scholarly articles. Maybe they’re a culinary student who only wants to understand the French techniques in her cookbook.

Whoever it is, these students only require one linguistic skill: reading comprehension.

Do away with pronunciation and dialogues. No need to practice listening or speaking, or even much (if any) writing. 

With the reading approach, simply help your students build their vocabulary. They’ll likely need a lot of specialized words in a specific field, though they’ll also need to know elements like conjunctions and negation—enough grammar to make it through a standard article in their field.

These approaches are not necessarily as common in the classroom setting but deserve a mention nonetheless:

• Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): A number of commercial products ( Pimsleur , Rosetta Stone ) and online products ( Duolingo , Babbel ) use the CALL method. With careful planning, you can likely employ some in the classroom as well.
• Cognitive-code: Developed in response to the audio-lingual method , this approach requires essential language structures to be explicitly laid out in examples (dialogues, readings) by the teacher, with lots of opportunities for students to practice .
• Suggestopedia: The idea here is that the more relaxed and comfortable students feel, the more open they are to learning , which therefore makes language acquisition easier.

Now that you know a number of methodologies and how to use them in the classroom, how do you choose the best?

You should always try to choose the methods and approaches that are most effective for your students. After all, our job as teachers is to help our students to learn in the best way for them— not for us or for researchers or for administrators.

So, the best teachers choose the best methodology and the best approach for each lesson or activity. They aren’t wedded to any particular methodology but rather use principled eclecticism:

• Ever taught a grammatical construction that only appears in written form? Had your students practice it by writing? Then you’ve used the grammar-translation method.
• Ever talked to your students in question/answer form, hoping they’d pick up the grammar point? Then you’ve used the direct method.
• Every repeatedly drilled grammatical endings, or numbers, or months, perhaps before showing them to your students? Then you’ve used the audio-lingual method.
• Ever played Simon Says? Or given your students commands to open their textbook to a certain page? Then you’ve used the total physical response method.
• Ever written a thematic unit on a topic not covered by the textbook, incorporating all four skills and culminating in a final assignment? Then you’ve used task-based learning.

If you’ve already done all of these, then you’re already practicing principled eclecticism!

The point is: The best teachers make use of all possible approaches at the appropriate time, for the appropriate activities and for those students whose learning styles require that approach.

The ultimate goal is to choose the foreign language teaching methods that best fit your students, not to force them to adhere to a particular or method.

Remember: Teaching is always about our students! You got this!

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Scenario-based instruction: the case of foreign language training at multidisciplinary university.

1. Introduction

1.1. communication skills and communicative competence, 1.2. strategic competence and communication strategies, 1.3. scenario-based communication training in higher education, 1.4. aim of the study.

• What communication strategies and skills are principal for novice FL teachers?
• Can SB instruction enhance the development of professional communication skills and strategic competence?
• How can scenario-based instruction be implemented in communication training What is the pedagogical implication of SB instruction in foreign language training at a university level?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. research methodology, 2.2. context of the study, 2.3. participants, 2.4. data collection and materials, 2.5. analysis, 3.1. planning stage results, 3.2. results of experimental study, 4. discussion.

• to create conditions for students that enable them to acquire and improve their skills and competencies;
• to provide the feedback and support, so the students could detect the area of their further improvement and envisage its path;
• to develop the learners’ skills and competencies by enabling the learner to take an active role;
• to foster students’ motivation through challenging activities and collaborative work;
• to attract varied resources in order to make the learning process more engaging.

5. Conclusions

Author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Almazova, N.; Rubtsova, A.; Kats, N.; Eremin, Y.; Smolskaia, N. Scenario-Based Instruction: The Case of Foreign Language Training at Multidisciplinary University. Educ. Sci. 2021 , 11 , 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050227

Almazova N, Rubtsova A, Kats N, Eremin Y, Smolskaia N. Scenario-Based Instruction: The Case of Foreign Language Training at Multidisciplinary University. Education Sciences . 2021; 11(5):227. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050227

Almazova, Nadezhda, Anna Rubtsova, Nora Kats, Yuri Eremin, and Natalia Smolskaia. 2021. "Scenario-Based Instruction: The Case of Foreign Language Training at Multidisciplinary University" Education Sciences 11, no. 5: 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050227

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This review examines 233 articles published in Chinese academic journals between 2011 and 2021, documenting the state of research concerning flipped classrooms (FCs) in foreign language teaching within the context of higher education in China. Employing the methodological approach of a scoping review, the investigation is underpinned by the five-stage framework articulated by Arksey and O’Malley. The results reveal a notable surge in FC-related studies between 2013 and 2017, with a subsequent decline in scholarly attention. The majority of the reviewed studies on FCs focused on English instruction at the college level, with a conspicuous dearth of inquiry into the application of FCs in the teaching of other foreign languages. All studies were categorized as either empirical or non-empirical, and the most frequently used instruments for data collection were surveys and interviews; case studies were underrepresented in the literature. Early studies focused on the introduction of the new model, while more recent investigations focused on the impact of its implementation. The findings of the in-depth content analysis unearthed a prevailing trend of high learner satisfaction with the FC model, along with favorable direct and indirect educational outcomes. Noteworthy factors influencing the efficacy of FCs included learners’ foreign language proficiency and their self-regulation or self-discipline abilities. The paper concludes with a discussion of the challenges in FC implementation and a call for future research on this promising pedagogy.

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Introduction.

The flipped classroom (FC), also known as the “inverted classroom”, is a pedagogical approach that first emerged in the 1980s and came into more widespread use in the 2000s (Baker, 2000 ; Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ; Khan, 2012 ). It has gained prominence as advances in technology afford increasing opportunities for ubiquitous access to a variety of online resources. The FC model removes in-class lectures, freeing up classroom time for more in-depth exploration of topics through discussion with peers or problem-solving activities facilitated by instructors. The removed content is often delivered to learners through pre-class materials like video recordings. As a result, in the FC, learning activities that are active and social occur inside the classroom while most information transmission occurs outside the classroom. Today, the FC has been implemented in many different disciplines and in schools and universities around the world (Akcayir and Akcayir, 2018 ).

Proponents of the FC assert its pedagogical merits on several fronts. First, it alleviates the constraints associated with requiring all learning to happen at the same time and place, furnishing learners with an individualized education that enables flexible online study at their own pace as long as an internet connection is available (Hung, 2014 ). Second, it allocates class time to the cultivation of learners’ higher-order cognitive skills, emphasizing application, analysis, and evaluation, as opposed to lower-order skills such as knowledge and comprehension (Brinks-Lockwood, 2014 ; Lee and Wallace, 2018 ). Third, in contrast to traditional lecturing, the FC is a student-centered approach emphasizing engagement and active learning (Steen-Utheim and Foldnes, 2018 ), fostering students’ autonomy by endowing them with heightened responsibility for their learning (Brinks-Lockwood, 2014 ; O’Flaherty and Philips, 2015 ).

Vygotsky’s social constructivism ( 1978 ) has frequently been adopted as a theoretical foundation for designing learning experiences in technologically rich environments (Marzouki et al., 2017 ), and this framework highlights the particular benefits of technology-enhanced FC pedagogy (Jarvis et al., 2014 ). As mentioned above, in an FC model, learners can watch pre-recorded videos in their own time before class to remember basic information and understand concepts as they prepare for classroom activities, while the higher-order skills of analyzing, applying, evaluating, and creating can be collaborative and interactive, taking place in class with the guidance of a teacher, and thus facilitating progression within the learners’ proximal developmental zone.

Since its introduction in foreign language teaching (FLT) in China in 2011, the FC has attracted increasing research attention and has been welcomed by foreign language teachers (Yan and Zhou, 2021 ). Over the past decade, the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China has exerted increasing pressure on higher education institutions to transition from traditional teacher-centered lecture-style approaches to innovative methods integrating technology and the internet, with the goals of enhancing learning, sustaining student engagement, and improving student satisfaction (Ministry of Education of People’s Republic China, 2021 ). The FC model, combined with traditional face-to-face teaching and personalized online learning, has emerged as a popular strategy in China to meet ministry requirements while delivering cost-effective and learner-centered curricula in response to the increasing student enrollment in higher education.

Despite the wide adoption of FCs in FLT in China, literature reviews about their implementation and effects have been notably scarce in the last decade. A search of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), the largest national research and information publishing company housing China’s most extensive academic database, revealed only three reviews—by Deng ( 2016 ), Qu ( 2019 ), and Su et al. ( 2019 )—published prior to the end of 2021. These reviews primarily focused on FCs in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) education, overlooking most of the over 100 foreign languages taught in Chinese higher education. As a result, these reviews fell short of delivering a comprehensive analysis of research pertaining to FCs, and the reliability and generalizability of their findings in non-EFL contexts are questionable. Moreover, Deng ( 2016 ) and Su et al.’s (2019) reviews included all published papers without establishing clear inclusion and exclusion criteria. For example, they did not exclude articles that made a passing or token reference to the FC model, short papers of only one or two pages in length, book reviews, or editorials. Qu’s study ( 2019 ), on the other hand, was constrained in scope to articles within the Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index (CSSCI), a sub-database developed by Nanjing University of China Academy of Social Sciences Research Evaluation Center and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, and thus omitted relevant contributions from other academic journals. The CNKI incorporates both the CSSCI and the Core Journals of China (CJC), an equally significant sub-database overseen by the Peking University Library and experts from relevant institutions. Given the exclusion of the latter, a reevaluation of the scope and potential limitations of Qu’s study is warranted.

Thus, there persists an imperative for a comprehensive synthesis of the extant studies on FCs in FLT within Chinese higher education over the past decade. The restricted visibility of studies conducted in China, owing to their publication in Chinese and confinement to Chinese academic journals, makes it difficult for international researchers and practitioners to access and comprehend this body of literature. Such understanding among the global academic community is necessary for exploring both the strengths and limitations of FCs in diverse cultural and linguistic contexts.

Research method

The current study adopts a scoping review approach based on the methodological framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) to provide both quantitative and qualitative data for researchers and practitioners.

A scoping review is a relatively new approach to synthesizing research data which has been gaining popularity in many disciplines (Davis et al., 2009 ; Daudt et al., 2013 ). It is often undertaken as an independent project when a research area is complex, and no review of that area has previously been made available. A scoping review serves to highlight the relevant literature to researchers with the aim of rapidly mapping the key concepts characterizing a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available (Arksey and O’Malley, 2005 ; Mays et al., 2005 ; Levac et al., 2010 ). According to Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ), this kind of review addresses four goals: to examine the extent, range, and nature of research activity; to determine the value of undertaking a full systematic review; to summarize and disseminate research findings; and to identify research gaps in the existing literature. The scoping review is increasingly being employed in the field of foreign language education to provide a comprehensive view of FLT studies, identify implications for theory and pedagogy, or inform subsequent in-depth reviews and empirical studies (Chan et al., 2022 ; Hillman et al., 2020 ; Tullock and Ortega, 2017 ).

The difference between a scoping review and a narrative or traditional literature review lies in the transparency of the review process. A narrative review usually depends on the author’s own knowledge or experience to describe the studies reviewed and uses an implicit process to provide evidence (Garg et al., 2008 ). The reader cannot determine how much literature has been consulted or whether certain studies have been ignored due to contradictory findings. A scoping review, in contrast, uses an explicit, rigorous, and systematic approach to retrieve relevant articles to ensure the transparency and replicability of the data extraction process. For example, the methodological framework adopted by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ) for conducting a scoping study comprises five stages: identifying the research questions; identifying relevant studies; selecting studies for inclusion; charting the data; and collating, summarizing, and reporting the results. By presenting the process and results in an accessible and summarized format, reviewers are in a position to illustrate the field of interest in terms of the volume, nature, and characteristics of the primary research, enabling researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to make effective use of the findings.

Figure 1 presents the process of the scoping review in the current study based on the five-stage methodological framework developed by Arksey and O’Malley ( 2005 ).

Process of the scoping review.

Process of the scoping review

Identifying research questions.

This scoping review is driven by four research questions:

RQ1. What is the current state of FC research in FLT within the context of higher education in China?

RQ2. What research methods and instruments have been employed in the included FC studies?

RQ3. What research foci and trends are displayed in the included FC studies?

RQ4. What are the major findings of the included FC studies?

RQ1 aims to provide an overview of studies on FCs in FLT in Chinese higher education by providing details about the basic information about existing publications, such as the number of publications per year and the distribution of publications by foreign language context. RQ2 leads to a classification of the research methods and instruments used to collect data in FC research. RQ3 explores the topics and trends in FC research over the past decade with the help of the literature visualization and analysis tool CiteSpace5.8R3. RQ4 reveals the effects of the FC model on direct and indirect educational outcomes, learners’ satisfaction with FCs, and the factors influencing the impact of FCs, as documented in the reviewed sources.

Searching for relevant studies

To be as comprehensive as possible in identifying primary evidence and to ensure the quality of the published articles, we searched both CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database. The key search terms were developed and categorized based on two dimensions according to the purpose of the review. One dimension related to teaching or learning in FCs, while the other dimension related to the types of foreign languages. The key search terms and search methods are listed in Table 1 .

As the FC approach was introduced into FLT in China in 2011, the search included articles published between 2011 and 2021. Further inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed to focus on the scope of the review; these are outlined in Table 2 .

Study selection

Figure 2 shows a process diagram of the study selection process, which consisted of four phases: searching the databases; identifying the total number of articles in each database; screening titles, abstracts, and full texts; and selecting eligible articles for inclusion.

Flowchart diagram for article selection.

The final database search was conducted on January 16, 2022, and resulted in the identification of a total of 333 articles. Subsequently, all potentially relevant articles went through a three-step screening process. The first step excluded 9 duplicates. The second step excluded irrelevant articles by screening titles and abstracts; 37 articles were removed at this stage as they were book reviews, conference proceedings, reports, editorials, or other non-refereed publications. The third step filtered articles by screening full texts; 54 articles were excluded because they made only passing reference to the FC or were not related to higher education. This meticulous selection yielded a corpus of 233 articles suitable for in-depth analysis, each of which was scrutinized by the authors to confirm its suitability for inclusion. During the selection process, the 233 articles were also systematically categorized into two groups: 131 non-empirical and 102 empirical studies. The non-empirical studies were further divided into two subcategories. The first type was literature reviews; the second type was those drawing on personal observations, reflections on current events, or the authority or experience of the author (Dan, 2021 ). The empirical studies used a variety of systematic methods of collecting materials and analyzing data, including quantitative methods (e.g., survey, correlational research, experimental research) and/or qualitative methods (e.g., interview, case study, record keeping, observation, ethnographic research) (Dan, 2021 ).

Data charting and collation

The fourth stage of Arksey and O’Malley’s scoping review framework is the charting of the selected articles. Summaries of each study were developed. for all studies, these summaries included the author, year of publication, citations per year, foreign language taught, and a brief description of the outcomes. For empirical sources, details related to the research design, study population, and sample size were also provided. Tables 3 and 4 list the top ten most-cited non-empirical and empirical sources. In Table 4 , which references experimental and control groups in results summaries, the experimental group (EG) was the group that took courses in the FC model, while the control group (CG) took courses in a traditional classroom.

Results and analysis

In accordance with the fifth stage of Arksey and O’Malley’s framework for a scoping review, the findings from the 233 included studies are summarized and discussed in the following three sections. Section 4.1 summarizes basic information regarding the included studies; section 4.2 presents a holistic analysis of the research foci and trends over time using keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis; and section 4.3 offers an in-depth content analysis focusing on the categorization of the included studies and discussion of the major findings.

Basic information on the included studies

Distribution by year of publication.

As Fig. 3 shows, the first studies on FCs in the field of FLT in China emerged in 2013. The number of such studies began to steadily increase and reached a peak in 2016 and 2017. Although there was some decrease after that, the FC model has continued to attract research attention, in line with global trends. According to Akçayir and Akçayir’s (2018) review of the literature on FCs published in Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) journals as of 31 December 2016, the first article about the FC was published in 2000, but the second was not published until more than a decade later, in 2012; 2013 was also the year that FC studies became popular among scholars. A possible explanation for this increase in interest is the growing availability of internet technologies and the popularity of online learning platforms, such as MOOCs and SPOCs (Small Private Online Courses), along with the view of the FC as a promising model that can open doors to new approaches in higher education in the new century.

Number of articles published by year.

Distribution by foreign language

Figure 4 shows the distribution of foreign languages discussed in the FC literature. The FC model was mainly implemented in EFL teaching (93%), which reflects the dominance of English in FLT in Chinese higher education. Only five articles discussed the use of FC models in Japanese teaching, while one article was related to French teaching. Ten non-empirical studies (4%) reported the feasibility of FC models in FLT without mentioning a specific foreign language.

Distribution by foreign language type.

Research methods of the included studies

Figure 5 shows a breakdown of the methodologies adopted by the studies included in our review. Among the 131 non-empirical studies, three were literature reviews, while the remaining 128 (55%) were descriptive studies based on the introduction of the FC model, including descriptions of its strengths and associated challenges and discussions of its design and implementation in FLT.

Methodological paradigms.

Of the 102 empirical studies, 60 (26%) used quantitative methods for data collection, eight (3%) used qualitative methods, and 34 (15%) used mixed methods. It is interesting to note that although quantitative methods are more common in FC studies, seven of the top ten most-cited empirical studies (as listed above in Table 4 ) used mixed methods. A potential reason may be that research findings collected with triangulation from various data sources or methods are seen as more reliable and valid and, hence, more accepted by scholars.

A breakdown of the data collection approaches used in the 102 reviewed empirical studies is displayed in Table 5 . It is important to note that most studies used more than one instrument, and therefore, it is possible for percentages to add up to more than 100%. The survey, as a convenient, cost-effective, and reliable research method, was the tool most frequently used to gain a comprehensive picture of the attitudes and characteristics of a large group of learners. Surveys were used in 79 of the 102 studies—73 times with learners and six times with teachers—to explore students’ learning experiences, attitudes, and emotions, as well as teachers’ opinions. Some studies used paper-based surveys, while others used online ones. Interviews with learners were used in 33 studies to provide in-depth information; one study used interviews with teachers. Surveys and interviews were combined in 24 studies to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data. Other research approaches included comparing the test scores between experimental and control groups (used in 25 studies) or using the results of course assessments (17 studies) to investigate the effects of the FC on academic performance. Learners’ self-reports (9 studies) were also used to capture the effects of the FC on learners’ experience and cognitive changes that could not be obtained in other ways, while one study used a case study for a similar purpose. Teachers’ class observations and reflections were used in eight studies to evaluate students’ engagement, interaction, activities, and learning performance.

Holistic analysis of the research foci and the changing trends of the included studies

A holistic analysis of the research foci in studies of FCs in China was conducted using CiteSpace5.8.R3, a software developed by Chaomei Chen ( http://cluster.cis.drexel.edu/~cchen/citespace/ , accessed on 20 February 2022), to conduct a visual analysis of the literature. This software can help conduct co-citation analysis, keyword co-occurrence analysis, keyword clustering analysis, keyword burst analysis, and social network analysis (Chen, 2016 ). In this study, keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis were chosen to capture important themes and reveal changing trends in FC research.

Keyword clustering analysis primarily serves to identify core topics in a corpus. Figure 6 presents a graph of the top ten keyword clusters identified in the included studies. In this graph, the lower the ID number of a given cluster, the more keywords are in that cluster. As shown in the top left corner of Fig. 6 , the value of modularity q is 0.8122, which is greater than the critical value of 0.3, indicating that the clustering effect is good; the mean silhouette value is 0.9412, which is >0.5, indicating that the clustering results are significant and can accurately represent hot spots and topics in FC research (Hu and Song, 2021 ). The top ten keyword clusters include #0翻转课堂 (flipped classroom), #1大学英语 (college English), #2 MOOC, #3教学模式 (teaching model), #4元认知 (metacognition), #5微课 (micro lecture), #6微课设计 (micro lecture design), #7英语教学 (English teaching), #8 SPOC, and #9 POA (production-oriented approach).

The graph of the top ten keyword clusters.

Keyword burst analysis is used to showcase the changes in keyword frequencies over a given period of time. By analyzing the rise and decline of keywords, and in particular, the years in which some keywords suddenly become significantly more prevalent (“burst”), we can identify emerging trends in the evolution of FC research. Figure 7 displays the 11 keywords with the strongest citation bursts. We can roughly divide the evolution of FC research documented in Fig. 7 into two periods. The first period (2014 to 2017) focused on the introduction of the new model and the analysis of its feasibility in FLT. The keywords that underwent bursts in this period included “MOOC”, “自主学习” (independent learning), “模式” (model), “学习模式” (learning model), “教师话语” (teacher discourse), “茶文化” (tea culture), and “可行性” (feasibility). The reason for the appearance of the keyword “tea culture” lies in the fact that three articles discussing the use of FCs in teaching tea culture in an EFL environment were published in the same journal, entitled Tea in Fujian , during this period. The second period (2018–2021) focused on the investigation of the effect of FCs and the design of micro lectures. Keywords undergoing bursts during this period included “互联网+” (internet plus), “课堂环境” (classroom environment), “教学效果” (teaching effect), and “微课设计” (micro lecture design). The latter two topics (“teaching effect” and “micro lecture design”) may continue to be prevalent in the coming years.

Top 11 keywords with the strongest citation bursts.

In-depth content analysis of the included studies

Along with the findings from the keyword clustering analysis and keyword burst analysis, an open coding system was created to categorize the research topics and contents of the 233 articles for in-depth analysis. Non-empirical and empirical studies were classified further into detailed sub-categories based on research foci and findings. It is important to note that some studies reported more than one research focus. For such studies, more than one sub-category or more than one code was applied; therefore, it is possible for percentages to add up to more than 100%. The findings for each category are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Non-empirical studies

The 131 non-empirical studies can be roughly divided into two categories, as shown in Table 6 . The first category, literature reviews, has no sub-categories. The second, descriptive studies, includes discussions of how to use FCs in FLT; descriptions of the process of implementing the FC in FLT; and comparisons between FCs and traditional classes or comparisons of FCs in Chinese and American educational contexts.

The sub-categories of “introduction and discussion” and “introduction and description” in Table 6 comprise 91.6% of the non-empirical studies included in our review. The difference between them lies in that the former is based on the introduction of the FC literature, while the latter is based both on the introduction of the FC literature and exploration of researchers’ teaching experience; the latter might have become qualitative studies if researchers had gone further in providing systematic methods of collecting information or an analysis of the impact of FCs.

Empirical studies

The 102 empirical studies were divided into four categories based on the domain of their reported findings: the effect of FCs on learners; learners’ satisfaction with FCs; factors influencing FCs; or other research foci. Each group was further classified into more detailed sub-categories.

Effect of FCs on learners

Studies on the effect of FCs on learners were divided into two types, as presented in Table 7 : those concerned with the direct effect of FCs on learning performance and those exploring the indirect effect on learners’ perceptions. Eight codes were applied to categorize the direct effect of FCs on learning performance, which was usually evaluated through test scores; 14 codes were used to categorize the indirect effect of FCs on learners’ perceptions, which were usually investigated through surveys or questionnaires. We do not provide percentages for each code in Tables 7 – 9 because, given that the total number of empirical studies is 102, the percentages are almost identical to the frequencies.

The results shown in Table 7 reveal that 84 studies of direct educational outcomes reported that FCs had a positive effect on basic language skills, content knowledge, and foreign language proficiency. Of these, 64 were concerned with the positive effect of FCs on foreign language proficiency, speaking skills, or listening skills. This result might be explained by the features of FCs. The main difference between FCs and traditional classrooms is that the teaching of content in FCs has been removed from the classes themselves and is often delivered to the students through video recordings, which can be viewed repeatedly outside of the class. In-class time can thus be used for discussion, presentations, or the extension of the knowledge provided in the videos. It is evident that students have more opportunities to practice listening and speaking in FCs, and foreign language proficiency is naturally expected. Only three studies reported that FCs had no effect or a negative effect on the development of foreign language proficiency, speaking, listening, and writing skills. Yan and Zhou ( 2021 ) found that after the FC model had been in place for one semester, college students’ reading abilities improved significantly, while there was no significant improvement in their listening and writing abilities. Yin ( 2016 ) reported that after FC had been implemented for one semester, there was no significant difference in college students’ speaking scores.

A total of 96 studies reported positive effects on indirect educational outcomes, including: boosting learners’ motivation, interest, or confidence; enhancing engagement, interaction, cooperation, creativity, independent learning ability, or critical thinking ability; fostering information literacy, learning strategies, learning efficiency, or self-efficacy; or relieving stress or anxiety. The most frequently documented indirect effect of FCs is improvement in students’ independent learning ability. Only one study found that the FC did not significantly increase student interest in the course (Wang, 2015 ). Similarly, only one study found that students’ anxiety in the FC was significantly higher than that in a traditional class (Gao and Li, 2016 ).

Learners’ satisfaction with FCs

Table 8 presents the results regarding learners’ satisfaction with FCs. Nine codes were used to categorize the different aspects of learners’ satisfaction investigated in the 102 empirical studies. Some researchers represented learner satisfaction using the percentage of students choosing each answer on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 5 (very satisfied), while others used average scores based on Likert scale values. For the purposes of our synthesis of findings, if the percentage is above 60% or the average score is above 3, the finding is categorized as satisfied; otherwise, it is categorized as not satisfied.

The results in Table 8 show that among the nine aspects investigated, teaching approach and learning outcomes were most frequently asked about in the research, and learners were generally satisfied with both. Only one study (Li and Cao, 2015 ) reported significant dissatisfaction; in this case, 76.19% of students were not satisfied with the videos used in college English teaching due to their poor quality.

Factors influencing the effect of FCs

Eleven factors were found to influence the effect of FCs; these are categorized in Table 9 .

The results shown in Table 9 indicate that learners’ foreign language proficiency and self-regulation or self-discipline abilities are two important factors influencing the effect of FCs. Learners with high foreign language proficiency benefited more from FCs than those with low foreign language proficiency (Lv and Wang, 2016 ; Li and Cao, 2015 ; Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Qu and Miu, 2016 ; Wang and Zhang, 2013 ; Cheng, 2016 ; Jia et al., 2016 ; Liu, 2016 ), and learners with good self-regulation and self-discipline abilities benefited more than those with limited abilities (Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Lu, 2014 ; Lv and Wang, 2016 ; Dai and Chen 2016 ; Jia et al. 2016 ; Ling, 2018 ). It is interesting to note that two studies explored the relationship between gender and FCs (Wang and Zhang, 2014 ; Zhang and He, 2020 ), and both reported that girls benefited more from FCs because they were generally more self-disciplined than boys.

Studies with other research foci

There were six studies with other research foci, three of which investigated teachers’ attitudes toward FCs (Liao and Zou, 2019 ; Zhang and Xu, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2015 ). The results of the surveys in these three studies showed that teachers generally held positive attitudes towards FCs and felt that the learning outcomes were better than those of traditional classes. However, some problems were also revealed in these studies. First, 56% of teachers expressed the desire to receive training before using FCs due to a lack of theoretical and practical expertise regarding this new model. Second, 87% of teachers thought that the FC increased their workload, as they were spending a significant amount of time learning to use new technology and preparing online videos or materials, yet no policy was implemented in the schools to encourage them to undertake this work. Third, 72% of teachers felt that the FC increased the academic burden students faced in their spare time (Zhang and Xu, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2015 ). The final three studies include Cheng’s ( 2016 ) investigation of the mediative functions of college EFL teachers in the FC, Wang and Ma’s ( 2017 ) construction of a model for assessing the teaching quality of classes using the FC model, and Luo’s ( 2018 ) evaluation of the learning environment of an FC-model college English MOOC.

Discussion and conclusions

This investigation employed literature visualization to systematically analyze 233 research papers sourced from CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database, thereby conducting a scoping review delineating the landscape of FC research within the domain of FLT in the context of higher education in China.

Our findings in relation to RQ1 highlight a substantial surge in the number of articles relating to FCs in FLT between 2013 and 2017, followed by a discernible, albeit moderate, decrease. Despite this trend, FC studies continue to be of significant interest to foreign language educators and researchers. This may be attributed to Chinese government policies encouraging higher education reform, increased internet access among educators and learners, and the burgeoning popularity of online courses such as MOOCs and SPOCs. However, the majority of the reviewed FC studies were conducted in college English classes, with only 6 studies on classes teaching foreign languages other than English. It seems that foreign language education in China (and in much of the world) has become synonymous with the teaching and learning of English, with other languages occupying a marginal position, struggling to find space in educational programs. In a multilingual world in which each language offers different possibilities for understanding others, their cultures, their epistemologies, and their experiences, this monolingual approach to FLT is dangerous (Liddicoat, 2022 ). The promotion of linguistic diversity in foreign language education policies and research is thus imperative. Another gap that needs to be addressed is the paucity of studies on the implementation of FCs in adult education. The FC model is expected to be potentially effective for teaching adult learners because it is similar in some respects to online distance learning.

In answer to RQ2, we found that the commonly used research methods and instruments in studies of the FC model include surveys, interviews, comparisons of academic measures between EGs and CGs, and course assessments. The case study is the least used method, likely due to limitations such as time demand, researcher bias, and the fact that it provides little basis for the generalization of results to the wider population. However, more case studies are needed in future research on FCs because they can provide detailed and insightful qualitative information that cannot be gathered in other ways.

Our findings regarding RQ3 show that research foci within the FC domain have evolved over time from initial exploration and feasibility discussions to a subsequent focus on the design of FCs incorporating micro-lectures based on MOOC or SPOC structures, and then to the present focus on the examination of FCs’ impacts on learners. The results of the keyword burst analysis indicate that these thematic areas are likely to persist as prominent subjects of research interest for the foreseeable future.

In response to RQ4, our in-depth content analysis found that FCs, on the whole, yield positive outcomes, although isolated studies identify limited negative impacts. FCs are most frequently associated with enhancements in student learning performance, fostering independent learning, promoting engagement and cooperation, and mitigating stress or anxiety. The results of this study suggest that well-designed FCs present a significant opportunity for foreign language educators to revolutionize instructional approaches. Furthermore, well-structured FCs can facilitate the development of learners’ potential while concurrently enabling the seamless integration of digital technology into FLT.

Most learners are satisfied with FCs, particularly with the innovative pedagogical approach of reversing traditional classes. FCs are perceived as beneficial for improving learning outcomes, creating an environment conducive to peer interaction, and gaining immediate teacher feedback and support. In addition, students’ interest in classes is enhanced by the rich and diverse online learning materials uploaded by teachers, which can be accessed conveniently at any time in any place. Furthermore, the dynamic and formative online assessment approach is also welcomed by students because it provides immediate feedback and the ability to discuss any problems they have with teachers or peers online or offline.

However, it is worth noting that most of the reviewed studies on FCs focused on one course, usually over only one semester. Students’ increase in motivation or improvements in learning outcomes might, therefore, be a result of the Hawthorne effect. Compared with the traditional didactic lecture format, the novelty of FCs, when used for the first time, might generate excitement among students, thus increasing their attention and enhancing learning outcomes, but such benefits will diminish over time. Therefore, there is a need to examine whether this model is suitable for large-scale implementation and whether its effects might be sustained over longer periods of implementation.

Learners’ foreign language proficiency and self-regulation or self-discipline abilities are the two key factors influencing the effect of FCs. These two factors are closely related; self-regulation or self-discipline is a prerequisite for successful foreign language learning in FC contexts and plays a crucial role in students’ success in the pre-class sessions for which they are personally responsible. In addition, factors such as learners’ attitudes, expectations of and adaptability to the FC model, the learning tasks and learning environment, the teaching organization and assessment methods, and the learner’s gender also have some impact on the effect of FCs. However, due to the limited number of studies, there is not sufficient evidence to warrant the generalization of any of these effects.

This scoping review highlights some potential challenges that need to be addressed for the effective implementation of FCs.

First, despite the benefits of the FC model, FCs are not equally advantageous to all students due to the self-regulated nature of the model. Many learners have reported difficulties in completing their individual online tasks outside the classroom (Yoon et al., 2021 ). The non-traditional configuration of FCs poses a formidable challenge, particularly for students less inclined to engage in pre-class online activities characterized by a lack of interactivity and for those who are less self-disciplined. Consequentially, students may attend class without having assimilated the pre-assigned material, thereby diminishing the efficacy of this instructional approach. To address this issue, additional support or prompts for students should be provided to remind them of the need to self-regulate their learning. For example, Park and Jo ( 2015 ) employed a learning analytics dashboard displaying visual representations of students’ learning patterns derived from login traces, such as login frequency and interval regularity, within the course’s learning management system. These visual indicators allowed students to monitor their learning engagement and performance in comparison to those of their peers.

Second, a persistent problem with FCs is the inability of students to interact with their peers or receive prompt feedback from instructors after completing independent online learning activities. While some researchers identified a need for teachers to provide immediate online feedback or opportunities for peer discussion, our review of the literature shows that scant attention has been given to this issue. Researchers note that under-stimulation, low perceived control over tasks, and delayed or insufficient feedback in online learning contribute significantly to learner boredom or absenteeism (Yazdanmehr et al., 2021 ; Tao and Gao, 2022 ). Online pedagogical innovations are needed to solve these new problems. For instance, the establishment of online groups employing chat software like QQ or WeChat could facilitate instantaneous feedback or peer interaction through text-based communication, thereby enhancing learners’ satisfaction with FC courses.

Third, despite recognizing the value of FCs in enhancing the learning experience for students, teachers often lack the requisite training to implement FCs effectively. Insights derived from interviews with teachers, as noted in several of the reviewed studies, reveal a pronounced desire for increased opportunities to learn about the underlying theories of FCs and acquire the skills necessary for the translation of FC concepts into pedagogical practice. Specifically, teachers express a need for guidance in creating engaging instructional videos, determining optimal video length to sustain learner interest, and ascertaining the ideal duration for online quizzes to foster optimal learner performance. Further research is required on strategies and technologies that can help teachers produce high-quality videos despite limited time and technical skills. Support from professional communities, institutions, and technology specialists is thus essential for the provision of effective hybrid offline and online instruction.

Fourth, additional research is required to determine whether workloads for students and teachers are increased by the use of FCs. If this is the case, as found in some of the reviewed studies, then the compelling benefits of FCs would be offset by the extra time needed, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that FCs are more efficient than traditional classes. The majority of language teachers, due to limited skills in technology, online environment management, and online interaction, feel too physically and emotionally overworked to expend more time and energy on enhancing teaching effectiveness. With few teachers having excess spare time, the thought of designing and creating new content might discourage even the most enthusiastic teachers.

Finally, robust empirical evidence is needed to evaluate whether FCs can facilitate students’ higher-order thinking through the use of creative technologies and assessment approaches. Constructs such as creativity and critical thinking are not always easily reduced to measurable items on survey instruments or scores on examinations (Haladyna et al., 2002 ).

In conclusion, the insights garnered from this study have the potential to enrich the global discourse on the benefits and limitations of FCs in diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. Our review included literature accessible through CSSCI and CJC in the CNKI database, and while this provides a thorough selection of the Chinese literature on the subject, our search approach may have excluded valuable FC-related papers published in other languages and countries. Consequently, different search criteria might yield different selection and data results. Future researchers are encouraged to undertake more comprehensive literature reviews encompassing broader databases to fill the gaps in our work and to augment the depth and breadth of knowledge in this domain.

Data availability

The raw data for this paper were collected from articles in Chinese Social Sciences Citation Index (CSSCI) journals and A Guide to the Core Journals of China of Peking University (PKU journals) in the database of China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) ( https://www.cnki.net/ ). The raw data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Acknowledgements

This research was funded by The 14th Five-year Plan for Education Science of Jiangsu Province (Grant number: D/2021/01/79), Changzhou University (Grant number: GJY2021013), and Department of Education of Zhejiang Province, China (Project of Ideological and Political Construction of Courses 2021-337).

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Conceptualization, WK and Q-JG; methodology, WK; software, DL; validation, WK, DL, and Q-JG; formal analysis, WK and Q-JG; investigation, WK and Q-JG; resources, DL; data curation, DL; writing—original draft preparation, WK and Q-JG; writing—review and editing, WK and Q-JG; visualization, WK and Q-JG; supervision, WK; project administration, WK; funding acquisition, WK and Q-JG. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Kong, W., Li, D. & Guo, Q. Research on flipped classrooms in foreign language teaching in Chinese higher education. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 525 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03019-z

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