How to Write an Abstract for a Scientific Paper

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If you're preparing a research paper or grant proposal, you'll need to know how to write an abstract. Here's a look at what an abstract is and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of an experiment or research project. It should be brief -- typically under 200 words. The purpose of the abstract is to summarize the research paper by stating the purpose of the research, the experimental method, the findings, and the conclusions.

  • How to Write an Abstract

The format you'll use for the abstract depends on its purpose. If you're writing for a specific publication or a class assignment, you'll probably need to follow specific guidelines. If there isn't a required format, you'll need to choose from one of two possible types of abstracts.

Informational Abstracts

An informational abstract is a type of abstract used to communicate an experiment or lab report .

  • An informational abstract is like a mini-paper. Its length ranges from a paragraph to 1 to 2 pages, depending on the scope of the report. Aim for less than 10% the length of the full report.
  • Summarize all aspects of the report, including purpose, method, results, conclusions, and recommendations. There are no graphs, charts, tables, or images in an abstract. Similarly, an abstract does not include a bibliography or references.
  • Highlight important discoveries or anomalies. It's okay if the experiment did not go as planned and necessary to state the outcome in the abstract.

Here is a good format to follow, in order, when writing an informational abstract. Each section is a sentence or two long:

  • Motivation or Purpose: State why the subject is important or why anyone should care about the experiment and its results.
  • Problem: State the hypothesis of the experiment or describe the problem you are trying to solve.
  • Method: How did you test the hypothesis or try to solve the problem?
  • Results: What was the outcome of the study? Did you support or reject a hypothesis? Did you solve a problem? How close were the results to what you expected? State-specific numbers.
  • Conclusions: What is the significance of your findings? Do the results lead to an increase in knowledge, a solution that may be applied to other problems, etc.?

Need examples? The abstracts at PubMed.gov (National Institutes of Health database) are informational abstracts. A random example is this abstract on the effect of coffee consumption on Acute Coronary Syndrome .

Descriptive Abstracts

A descriptive abstract is an extremely brief description of the contents of a report. Its purpose is to tell the reader what to expect from the full paper.

  • A descriptive abstract is very short, typically less than 100 words.
  • Tells the reader what the report contains, but doesn't go into detail.
  • It briefly summarizes the purpose and experimental method, but not the results or conclusions. Basically, say why and how the study was made, but don't go into findings. 

Tips for Writing a Good Abstract

  • Write the paper before writing the abstract. You might be tempted to start with the abstract since it comes between the title page and the paper, but it's much easier to summarize a paper or report after it has been completed.
  • Write in the third person. Replace phrases like "I found" or "we examined" with phrases like "it was determined" or "this paper provides" or "the investigators found".
  • Write the abstract and then pare it down to meet the word limit. In some cases, a long abstract will result in automatic rejection for publication or a grade!
  • Think of keywords and phrases a person looking for your work might use or enter into a search engine. Include those words in your abstract. Even if the paper won't be published, this is a good habit to develop.
  • All information in the abstract must be covered in the body of the paper. Don't put a fact in the abstract that isn't described in the report.
  • Proof-read the abstract for typos, spelling mistakes, and punctuation errors.
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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

  • an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
  • an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
  • and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

  • the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
  • the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
  • what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
  • the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
  • your research and/or analytical methods
  • your main findings , results , or arguments
  • the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

“The growing economic resemblance of spouses has contributed to rising inequality by increasing the number of couples in which there are two high- or two low-earning partners. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence introduces the topic under study (the “economic resemblance of spouses”). This sentence also implies the question underlying this research study: what are the various causes—and the interrelationships among them—for this trend?] The dominant explanation for this trend is increased assortative mating. Previous research has primarily relied on cross-sectional data and thus has been unable to disentangle changes in assortative mating from changes in the division of spouses’ paid labor—a potentially key mechanism given the dramatic rise in wives’ labor supply. [Annotation for the previous two sentences: These next two sentences explain what previous research has demonstrated. By pointing out the limitations in the methods that were used in previous studies, they also provide a rationale for new research.] We use data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) to decompose the increase in the correlation between spouses’ earnings and its contribution to inequality between 1970 and 2013 into parts due to (a) changes in assortative mating, and (b) changes in the division of paid labor. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The data, research and analytical methods used in this new study.] Contrary to what has often been assumed, the rise of economic homogamy and its contribution to inequality is largely attributable to changes in the division of paid labor rather than changes in sorting on earnings or earnings potential. Our findings indicate that the rise of economic homogamy cannot be explained by hypotheses centered on meeting and matching opportunities, and they show where in this process inequality is generated and where it is not.” (p. 985) [Annotation for the previous two sentences: The major findings from and implications and significance of this study.]

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

“From the mid-1970s through the mid-1980s, a network of young urban migrant men created an underground pulp fiction publishing industry in the city of Dar es Salaam. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence introduces the context for this research and announces the topic under study.] As texts that were produced in the underground economy of a city whose trajectory was increasingly charted outside of formalized planning and investment, these novellas reveal more than their narrative content alone. These texts were active components in the urban social worlds of the young men who produced them. They reveal a mode of urbanism otherwise obscured by narratives of decolonization, in which urban belonging was constituted less by national citizenship than by the construction of social networks, economic connections, and the crafting of reputations. This article argues that pulp fiction novellas of socialist era Dar es Salaam are artifacts of emergent forms of male sociability and mobility. In printing fictional stories about urban life on pilfered paper and ink, and distributing their texts through informal channels, these writers not only described urban communities, reputations, and networks, but also actually created them.” (p. 210) [Annotation for the previous sentences: The remaining sentences in this abstract interweave other essential information for an abstract for this article. The implied research questions: What do these texts mean? What is their historical and cultural significance, produced at this time, in this location, by these authors? The argument and the significance of this analysis in microcosm: these texts “reveal a mode or urbanism otherwise obscured . . .”; and “This article argues that pulp fiction novellas. . . .” This section also implies what previous historical research has obscured. And through the details in its argumentative claims, this section of the abstract implies the kinds of methods the author has used to interpret the novellas and the concepts under study (e.g., male sociability and mobility, urban communities, reputations, network. . . ).]

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

“Several studies have reported reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes; however, reprogramming into proliferative induced cardiac progenitor cells (iCPCs) remains to be accomplished. [Annotation for the previous sentence: The first sentence announces the topic under study, summarizes what’s already known or been accomplished in previous research, and signals the rationale and goals are for the new research and the problem that the new research solves: How can researchers reprogram fibroblasts into iCPCs?] Here we report that a combination of 11 or 5 cardiac factors along with canonical Wnt and JAK/STAT signaling reprogrammed adult mouse cardiac, lung, and tail tip fibroblasts into iCPCs. The iCPCs were cardiac mesoderm-restricted progenitors that could be expanded extensively while maintaining multipo-tency to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells in vitro. Moreover, iCPCs injected into the cardiac crescent of mouse embryos differentiated into cardiomyocytes. iCPCs transplanted into the post-myocardial infarction mouse heart improved survival and differentiated into cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells. [Annotation for the previous four sentences: The methods the researchers developed to achieve their goal and a description of the results.] Lineage reprogramming of adult somatic cells into iCPCs provides a scalable cell source for drug discovery, disease modeling, and cardiac regenerative therapy.” (p. 354) [Annotation for the previous sentence: The significance or implications—for drug discovery, disease modeling, and therapy—of this reprogramming of adult somatic cells into iCPCs.]

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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How to craft an APA abstract

Last updated

16 December 2023

Reviewed by

An APA abstract is a brief but thorough summary of a scientific paper. It gives readers a clear overview of what the paper is about and what it intends to prove.

The purpose of an abstract is to allow researchers to quickly understand the paper's topic and purpose so they can decide whether it will be useful to them.

  • What is the APA style?

APA style is a method of formatting and documentation used by the American Psychological Association. This style is used primarily for papers in the field of education and in the social sciences, including:

Anthropology

What is an abstract in APA format?

Writing an abstract in APA format requires you to conform to the writing rules for APA-style papers, including the following guidelines:

The abstract should be 150–250 words

It should be brief but concise, containing all the paper's main points

The abstract is a separate page that comes after the title page and before the paper's main content

  • Key elements of an APA abstract 

While the rules for constructing an APA abstract are straightforward, the process can be challenging. You need to pack a great deal of relevant content into a short piece.

The essential elements of an APA abstract are:

Running header containing the title of the paper and page number

Section label, centered and in bold, containing the word "abstract"

The main content of the abstract, 150–250 words in length and double-spaced

A list of keywords, indented and introduced with the word "keywords" in italics

Essential points to cover in an APA abstract  

When you’re creating your APA abstract, consider the following questions.

What is the main topic the paper is addressing?

People searching for research on your topic will probably be browsing many papers and studies. The way your abstract is crafted will help to determine whether they feel your paper is worth reading.

Are your research methods quantitative or qualitative?

Quantitative research is focused on numbers and statistics, typically gathered from studies and polls where the questions are in yes/no or multiple-choice format.

Qualitative research is based on language and gathered using methods such as interviews and focus groups. It is more detailed and time-consuming to gather than quantitative research but can yield more complex and nuanced results.

Did you use primary or secondary sources?

Another key element is whether your research is based on primary or secondary sources. 

Primary research is data that you or your research team gathered. Secondary research is gathered from existing sources, such as databases or previously published studies.

Is your research descriptive or experimental?

Your research may be descriptive, experimental, or both.

With descriptive research , you’re describing or analyzing existing studies or theories on the topic. You may be using surveys, case studies, or observation to study the topic.

Experimental research studies variables using the scientific method. With an experiment, your objective is to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables (or show the lack of one).

What conclusion did you reach?

Readers will want to know upfront what your paper is claiming or proving. Your APA abstract should give them a condensed version of your conclusions. Summarize your most significant findings.

It's customary to place your findings and conclusion in the final sentence of the abstract. This should be directly related to the main topic of the paper.

What is the relevance of your findings?

Show readers that your paper is a significant contribution to the field. While staying accurate and not overstating your case, boast a bit about why people need to read your paper.

Briefly describe the implications and importance of your findings. You can also point out any further research that is needed concerning this topic.

Did you choose the most appropriate keywords?

Including keywords is useful for indexing if your paper is eventually included in a database. Choose keywords that are relevant to the paper and as specific as possible.

For example, if your paper is about signs of learning disabilities in elementary-age children, your keyword list might include:

Learning disability symptoms

Elementary education

Language-based learning disabilities

Any other terms discussed in the paper

  • How to format an APA abstract

Use standard APA formatting with double spacing, 12pt Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins.

Place a running head at the top left-hand side of the page. This is an abbreviated version of the paper's title. Use all capital letters for the running header. This is not usually required for academic papers but is essential if you are submitting the paper for publication. The page number “2” should follow the running header (Page 1 is the title page).

Just under the running head, in the center, place the word "abstract."

Place your list of keywords at the end. The list should be indented and, according to APA guidelines, contain three to five keywords.

  • What are the 3 types of abstracts?

There are certain variations in different types of APA abstracts. Here are three of the most common ones.

Experimental or lab report abstracts

An abstract for an experimental or lab report needs to communicate the key purpose and findings of the experiment. Include the following:

Purpose and importance of the experiment

Hypothesis of the experiment

Methods used to test the hypothesis

Summary of the results of the experiment, including whether you proved or rejected the hypothesis

Literature review abstracts

A literature review is a survey of published work on a work of literature. It may be part of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper .

The abstract for a literature review should contain:

A description of your purpose for covering the research topic

Your thesis statement

A description of the sources used in the review

Your conclusions based on the findings

Psychology lab reports

Psychology lab reports are part of the experiment report category. Psychology experiments, however, may contain distinctive elements.

Describe the goal or purpose of the experiment

If the experiment includes human subjects, describe them. Mention the number of participants and what demographic they fit

Describe any tools, equipment, or apparatus you used for the experiment. For example, some experiments use electroencephalography (EEG) to measure brain waves. You may have also used tools such as questionnaires , case studies , or naturalistic observation. Describe the procedure and parameters of the experiment.

Summarize your conclusions

  • What not to include in an APA abstract

As this section is 250 words maximum, it's important to know what should not be included.

Avoid the following in an APA abstract:

Jargon, acronyms, or abbreviations

Citations. These should appear in the body of the paper.

Lengthy or secondary information. Keep it brief and stick to the main points. Readers should want to read your paper for more detailed information.

Opinions or subjective comments

Anything not covered in the paper

  • Guidelines for writing an APA abstract

While an abstract is the shortest section of your paper, it is nevertheless one of the most important parts. It determines whether or not someone decides that the paper is worth reading or not. What follows are some guidelines to keep in mind when creating your APA abstract. 

Focus on your main point. Don't try to fit in multiple conclusions. The idea is to give readers a clear idea of what your main point or conclusion is. On a similar note, be explicit about the implications and significance of your findings. This is what will motivate people to read your paper.

Write the abstract last. Ensure the abstract accurately conveys the content and conclusions of your paper. You may want to start with a rough draft of the abstract, which you can use as an outline to guide you when writing your paper. If you do this, make sure you edit and update the abstract after the full paper is complete.

Proofread your abstract. As the abstract is short and the first part of the paper people will read, it's especially important to make it clear and free of spelling, grammatical, or factual errors. Ask someone in your field to read through it.

Write the abstract for a general audience. While the paper may be aimed at academics, scientists, or specialists in your field, the abstract should be accessible to a broad audience. Minimize jargon and acronyms. This will make the paper easier to find by people looking for information on the topic.

Choose your keywords with care. The more relevant keywords you include, the more searchable your paper will be. Look up papers on comparable topics for guidance.

Follow any specific guidelines that apply to your paper. Requirements for the abstract may differ slightly depending on the topic or guidelines set by a particular instructor or publication.

APA style is commonly used in the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and education.

If you’re writing an abstract in APA style, there are certain conventions to follow. Your readers and people in your industry will expect you to adhere to particular elements of layout, content, and structure.

Follow our advice in this article, and you will be confident that your APA abstract complies with the expected standards and will encourage people to read your full paper.

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  • How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on February 28, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 18, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

How to Write an Abstract

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a thesis ,  dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

  • Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the US during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

  • Completing a thesis or dissertation
  • Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
  • Writing a book or research proposal
  • Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, right before the proofreading stage, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

  • Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
  • Be fully understandable on its own
  • Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your dissertation topic , but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialized terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyze,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

  • This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

  • Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
  • Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Next, summarize the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

  • Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
  • Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

  • We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
  • We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalizability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarize the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

  • Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
  • Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
  • Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
  • Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
  • Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or use the paraphrasing tool .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

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An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

  • To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
  • To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 200–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

  • The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
  • The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page in the thesis or dissertation , after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, July 18). How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/abstract/

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Abstracts - A Guide to Writing

What is an abstract.

Abstracts act as concise surrogates or representations of research projects. Abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. They should be brief, concise, and use clear language. A researcher reading an abstract should have a clear idea of what the research project is about after reading an abstract. 

Abstracts allow readers to grasp the purpose and major ideas of a paper, poster, or presentation. A great abstract will be packed with information on the research project and will let other researchers know whether reading the entire paper or attending a presentation is worthwhile.

Why write an abstract?

Abstracts often serve as the advertisement of a research project. They allow readers to quickly scan a small amount of text and to make a decision as to whether the work will satisfy their information needs. If a researcher is interested, he or she will continue on to read the entire document or attend the session.

Many online databases use abstracts to index larger research projects. Using keywords from your research project in your abstract will ensure your project is easily searched.

Types of abstracts

Different academic disciplines have different research methods and requirements.  For example, social sciences or hard science abstracts will typically include the parts of a research experiment; whereas abstracts in the humanities will often discuss the hypothesis being investigated and the conclusion.  Conferences and journals may have specific requirements for abstract submissions, so be sure to review the requirements prior to writing an abstract for your project.

Informative abstracts

Informative abstracts are generally used for documents pertaining to experimental investigations, inquiries, or surveys. The original document is condensed reflecting its form and content and provides quantitative and qualitative information.

Informative Example

Daidzic, N. E. (2015). Efficient general computational method for estimation of standard atmosphere parameters.  International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 2 (1).  https://doi.org/10.15394/ijaaa.2015.1053

Knowledge of standard air temperature, pressure, density, speed of sound, and viscosity as a function of altitude is essential information in aircraft design, performance testing, pressure altimeter calibration, and several other aeronautical engineering and aviation science applications. A new efficient computational method for rapid calculations of standard atmospheric parameters up to 86 orthometric km is presented. Additionally, mass and weight of each standard atmospheric layer were calculated using a numerical integration method. The sum of all fractional masses and weights represents the total mass and weight of Earth’s atmosphere. The results obtained here agree well with measurements and models of the real atmosphere. Various ISA scale heights were estimated from numerical integration of atmospheric masses and weights. The nature of the geopotential and the orthometric heights and the definition of MSL have been explained. Essential thermodynamic considerations of still and dry air were highlighted. In addition to general working equations for air pressure and density vertical distribution for each atmospheric layer an extensive table of calculated values up to 86 km has been provided in appendix. Several models of air viscosity were also compared. It was found that simple Granger’s model agrees well with the widely accepted Sutherland-type viscosity equation. All computations were performed with the fourteen significant-digits accuracy although only seven significant digits were typically presented in tables.

Indicative abstracts

Indicative abstracts simply describe what the research project is about.

Indicative Example

Porter, L. (2014). Benedict Cumberbatch, transition completed: Films, fame, fans . MX Publishing. Abstract retrieved from https://works.bepress.com/lynnette_porter/3/

Star Trek: Into Darkness, The Fifth Estate, 12 Years a Slave, August: Osage County, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug—these would be milestones in most actors’ entire career. For Benedict Cumberbatch, roles in these films are merely a year’s additions to his already-vast resume. 2013 proved to be the final step in Cumberbatch’s transition from respected working actor to bona fide worldwide celebrity and recipient of BAFTA Los Angeles’ Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year. Like its predecessor, Benedict Cumberbatch, In Transition (MX Publishing, 2013), Benedict Cumberbatch, Transition Completed: Films, Fame, Fans explores the nature of Cumberbatch’s fame and fandom while analysing his most recent roles. This in-depth performance biography does more than critique the actor’s radio, stage, film, and television performances—especially his star turn in the long-awaited yet controversial third series of Sherlock. It also analyses how and why the actor’s work is so memorable in each role, a perspective unique to this performance biography. Cumberbatch’s role in popular culture, as much as his acting in multiple media, is well worth such scrutiny to illustrate that Benedict Cumberbatch represents both the best of acting and of the power of celebrity.

Best practices

Additional resources.

  • Eagle Writer ​​​​Eagle Writer is a writing and research resource you can use throughout your time at ERAU. The skills discussed here will help you write at the college level, which is applicable to courses across the university.
  • Virtual Communication Lab (VCL) The Virtual Communication Lab offers free tutoring, workshops, and online resources to support students with speech and writing help.

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Writing Center: Experimental Research Papers

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FAQs About Experimental Research Papers (APA)

What is a research paper? 

A researcher uses a research paper to explain how they conducted a research study to answer a question or test a hypothesis. They explain why they conducted the study, the research question or hypothesis they tested, how they conducted the study, the results of their study, and the implications of these results. 

What is the purpose of an experimental research paper? 

A research paper is intended to inform others about advancement in a particular field of study. The researcher who wrote the paper identified a gap in the research in a field of study and used their research to help fill this gap. The researcher uses their paper to inform others about the knowledge that the results of their study contribute. 

What sections are included in an experimental research paper?

A typical research paper contains a Title Page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References section. Some also contain a Table and Figures section and Appendix section. 

What citation style is used for experimental research papers? 

APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used for research papers. 

Structure Of Experimental Research Papers (APA)

  • Answers the question of “What is this paper about and who wrote it?”
  • Located on the first page of the paper 
  • The author’s note acknowledges any support that the authors received from others
  • A student paper also includes the course number and name, instructor’s name, and assignment due date
  • Contains a title that summarizes the purpose and content of the research study and engages the audience 
  • No longer than 250 words
  • Summarizes important background information, the research questions and/or hypothesis, methods, key findings, and implications of the findings
  • Explains what the topic of the research is and why the topic is worth studying
  • Summarizes and discusses prior research conducted on the topic 
  • Identifies unresolved issues and gaps in past research that the current research will address
  • Ends with an overview of the current research study, including how the independent and dependent variables, the research questions or hypotheses, and the objective of the research 
  • Explains how the research study was conducted 
  • Typically includes 3 sections: Participants, Materials, and Procedure
  • Includes characteristics of the subjects, how the subjects were selected and recruited, how their anonymity was protected, and what feedback was provided to the participants
  • Describes any equipment, surveys, tests, questionnaires, informed consent forms, and observational techniques 
  • Describes the independent and dependent variables, the type of research design, and how the data was collected
  • Explains what results were found in the research study 
  • Describes the data that was collected and the results of statistical tests 
  • Explains the significance of the results 
  • Accepts or denies the hypotheses 
  • Details the implications of these findings 
  • Addresses the limitations of the study and areas for future research 
  • Includes all sources that were mentioned in the research study 
  • Adheres to APA citation styles
  • Includes all tables and/or figures that were used in the research study 
  • Each table and figure is placed on a separate page 
  • Tables are included before figures
  • Begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Table 1 ”
  • Appends all forms, surveys, tests, etc. that were used in the study 
  • Only includes documents that were referenced in the Methods section 
  • Each entry is placed on a separate page 
  • Begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Appendix A ”

Tips For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

  • Initial interest will motivate you to complete your study 
  • Your entire study will be centered around this question or statement 
  • Use only verifiable sources that provide accurate information about your topic 
  • You need to thoroughly understand the field of study your topic is on to help you recognize the gap your research will fill and the significance of your results
  • This will help you identify what you should study and what the significance of your study will be 
  • Create an outline before you begin writing to help organize your thoughts and direct you in your writing 
  • This will prevent you from losing the source or forgetting to cite the source 
  • Work on one section at a time, rather than trying to complete multiple sections at once
  • This information can be easily referred to as your write your various sections 
  • When conducting your research, working general to specific will help you narrow your topic and fully understand the field your topic is in 
  • When writing your literature review, writing from general to specific will help the audience understand your overall topic and the narrow focus of your research 
  • This will prevent you from losing sources you may need later 
  • Incorporate correct APA formatting as you write, rather than changing the formatting at the end of the writing process 

Checklist For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

  • If the paper is a student paper, it contains the title of the project, the author’s name(s), the instructor's name, course number and name, and assignment due date
  • If the paper is a professional paper, it includes the title of the paper, the author’s name(s), the institutional affiliation, and the author note
  • Begins on the first page of the paper
  • The title is typed in upper and lowercase letters, four spaces below the top of the paper, and written in boldface 
  • Other information is separated by a space from the title

Title (found on title page)

  • Informs the audience about the purpose of the paper 
  • Captures the attention of the audience 
  • Accurately reflects the purpose and content of the research paper 

Abstract 

  • Labeled as “ Abstract ”
  • Begins on the second page 
  • Provides a short, concise summary of the content of the research paper 
  • Includes background information necessary to understand the topic 
  • Background information demonstrates the purpose of the paper
  • Contains the hypothesis and/or research questions addressed in the paper
  • Has a brief description of the methods used 
  • Details the key findings and significance of the results
  • Illustrates the implications of the research study 
  • Contains less than 250 words

Introduction 

  • Starts on the third page 
  • Includes the title of the paper in bold at the top of the page
  • Contains a clear statement of the problem that the paper sets out to address 
  • Places the research paper within the context of previous research on the topic 
  • Explains the purpose of the research study and what you hope to find
  • Describes the significance of the study 
  • Details what new insights the research will contribute
  • Concludes with a brief description of what information will be mentioned in the literature review

Literature Review

  • Labeled as “ Literature Review”
  • Presents a general description of the problem area 
  • Defines any necessary terms 
  • Discusses and summarizes prior research on the selected topic 
  • Identifies any unresolved issues or gaps in research that the current research plans to address
  • Concludes with a summary of the current research study, including the independent and dependent variables, the research questions or hypotheses, and the objective of the research  
  • Labeled as “ Methods ”
  • Efficiently explains how the research study was conducted 
  • Appropriately divided into sections
  • Describes the characteristics of the participants 
  • Explains how the participants were selected 
  • Details how the anonymity of the participants was protected 
  • Notes what feedback the participants will be provided 
  • Describes all materials and instruments that were used 
  • Mentions how the procedure was conducted and data collected
  • Notes the independent and dependent variables 
  • Includes enough information that another researcher could duplicate the research 

Results 

  • Labeled as “ Results ”
  • Describes the data was collected
  • Explains the results of statistical tests that were performed
  • Omits any analysis or discussion of the implications of the study 

Discussion 

  • Labeled as “ Discussion ”
  • Describes the significance of the results 
  • Relates the results to the research questions and/or hypotheses
  • States whether the hypotheses should be rejected or accepted 
  • Addresses limitations of the study, including potential bias, confounds, imprecision of measures, and limits to generalizability
  • Explains how the study adds to the knowledge base and expands upon past research
  • Labeled as “ References ”
  • Correctly cites sources according to APA formatting 
  • Orders sources alphabetically
  • All sources included in the study are cited in the reference section 

Table and Figures (optional)

  •  Each table and each figure is placed on a separate page 
  • Tables and figures are included after the reference page
  • Tables and figures are correctly labeled
  • Each table and figure begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Table 1 ,” “ Table 2 ,”

Appendix (optional) 

  • Any forms, surveys, tests, etc. are placed in the Appendix
  • All appendix entries are mentioned in the Methods section 
  • Each appendix begins on a new page
  • Each appendix begins with a bolded, centered header such as “ Appendix A, ” “ Appendix B ”

Additional Resources For Experimental Research Papers (APA)

  • https://www.mcwritingcenterblog.org/single-post/how-to-conduct-research-using-the-library-s-resources
  • https://www.mcwritingcenterblog.org/single-post/how-to-read-academic-articles
  • https://researchguides.ben.edu/source-evaluation   
  • https://researchguides.library.brocku.ca/external-analysis/evaluating-sources
  • https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
  • https://nmu.edu/writingcenter/tips-writing-research-paper
  • https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/how-to-write-a-research-question
  • https://www.unr.edu/writing-speaking-center/student-resources/writing-speaking-resources/guide-to-writing-research-papers
  • https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1F4DFWf85zEH4aZvm10i8Ahm_3xnAekal?usp=sharing
  • https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
  • https://libguides.elmira.edu/research
  • https://www.nhcc.edu/academics/library/doing-library-research/basic-steps-research-process
  • https://libguides.wustl.edu/research
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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

research abstract experimental

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

  • Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
  • What are the style and formatting requirements?
  • What is the appropriate abstract type?
  • Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

  • Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
  • Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
  • Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

  • Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
  • Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
  • Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

how to structure an abstract list

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

  • What made you decide to do this study or project?
  • Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
  • Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

  • What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
  • What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
  • What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

  • Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
  • Briefly present evidence to support your claim
  • Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

  • What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
  • How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
  • Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

  • What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
  • What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
  • What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

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Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

  • Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
  • Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
  • Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
  • Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
  • Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

  • Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
  • Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
  • Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
  • Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
  • Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
  • Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
  • Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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Muhammad Hassan

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Study/Experimental/Research Design: Much More Than Statistics

Kenneth l. knight.

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

The purpose of study, experimental, or research design in scientific manuscripts has changed significantly over the years. It has evolved from an explanation of the design of the experiment (ie, data gathering or acquisition) to an explanation of the statistical analysis. This practice makes “Methods” sections hard to read and understand.

To clarify the difference between study design and statistical analysis, to show the advantages of a properly written study design on article comprehension, and to encourage authors to correctly describe study designs.

Description:

The role of study design is explored from the introduction of the concept by Fisher through modern-day scientists and the AMA Manual of Style . At one time, when experiments were simpler, the study design and statistical design were identical or very similar. With the complex research that is common today, which often includes manipulating variables to create new variables and the multiple (and different) analyses of a single data set, data collection is very different than statistical design. Thus, both a study design and a statistical design are necessary.

Advantages:

Scientific manuscripts will be much easier to read and comprehend. A proper experimental design serves as a road map to the study methods, helping readers to understand more clearly how the data were obtained and, therefore, assisting them in properly analyzing the results.

Study, experimental, or research design is the backbone of good research. It directs the experiment by orchestrating data collection, defines the statistical analysis of the resultant data, and guides the interpretation of the results. When properly described in the written report of the experiment, it serves as a road map to readers, 1 helping them negotiate the “Methods” section, and, thus, it improves the clarity of communication between authors and readers.

A growing trend is to equate study design with only the statistical analysis of the data. The design statement typically is placed at the end of the “Methods” section as a subsection called “Experimental Design” or as part of a subsection called “Data Analysis.” This placement, however, equates experimental design and statistical analysis, minimizing the effect of experimental design on the planning and reporting of an experiment. This linkage is inappropriate, because some of the elements of the study design that should be described at the beginning of the “Methods” section are instead placed in the “Statistical Analysis” section or, worse, are absent from the manuscript entirely.

Have you ever interrupted your reading of the “Methods” to sketch out the variables in the margins of the paper as you attempt to understand how they all fit together? Or have you jumped back and forth from the early paragraphs of the “Methods” section to the “Statistics” section to try to understand which variables were collected and when? These efforts would be unnecessary if a road map at the beginning of the “Methods” section outlined how the independent variables were related, which dependent variables were measured, and when they were measured. When they were measured is especially important if the variables used in the statistical analysis were a subset of the measured variables or were computed from measured variables (such as change scores).

The purpose of this Communications article is to clarify the purpose and placement of study design elements in an experimental manuscript. Adopting these ideas may improve your science and surely will enhance the communication of that science. These ideas will make experimental manuscripts easier to read and understand and, therefore, will allow them to become part of readers' clinical decision making.

WHAT IS A STUDY (OR EXPERIMENTAL OR RESEARCH) DESIGN?

The terms study design, experimental design, and research design are often thought to be synonymous and are sometimes used interchangeably in a single paper. Avoid doing so. Use the term that is preferred by the style manual of the journal for which you are writing. Study design is the preferred term in the AMA Manual of Style , 2 so I will use it here.

A study design is the architecture of an experimental study 3 and a description of how the study was conducted, 4 including all elements of how the data were obtained. 5 The study design should be the first subsection of the “Methods” section in an experimental manuscript (see the Table ). “Statistical Design” or, preferably, “Statistical Analysis” or “Data Analysis” should be the last subsection of the “Methods” section.

Table. Elements of a “Methods” Section

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The “Study Design” subsection describes how the variables and participants interacted. It begins with a general statement of how the study was conducted (eg, crossover trials, parallel, or observational study). 2 The second element, which usually begins with the second sentence, details the number of independent variables or factors, the levels of each variable, and their names. A shorthand way of doing so is with a statement such as “A 2 × 4 × 8 factorial guided data collection.” This tells us that there were 3 independent variables (factors), with 2 levels of the first factor, 4 levels of the second factor, and 8 levels of the third factor. Following is a sentence that names the levels of each factor: for example, “The independent variables were sex (male or female), training program (eg, walking, running, weight lifting, or plyometrics), and time (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, or 30 weeks).” Such an approach clearly outlines for readers how the various procedures fit into the overall structure and, therefore, enhances their understanding of how the data were collected. Thus, the design statement is a road map of the methods.

The dependent (or measurement or outcome) variables are then named. Details of how they were measured are not given at this point in the manuscript but are explained later in the “Instruments” and “Procedures” subsections.

Next is a paragraph detailing who the participants were and how they were selected, placed into groups, and assigned to a particular treatment order, if the experiment was a repeated-measures design. And although not a part of the design per se, a statement about obtaining written informed consent from participants and institutional review board approval is usually included in this subsection.

The nuts and bolts of the “Methods” section follow, including such things as equipment, materials, protocols, etc. These are beyond the scope of this commentary, however, and so will not be discussed.

The last part of the “Methods” section and last part of the “Study Design” section is the “Data Analysis” subsection. It begins with an explanation of any data manipulation, such as how data were combined or how new variables (eg, ratios or differences between collected variables) were calculated. Next, readers are told of the statistical measures used to analyze the data, such as a mixed 2 × 4 × 8 analysis of variance (ANOVA) with 2 between-groups factors (sex and training program) and 1 within-groups factor (time of measurement). Researchers should state and reference the statistical package and procedure(s) within the package used to compute the statistics. (Various statistical packages perform analyses slightly differently, so it is important to know the package and specific procedure used.) This detail allows readers to judge the appropriateness of the statistical measures and the conclusions drawn from the data.

STATISTICAL DESIGN VERSUS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Avoid using the term statistical design . Statistical methods are only part of the overall design. The term gives too much emphasis to the statistics, which are important, but only one of many tools used in interpreting data and only part of the study design:

The most important issues in biostatistics are not expressed with statistical procedures. The issues are inherently scientific, rather than purely statistical, and relate to the architectural design of the research, not the numbers with which the data are cited and interpreted. 6

Stated another way, “The justification for the analysis lies not in the data collected but in the manner in which the data were collected.” 3 “Without the solid foundation of a good design, the edifice of statistical analysis is unsafe.” 7 (pp4–5)

The intertwining of study design and statistical analysis may have been caused (unintentionally) by R.A. Fisher, “… a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science.” 8 Most research did not involve statistics until Fisher invented the concepts and procedures of ANOVA (in 1921) 9 , 10 and experimental design (in 1935). 11 His books became standard references for scientists in many disciplines. As a result, many ANOVA books were titled Experimental Design (see, for example, Edwards 12 ), and ANOVA courses taught in psychology and education departments included the words experimental design in their course titles.

Before the widespread use of computers to analyze data, designs were much simpler, and often there was little difference between study design and statistical analysis. So combining the 2 elements did not cause serious problems. This is no longer true, however, for 3 reasons: (1) Research studies are becoming more complex, with multiple independent and dependent variables. The procedures sections of these complex studies can be difficult to understand if your only reference point is the statistical analysis and design. (2) Dependent variables are frequently measured at different times. (3) How the data were collected is often not directly correlated with the statistical design.

For example, assume the goal is to determine the strength gain in novice and experienced athletes as a result of 3 strength training programs. Rate of change in strength is not a measurable variable; rather, it is calculated from strength measurements taken at various time intervals during the training. So the study design would be a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial with independent variables of time (pretest or posttest), experience (novice or advanced), and training (isokinetic, isotonic, or isometric) and a dependent variable of strength. The statistical design , however, would be a 2 × 3 factorial with independent variables of experience (novice or advanced) and training (isokinetic, isotonic, or isometric) and a dependent variable of strength gain. Note that data were collected according to a 3-factor design but were analyzed according to a 2-factor design and that the dependent variables were different. So a single design statement, usually a statistical design statement, would not communicate which data were collected or how. Readers would be left to figure out on their own how the data were collected.

MULTIVARIATE RESEARCH AND THE NEED FOR STUDY DESIGNS

With the advent of electronic data gathering and computerized data handling and analysis, research projects have increased in complexity. Many projects involve multiple dependent variables measured at different times, and, therefore, multiple design statements may be needed for both data collection and statistical analysis. Consider, for example, a study of the effects of heat and cold on neural inhibition. The variables of H max and M max are measured 3 times each: before, immediately after, and 30 minutes after a 20-minute treatment with heat or cold. Muscle temperature might be measured each minute before, during, and after the treatment. Although the minute-by-minute data are important for graphing temperature fluctuations during the procedure, only 3 temperatures (time 0, time 20, and time 50) are used for statistical analysis. A single dependent variable H max :M max ratio is computed to illustrate neural inhibition. Again, a single statistical design statement would tell little about how the data were obtained. And in this example, separate design statements would be needed for temperature measurement and H max :M max measurements.

As stated earlier, drawing conclusions from the data depends more on how the data were measured than on how they were analyzed. 3 , 6 , 7 , 13 So a single study design statement (or multiple such statements) at the beginning of the “Methods” section acts as a road map to the study and, thus, increases scientists' and readers' comprehension of how the experiment was conducted (ie, how the data were collected). Appropriate study design statements also increase the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the study.

CONCLUSIONS

The goal of scientific writing, or any writing, for that matter, is to communicate information. Including 2 design statements or subsections in scientific papers—one to explain how the data were collected and another to explain how they were statistically analyzed—will improve the clarity of communication and bring praise from readers. To summarize:

  • Purge from your thoughts and vocabulary the idea that experimental design and statistical design are synonymous.
  • Study or experimental design plays a much broader role than simply defining and directing the statistical analysis of an experiment.
  • A properly written study design serves as a road map to the “Methods” section of an experiment and, therefore, improves communication with the reader.
  • Study design should include a description of the type of design used, each factor (and each level) involved in the experiment, and the time at which each measurement was made.
  • Clarify when the variables involved in data collection and data analysis are different, such as when data analysis involves only a subset of a collected variable or a resultant variable from the mathematical manipulation of 2 or more collected variables.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Thomas A. Cappaert, PhD, ATC, CSCS, CSE, for suggesting the link between R.A. Fisher and the melding of the concepts of research design and statistics.

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

  • A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
  • Lengthy background or contextual information,
  • Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
  • Acronyms or abbreviations,
  • References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
  • Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
  • Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
  • Citations to other works, and
  • Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

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Never Cite Just the Abstract!

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Research Methodology and Scientific Writing pp 93–133 Cite as

Experimental Research

  • C. George Thomas 2  
  • First Online: 25 February 2021

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Experiments are part of the scientific method that helps to decide the fate of two or more competing hypotheses or explanations on a phenomenon. The term ‘experiment’ arises from Latin, Experiri, which means, ‘to try’. The knowledge accrues from experiments differs from other types of knowledge in that it is always shaped upon observation or experience. In other words, experiments generate empirical knowledge. In fact, the emphasis on experimentation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for establishing causal relationships for various phenomena happening in nature heralded the resurgence of modern science from its roots in ancient philosophy spearheaded by great Greek philosophers such as Aristotle.

The strongest arguments prove nothing so long as the conclusions are not verified by experience. Experimental science is the queen of sciences and the goal of all speculation . Roger Bacon (1214–1294)

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Marder, M.P. 2011. Research Methods for Science. Cambridge University Press, 227p.

Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1985. Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers (4th Ed., revised: Sukhatme, P.V. and Amble, V. N.). ICAR, New Delhi, 359p.

Ross, S.M. and Morrison, G.R. 2004. Experimental research methods. In: Jonassen, D.H. (ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology (2nd Ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, pp. 10211043.

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Resources – identifying and prioritizing elements of a research abstract, five key elements with prompts.

  • Element 1: Background/Introduction/Situation : What do we know about the topic? Why is the topic important?
  • Element 2: Present Research/Purpose:  What is this study about?
  • Element 3: Methods/Materials/Subjects/Procedures:  How was it done?
  • Element 4: Results/Findings:  What was discovered? What do you contend?
  • Element 5: Discussion/Conclusion/Implications/Recommendations:  What do the findings mean?

Developed by Elizabeth Lenaghan for the Graduate Writing Workshop: Writing Compelling Abstracts and Titles.

Abstract elements adapted from John M. Swales & Christine Feak,  Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts  (University of Michigan Press, 2009).

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[ELEMENT 1]:  Graduate students often begin their PhD training with little experience in writing up original research. Amongst the crucial elements of such writing are abstracts. Abstracts provide readers with condensed versions of research results and contributions, and often influence whether (and how) the research will be evaluated.  [ELEMENT 2]:  To determine just how strong an influence abstracts have on the evaluation of graduate student research, this study reviewed a random selection of 500 dissertation abstracts from 25 different disciplines in order to determine the relationship between quality of abstract and subsequent career success.  [ELEMENT 3]:  Each abstract was blindly reviewed and separately rated by three graduate writing instructors according to a strict pre-established rubric. Ratings were cross-referenced for reliability. Abstracts were then linked with their original authors, whose career success was measured according to criteria including: ranking of university where they teach, number of publications, salary, etc.  [ELEMENT 4]: The results showed a correlation between dissertation abstract quality and subsequent career success. In STEM fields, this correlation was significant (p=.07), whereas in the humanities and social sciences, the correlation was present, but not significant (p=.038). These results indicate that abstracts do play a role in how research is evaluated, and that role may be linked to a writer’s future career success.  [ELEMENT 5]:  We, therefore, conclude by recommending that graduate students be provided more training in the writing of abstracts, particularly before they must write potentially career-defining abstracts such as dissertation abstracts. (233 words)

*Note that this abstract does not summarize real research and was written as a teaching tool for the purposes of this workshop.

Consolidating to Meet a Word Count

In practice, sometimes these elements must be consolidated or combined in order for an abstract to meet a designated word count. When shortening an abstract, consider the following:

  • Reduce your background/combine elements 1 & 2
  • Reduce your discussion of methodology & sample (element 3)
  • Reduce the specificity in your results section (element 4)
  • Reduce the specificity in your implication section or consider eliminating (element 5)

Considering these reductions, review the sample abstract again. What could you combine and remove in order to make it shorter?

Research Abstract Revision

SAMPLE REVISION:  Providing readers with condensed versions of research results and contributions, abstracts often influence how the research will be evaluated. To determine the relationship between quality of abstract and subsequent career success, we rated a random selection of dissertation abstracts from different disciplines and measured the corresponding career success of each author according to several criteria. The results showed a correlation between dissertation abstract quality and subsequent career success, especially in STEM fields. These results indicate that abstracts influence how research is evaluated, and quality abstracts may be linked to future career success. We, therefore, conclude by recommending that graduate students be provided more training in the writing of abstracts. (Words: 109)

Commentary on Revision

COMMENTARY ON REVISION:

This revision cuts more than 50% of the words from the previous abstract by:

  • Deleted early sentences that provided context, but were nonessential.
  • Looked closely at what the study focuses on to eliminate even the smallest elements of unnecessary background (e.g., the original “whether (and how)” was here changed to “how,” a revision that not only eliminates words, but also better reflects what the study focused on).
  • In addition to taking out discussion of specific evaluation techniques, the number of evaluations completed and the number of disciplines was eliminated. Generally, this level of detail is unnecessary in abstracts unless the number is very impressive.
  • The reduction was accompanied by adding more specificity in element 2 to make clear what was done (i.e., “reviewed” replaced with “rated”).
  • Whether numbers should be reported in results is often a discipline-specific or even journal-specific convention. Look for models before making such a reduction. However, if numbers are used, be sure they are easy to interpret.
  • Though the sentence beginning, “These results indicate…” may seem repetitive, it is retained because a good results section will not merely state results, it will interpret them. (The different verb tenses—past for summary of completed actions and present for the generalizeable claim/truth—help signal for the reader that these two sentences are accomplishing different things.)
  • The clause at end of the original implication/suggestion section provides more detail than necessary, and was removed.
  • The implications section is retained (rather than eliminated) in order to highlight the potential use-value of the results. In general, when results have use-value or can be applied, it is especially important for implications to remain in an abstract.
  • In element 2, “this study” was changed to “we.” This not only eliminates a word, but also makes the role of the researchers more active. The use of personal pronouns in abstracts is often discipline- (or journal-) specific. Determine the conventions before choosing to use them.
  • Repetitions in words (e.g., “determine” in the third sentence of the original abstract) were evaluated to see what could be combined/eliminated. (In this case, the second use of determine is more reflective of what the study attempts to measure; therefore the first was eliminated.)

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Title: puzzlevqa: diagnosing multimodal reasoning challenges of language models with abstract visual patterns.

Abstract: Large multimodal models extend the impressive capabilities of large language models by integrating multimodal understanding abilities. However, it is not clear how they can emulate the general intelligence and reasoning ability of humans. As recognizing patterns and abstracting concepts are key to general intelligence, we introduce PuzzleVQA, a collection of puzzles based on abstract patterns. With this dataset, we evaluate large multimodal models with abstract patterns based on fundamental concepts, including colors, numbers, sizes, and shapes. Through our experiments on state-of-the-art large multimodal models, we find that they are not able to generalize well to simple abstract patterns. Notably, even GPT-4V cannot solve more than half of the puzzles. To diagnose the reasoning challenges in large multimodal models, we progressively guide the models with our ground truth reasoning explanations for visual perception, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning. Our systematic analysis finds that the main bottlenecks of GPT-4V are weaker visual perception and inductive reasoning abilities. Through this work, we hope to shed light on the limitations of large multimodal models and how they can better emulate human cognitive processes in the future (Our data and code will be released publicly at this https URL ).

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Original research article, effect of high-risk sleep apnea on treatment-response to a tailored digital cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia program: a quasi-experimental trial.

research abstract experimental

  • 1 Adelaide Institute for Sleep Health and Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute: Sleep Health, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
  • 2 College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
  • 3 Medicine Service, Bruce W. Carter Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, United States
  • 4 Department of Neurology, Sleep Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
  • 5 Department of Psychological Sciences and Health, Strathclyde Centre for Sleep Health, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
  • 6 School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia

Introduction: Therapist-delivered Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia (CBTi) is an effective but largely inaccessible treatment for people with Co-Morbid Insomnia and Sleep Apnea (COMISA). To increase CBTi access for COMISA, we aimed to develop a self-guided interactive 5-session digital CBTi program that is appropriate for people with insomnia-alone and COMISA, and compare its effectiveness between people with insomnia-alone, vs. comorbid insomnia and high-risk sleep apnea.

Methods: Data from 62 adults with insomnia symptoms were used. High-risk sleep apnea was defined as a score of ≥5 on the OSA50. Participants self-reported symptoms of insomnia (ISI), depression, anxiety, sleepiness (ESS), fatigue, and maladaptive sleep-related beliefs (DBAS-16) at baseline, 8-week, and 16-week follow-up. ESS scores were additionally assessed during each CBTi session. Intent-to-treat mixed models and complete-case chi 2 analyses were used.

Results: There were more participants with insomnia-alone [ n = 43, age M (sd) = 51.8 (17.0), 86.1% female] than suspected COMISA [ n = 19, age = 54.0 (14.8), 73.7% female]. There were no between-group differences in baseline questionnaire data, or rates of missing follow-up data. There were no significant group by time interactions on any outcomes. Main effects of time indicated moderate-to-large and sustained improvements in insomnia ( d = 3.3), depression ( d = 1.2), anxiety ( d = 0.6), ESS ( d = 0.5), fatigue ( d = 1.2), and DBAS-16 symptoms ( d = 1.2) at 16-weeks. ESS scores did not increase significantly during any CBTi session.

Conclusion: This interactive digital CBTi program is effective in people with insomnia-alone, and people with co-morbid insomnia and high-risk sleep apnea. Further research is required to determine the effectiveness, safety and acceptability of digital CBTi in people with insomnia and confirmed sleep apnea.

Clinical Trial Registration: This trial was prospectively registered on the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR, ACTRN12621001395820).

1 Introduction

Insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) are the two most prevalent sleep disorders and frequently co-occur ( AASM, 2014 ; Sweetman et al., 2017a ). Approximately 30–40% of people with insomnia have co-morbid OSA ( Luyster et al., 2010 ; Sweetman et al., 2021 ), however most people with OSA remain undiagnosed ( Lichstein et al., 1999 ). People with Co-Morbid Insomnia and Sleep Apnea (COMISA) generally have worse sleep ( Bianchi et al., 2013 ), daytime function ( Krakow et al., 2001 ), mental health ( Lang et al., 2017 ), physical health ( Lechat et al., 2022a ), productivity ( Sivertsen et al., 2013 ), and quality of life ( Björnsdóttir et al., 2015 ) compared to people with neither sleep disorder, and often compared to people with either insomnia-alone or OSA-alone ( Sweetman et al., 2019a ; Ong et al., 2020a ). Three recent population-based studies have reported that people with COMISA experience a 50–70% increased risk of mortality over 10–20 years of follow-up, compared to people with neither condition ( Lechat et al., 2021 , 2022b ; Sweetman et al., 2022 ). Given the high prevalence and adverse health consequences of COMISA, it is important to develop and implement effective evidence-based management approaches for this condition ( Sweetman et al., 2017a ).

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for insomnia (CBTi) is the recommended “first line” treatment for insomnia ( Qaseem et al., 2016 ; Ree et al., 2017 ; ASA, 2024 ), and is effective in patients with COMISA ( Sweetman et al., 2023a ). CBTi is a multi-component therapy that has historically been delivered by trained therapists/psychologists over 4–8 weekly sessions. CBTi aims to identify and treat the underlying precipitating triggers and perpetuating factors that maintain insomnia, and leads to sustained improvements in sleep ( Morin et al., 1994 ; van der Zweerde et al., 2019a ), daytime function and mental health ( Ye et al., 2015 ). A recent systematic review and meta-analysis reported that CBTi is associated with large improvements in insomnia severity in the presence of treated and untreated co-morbid OSA ( Sweetman et al., 2023a ). Furthermore, CBTi may improve the severity of un-treated OSA ( Sweetman et al., 2020a ), and two of four recent randomized controlled trials indicate that CBTi may improve subsequent acceptance and use of CPAP therapy in patients with COMISA ( Bjorvatn et al., 2018 ; Sweetman et al., 2019b ; Ong et al., 2020b ; Alessi et al., 2021 ).

Despite a wealth of evidence supporting the effectiveness of CBTi, access to this “first line” treatment is extremely limited. In Australia, ~90% of primary care patients with insomnia are managed with sleeping pills while only 1% are referred to psychologists for CBTi ( Miller et al., 2017 ; Haycock et al., 2022 ). In a recent analysis of the Veterans Health Administration, the largest healthcare system in the US, veterans initially presenting to various clinics with insomnia disorder were 11-times more likely to receive a medication prescription first than to be referred to CBTi ( Pfeiffer et al., 2023 ). In this analysis including over five million veterans, CBTi was provided to only 0.2% of the sample. Rates of access to CBTi across Europe mirror those elsewhere in the world with only 50–3,000 patients per country receiving psychological treatment for their insomnia per year ( Baglioni et al., 2020 ).

Clinician-delivered CBTi programs have been translated to self-guided digital programs which have the potential to increase CBTi availability and access ( Thorndike et al., 2008 ; Espie et al., 2012 ). However, self-guided digital CBTi programs have generally been developed for people with insomnia-alone, and there is very limited evidence on the effectiveness, safety, or suitability of digital CBTi in people with COMISA ( Eldridge-Smith et al., 2022 ). In particular, people with COMISA may commence treatment with higher levels of daytime sleepiness, be less responsive to self-guided sleep restriction therapy in the presence of apnea events that promote repeated awakenings, or experience increased sleepiness during the acute phase of sleep restriction ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ; Turner et al., 2023 ). Because of these concerns, some self-guided digital programs tailored for people with insomnia-alone may not be appropriate for individuals with OSA. Indeed, clinical trials of digital CBTi often exclude people with untreated OSA ( Christensen et al., 2016 ; Ritterband et al., 2017 ; Nazem et al., 2023 ) and suspected OSA ( Espie et al., 2019 ; van der Zweerde et al., 2019b ; Vedaa et al., 2020 ). This may fuel the belief that insomnia is “secondary” to OSA, or that OSA must be diagnosed and sufficiently treated before commencing insomnia management ( Sweetman et al., 2017a , 2021 ). However, our systematic review demonstrates that CBTi can be safely and effectively delivered by clinicians to patients with untreated OSA ( Sweetman et al., 2023a ). These results are particularly welcoming when considering the long delay to diagnosis and treatment of OSA in many countries.

Overnight polysomnography is the “gold standard” measure of OSA presence and severity, however, is costly, time consuming, and often incurs long waiting lists. In the absence of overnight sleep studies, self-report measures have been developed and validated to screen for a “high-risk” of OSA ( Chai-Coetzer et al., 2011 ; Chung et al., 2016 ). To expedite access to digital CBTi in patients with COMISA, it may be possible to identify people with insomnia and a “high risk” of co-morbid OSA according to self-report insomnia and OSA-screening questionnaires. CBTi could then be administered concurrent to the diagnosis and treatment of possible OSA. However, there are safety concerns when providing sleep restriction therapy to people with suspected COMISA, as this treatment may increase an already higher level of daytime sleepiness ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ). A digital CBTi program that can tailor therapy to mitigate excessive sleepiness during CBTi would thus be invaluable to patients with suspected COMISA, who otherwise experience very limited access to CBTi partly due to sleepiness-related and safety concerns.

The aim of this study was therefore to develop and test a self-guided digital CBTi program that includes treatment algorithms designed for people with insomnia-alone and COMISA ( Sweetman et al., 2023c ). We aimed to compare the effectiveness of an interactive digital CBTi program, Bedtime Window, on changes in symptoms of insomnia, daytime function and mental health in people with insomnia-alone vs. people with comorbid insomnia and a “high-risk” of OSA (suspected COMISA group), and monitor weekly changes in sleepiness during treatment.

We report here secondary data analysis from an online clinical trial of digital CBTi in a community-based sample of people with insomnia symptoms ( Sweetman et al., 2023c ). The trial was approved by the Southern Adelaide Clinical Human Research Ethics Committee and registered on the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12621001395820). Secondary data analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of insomnia-alone vs. insomnia and high-risk OSA on treatment-response to digital CBTi from baseline to 8- and 16-week follow-up, and between-group changes in weekly self-reported sleepiness during CBTi.

2.1 Participants

People throughout Australia were directed by online, print, radio, and television advertisements to an online information and consent form and questionnaire battery. Participants were assessed for eligibility before being randomized 1:1 to immediate or waitlist (sleep education control) digital CBTi. Eligible participants were contacted via email to inform them of study recruitment and group allocation.

Inclusion criteria were age ≥ 18, reliable access to an internet-compatible device, basic English language comprehension (for access to the intervention), and an Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) score of ≥15 (at least moderate insomnia). Exclusion criteria were bipolar or schizophrenia disorder, risk of suicide or self-harm on the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), epilepsy, confirmed co-morbid sleep disorder other than insomnia, doctor diagnosed cognitive impairment, current pregnancy, Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) ≥ 16, people that were drivers for work, shift workers, and people that had experienced a sleepiness-related motor vehicle accident. Ineligible participants were directed to local or tele-health clinical insomnia services.

Participants with a previous doctor diagnosis of OSA were excluded from this study which intended to investigate the effect of a high-risk of undiagnosed (and consequently, untreated) OSA on treatment-response to digital CBTi.

2.2 High risk OSA

Participants were included in the suspected COMISA group if they reported a score of ≥5 on the OSA50 ( Chai-Coetzer et al., 2011 ). The OSA50 is a 4-item self-report questionnaire designed to identify people with a high-risk of moderate-to-severe OSA according to the presence of obesity, snoring, witnessed apnea events, and age ≥ 50 years. Body Mass Index (BMI) was used as an indicator of obesity in the absence of waist circumference data (Item 1, BMI Thresholds: Male ≥ 30, Female ≥ 28). Participants with a score of <5 were categorized with insomnia-alone.

2.3 Intervention

A five-session self-guided interactive digital CBTi program (Bedtime Window) was used. The program is designed for people with insomnia-alone and COMISA. Each weekly session lasts for ~20–30 min and included short videos, images and text-based information. An initial assessment module is designed to identify patients with insomnia-alone, in addition to those with confirmed or suspected OSA (according to self-reported symptoms indicative of OSA). Treatment components include tailored psychoeducation, stimulus control therapy, sleep restriction therapy, relaxation therapy, cognitive therapy, and sleep hygiene information. Users complete a digital sleep-wake diary on each morning throughout the program, and provide additional lifestyle, sociodemographic, and sleep-wake information during the program which is used to inform automated personalized treatment recommendations. Algorithms tailor therapy recommendations according to sleep, wake and lifestyle parameters reported at baseline and during each weekly session, with several billion unique treatment pathways available to users. People with COMISA may experience greater sleepiness-related risks during CBTi ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ; Turner et al., 2023 ). To mitigate these risks in people with COMISA, the program includes algorithms that continuously assess for symptoms of sleepiness and alertness, and provides tailored and interactive recommendations to enact sleep restriction, sleep regularization, sleep compression, and sleep extension therapies based on these data. Immediately following each session, users receive an email with session-specific content and tailored treatment recommendations.

2.4 Questionnaire battery

A questionnaire battery including the ISI ( Bastien and Vallières, 2001 ) [further separated into a ISI nocturnal sub-score (first three items), and ISI daytime sub-score (final four items) ( Wallace and Wohlgemuth, 2019 )], ESS ( Johns, 1991 ), Flinders Fatigue Scale (FFS) ( Gradisar et al., 2007 ), PHQ-9 ( Kroenke et al., 2003 ), Generalized Anxiety Disorder questionnaire (GAD-7) ( Spitzer et al., 2006 ), and Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep scale (DBAS-16) ( Morin and Vallières, 2007 ) was completed at each follow-up occasion.

2.5 Statistical analyses

SPSS (IBM Statistics, version 28) was used to analyze data. Data are presented as mean and standard deviation/95% confidence intervals for continuous data, and count and proportions for categorical data. Alpha levels of <0.05 were used to infer statistical significance. Intention to treat analyses of changes in questionnaire measures of insomnia symptoms from baseline to 8- and 16-week follow-up between the insomnia-alone and suspected COMISA groups were investigated with linear mixed models. Overall interaction effects were required before investigating Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons. Cohen's d -values with pooled baseline standard deviations were used as a standardized measure of effect size. Complete case Chi 2 analyses were used to analyze between-group responder data, with Cohen's d -values reported as standardized measures of effect size ( Wilson, 2017 ). Complete-case between-group differences in insomnia remission (ISI <8), and rates of no/mild insomnia (ISI <15) were investigated at 8- and 16-week follow-up.

To increase statistical power, data from an intervention and waitlist control group of the original randomized controlled trial were collapsed and anchored to the timing that they received CBTi. In the original trial, the waitlist group received digital sleep education (control) between baseline and 8-week follow-up, which had no significant or clinically meaningful effect on any questionnaire outcome ( Sweetman et al., 2023c ). Immediately after the 8-week follow-up, the waitlist group were provided access to digital CBTi. Therefore, intervention group data at baseline, 8-weeks (post-CBTi), and 16-weeks (long-term follow up) was matched and combined with control data at baseline, 16-weeks (post-CBTi) and 24-weeks (long-term follow-up) for the current study ( Sweetman et al., 2023c ).

3.1 Participant recruitment, retention, and program completion

In total, 117 participants were screened, of whom 22 with subthreshold insomnia (ISI <15) were directed to a digital CBTi trial in primary care, and 8 with confirmed/treated OSA were directed to a digital CBTi trial in people with confirmed COMISA. Of the remaining 87 participants, 25 were excluded based on self-reported self-harm or suicide risk ( n = 11), excessive daytime sleepiness ( n = 5), restless legs syndrome ( n = 4), current shift work ( n = 3), doctor-diagnosed cognitive impairment ( n = 1), narcolepsy ( n = 1), doctor-diagnosed circadian rhythm disorder ( n = 1), previous motor-vehicle accident ( n = 1), and bipolar disorder ( n = 1). In total, 62 participants were eligible and recruited to the present trial ( Table 1 ).

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Table 1 . Average mean (standard deviation) between-group baseline sociodemographic and insomnia information.

There was no difference in the prevalence of suspected COMISA between the intervention (32.2%) and control groups of the original randomized controlled trial (29%, p = 0.78). After collapsing and time-matching the intervention and control groups, there were no differences between the insomnia-alone and COMISA groups in rates of missing data at 8-weeks [post-intervention 6 (14%), vs. 6 (31.6%), respectively, p = 0.11] or 16-weeks [follow-up assessment 8 (18.6%), vs. 6 (31.6%), respectively, p = 0.26]. There were no significant differences between the insomnia-alone and suspected COMISA groups in completion rates of Sessions 1 (86.0 vs. 78.9%), 2 (76.7 vs. 68.4%), 3 (72.1 vs. 68.4%), 4 (72.1 vs. 68.4%), or 5 (full program completion 65.1 vs. 68.4%, all Chi 2 p > 0.05).

3.2 Baseline information

Sample characteristics and between-group differences in baseline characteristics are presented in Table 1 . The suspected COMISA group had higher average BMI, and greater weight (kilograms) than the insomnia-alone group. There were no other between-group differences in sociodemographic variables or questionnaire data at baseline.

3.3 Effectiveness of digital CBTi in patients with insomnia vs. high-risk OSA

There were no significant group by time interactions on the ISI ( Figure 1 ), Flinders Fatigue Scale, ESS, PHQ-9, GAD-7, or DBAS-16 (all interaction p > 0.06, Table 2 ). Main effects of time indicated moderate-to-large and statistically significant improvements in all questionnaire outcomes by 16-week follow-up ( Table 2 ). For the overall sample, there was a large improvement in ISI scores from baseline to 8-weeks ( M reduction = 7.09, 95% CI = 5.16–9.02, d = 3.05, p < 0.001), and no subsequent change from 8- to 16-weeks ( M reduction = 1.02, 95% CI = −0.99 to 3.03, d = 0.29, p = 0.657). Surprisingly, mean scores indicated that improvements in insomnia, sleepiness, and depression symptoms tended to be larger (although not statistically significant) in the suspected COMISA than insomnia-alone group ( Table 2 ).

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Figure 1 . Between-group changes in mean (95% CI) insomnia severity index scores.

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Table 2 . Between-group changes in estimated marginal mean (95% CI) insomnia symptoms during treatment.

Responder analyses ( Table 3 ) were undertaken to investigate the between-group proportion of participants that reported insomnia remission (ISI <8), and no/mild insomnia (ISI <15) at 8- and 16-week follow-up. Participants were included if they completed the 8- and 16-week assessments, respectively (irrespective of whether they accessed/completed the intervention). Those with suspected COMISA were more likely to report insomnia remission at the 16-week follow-up compared to those with insomnia-alone. There were no other between-group differences in insomnia response rates at 8 or 16-week follow-up.

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Table 3 . Between-group differences in insomnia response rates at 8-week and 16-week follow-up.

3.4 Effect of digital CBTi on weekly daytime sleepiness

The ESS was administered during each weekly session of the CBTi program. There were no between-group differences in changes in ESS scores from baseline to any weekly session (interaction p = 0.764, Figure 2 ). Main effects of time indicated no significant change in ESS scores during the five-sessions of the program ( p = 0.191). However, as mentioned above, a main effect of time indicated a reduction in ESS scores from baseline to 16-week follow-up ( Table 2 ).

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Figure 2 . Between-group changes in mean (95%CI) Epworth Sleepiness Scale scores during each weekly digital CBTi session. Dashed line indicates commencement of personalized sleep restriction therapy during Session 2.

4 Discussion

The main finding of this study is that this interactive digital CBTi program was associated with large and sustained improvements in nocturnal and daytime symptoms of insomnia and associated mental health symptoms in participants with insomnia-alone, and in those with a high-risk of undiagnosed OSA. The lack of any significant group by time interactions provides preliminary evidence to suggest that those with high-risk of OSA benefited from this digital CBTi program at least as much as those with insomnia-alone. An important secondary finding is that symptoms of daytime sleepiness did not increase significantly during any week of the digital CBTi program in either group, suggesting that the program may be an effective, safe, and scalable treatment for insomnia in people with suspected COMISA. Importantly, further research in patients with a doctor diagnosis of OSA according to gold-standard polysomnography is required to confirm these promising initial results, before scaling access in different settings in which patients with COMISA are managed.

A non-significant trend was observed that indicated greater overall improvements in symptoms of insomnia, sleepiness and depression in the suspected COMISA group compared to the insomnia-alone group. Caution should be applied in interpreting these non-significant interaction effects, which were of limited clinical significance, and may have also been inflated by the multiple repeated-measures outcomes that were analyzed. The between-group difference in rates of insomnia remission at 16-weeks should similarly be interpreted with caution, given that these “responder” outcomes were based on complete-case analyses, and a small overall sample was recruited. Of more importance, we observed no evidence that participants with a high risk of co-morbid OSA experienced a reduced treatment-response to this digital CBTi program compared to those with insomnia-alone. Indeed, the most striking findings were the main effects of time that indicated moderate-to-large and sustained improvements in all outcomes for both groups combined.

In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of CBTi in people with COMISA ( Sweetman et al., 2023a ), we observed a large effect of CBTi on improving ISI scores in people with insomnia and co-morbid treated and un-treated OSA. In the present study, those in the suspected COMISA group also experienced a large and sustained 11.2-point average ISI improvement by 16-weeks. These data suggest that CBTi is an efficacious treatment for insomnia in the presence of high-risk co-morbid OSA, when delivered by trained clinicians, or via an interactive self-guided digital program tailored for COMISA. Before scaling access to self-guided digital CBTi in people with COMISA, these results require replication in larger samples of patients with baseline sleep studies to confirm the presence and severity of co-morbid sleep apnea. One additional pilot study is currently being conducted in people with co-morbid insomnia and a doctor-diagnosis of OSA ( Sweetman et al., 2022 ), and one study is being conducted in people with insomnia-alone and COMISA in primary care ( Sweetman et al., 2022 ). Additional research is also required to determine the effectiveness and acceptability of digital CBTi in patients with confirmed COMISA recruited from different settings, including sleep clinics in which patients may present with more severe OSA, symptomatic OSA (i.e., with higher levels of sleepiness at baseline), and different factors that motivate treatment-seeking and engagement ( Sweetman et al., 2019b ; Alessi et al., 2021 ).

Although self-guided digital CBTi programs have been studied in samples with insomnia ( Soh et al., 2020 ), and co-morbid insomnia and mental health symptoms ( Ye et al., 2015 ), there has been understandable reservation about using self-guided digital CBTi in patients with COMISA ( Eldridge-Smith et al., 2022 ). Sleep restriction therapy is one of the most effective behavioral components of CBTi, which aims to temporarily reduce time in bed, consolidate sleep periods and reduce time awake throughout the night ( Spielman and Saskin, 1987 ). Similarly, stimulus control therapy which aims to re-associate the bed with a state of sleep and rest rather than conditioned arousal, requires the patient to “get out of bed if not asleep within about 15 minutes”, and consequently may delay sleep onset and reduce sleep duration in the early treatment phase ( Bootzin, 1972 ). Although these behavioral treatments often lead to rapid improvement in insomnia, they are associated with an acute increase in daytime sleepiness in patients with insomnia alone ( Kyle et al., 2014 ) and COMISA ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ). This increase in sleepiness is reduced after sleep improves, and time in bed is gradually extended from week to week until a comfortable equilibrium between sleep duration, time in bed, and sleepiness is achieved ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ). However, patients with COMISA may commence treatment with pre-existing levels of sleepiness due to un-treated OSA ( Sweetman et al., 2017b ), and experience an increased vulnerability to the effects of sleep restriction on daytime sleepiness and neurocognitive function ( Vakulin et al., 2009 ; Turner et al., 2023 ). Hence, there has been reservation about the use of digital CBTi programs designed for patients with insomnia-alone, in patients with COMISA. In the current study, participants with insomnia-alone and suspected COMISA did not report any overall increase in daytime sleepiness during any week of the digital CBTi program. This is likely due to specific algorithms within the program that continuously monitor for levels of alertness and sleepiness, and adapt personalized therapy recommendations to mitigate risk of alertness-failure. In fact, an overall effect of time on reduced levels of daytime sleepiness was observed by 16-week follow-up. Given reports that CBTi is associated with acute impairment in neurocognitive function ( Turner et al., 2023 ), future research is required to confirm the safety of this digital CBTi program in patients with different levels of OSA severity, and in the presence of excessive daytime sleepiness, before implementing broader access.

The recommended “first line” treatment for moderate and severe OSA is Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) therapy, and lifestyle/weight management recommendations where indicated ( Epstein et al., 2009 ; ASA, 2024 ). Although CPAP therapy improves stability of the upper airway during sleep and many of the associated consequences of OSA, it is limited by suboptimal acceptance and long-term use for the duration of the sleep period ( Weaver and Grunstein, 2008 ). Co-morbid insomnia symptoms are associated with approximately a 30% reduction in initial acceptance of CPAP therapy, and a 2-h reduction in average nightly CPAP use compared to patients with OSA alone ( Sweetman et al., 2023b ). Two of four recent randomized controlled trials have reported that CBTi improves subsequent acceptance and use of CPAP therapy in patients with COMISA ( Bjorvatn et al., 2018 ; Sweetman et al., 2019b ; Ong et al., 2020b ; Alessi et al., 2021 ). An ongoing study aims to investigate the effect of digital CBTi on insomnia symptoms and CPAP use among people with COMISA after commencement of CPAP recommendations and management ( Eldridge-Smith et al., 2022 ). Future studies should also investigate the possibility of using digital CBTi to treat insomnia prior commencing CPAP, to improve initial experiences with CPAP therapy (i.e., the first week of use), and improve long-term CPAP use in patients with confirmed COMISA.

4.1 Limitations

Although this study has several strengths including standardized questionnaire measures of high-risk OSA and insomnia symptoms, acceptable rates of digital CBTi completion (65–68%), and a low rate of missing 16-week follow-up data for an online trial (22.5%), there are several important limitations.

Firstly, COMISA was defined according to self-reported symptoms of insomnia and OSA in the absence of a clinician diagnosis or overnight sleep studies. Overnight polysomnography is the gold-standard measure of OSA presence and severity, and will be required in future clinical trials investigating the safety and effectiveness of digital CBTi in people with COMISA. Although the OSA50 is a standardized measure with good sensitivity to indicate a high-risk of moderate-severe OSA ( Chai-Coetzer et al., 2011 ), specificity levels of ~50% mean that half of those in the “COMISA” group may have no/mild OSA. Hence, this study provides promising initial evidence of the effectiveness of this digital CBTi program in those with a high-risk of OSA. However due to the risk of false-negative and false-positive OSA cases identified according to the OSA50, these results will need to be confirmed in future clinical trials in participants with confirmed OSA ( Sweetman, 2022a , b ). Two randomized controlled trials investigating the effectiveness of Bedtime Window in people with confirmed COMISA are presently being conducted.

Secondly, the sample may not be reflective of patients with COMISA in sleep clinic settings, and consequently, results may not directly generalize. For example, the majority of participants were female, had low levels of daytime sleepiness, and moderate insomnia severity. Although the COMISA group had a BMI in the “overweight” range, which was higher than those with insomnia-alone, it was still lower than average BMI of participants with COMISA in several previous clinical trials ( Ong et al., 2017 ; Bjorvatn et al., 2018 ; Sweetman et al., 2019b ). Future trials are required to implement and understand the generalizability of this digital CBTi program in improving insomnia among people with COMISA in different settings.

Third, no information on neurocognitive functioning was collected. Clinician-delivered CBTi may be associated with an acute reduction in neurocognitive functioning ( Turner et al., 2023 ), likely due to sleep restriction therapy resulting in acute sleep loss, before conditioned insomnia is reduced and sleep improves ( Kyle et al., 2014 ). This digital CBTi program was not associated with increased daytime sleepiness during any weekly session which is promising given previous research reporting an increase in daytime sleepiness during clinician-delivered CBTi in people with insomnia ( Kyle et al., 2014 ) and COMISA ( Sweetman et al., 2020b ). However, the ESS may not be reflective of objective sleepiness in people with OSA, and additional research is required to investigate changes in more sensitive objective measures of alertness and neurocognitive function during digital CBTi in patients with COMISA.

Finally, results of responder analyses should be interpreted with caution, given that they are based on participants with observed follow-up data. There were no between-group differences in rates of missing data at 8- or 16-week follow-up, and overall rates of missing data were relatively low for a clinical trial conducted entirely online.

5 Conclusion

This study found that Bedtime Window, a self-guided interactive digital CBTi program tailored for insomnia-alone and COMISA, was associated with large and sustained improvements in sleep, depression, anxiety, sleepiness, fatigue, and maladaptive beliefs about sleep in people with insomnia-alone and those with suspected COMISA. Given the high prevalence and adverse health consequences of COMISA, and extremely limited access to CBTi, these preliminary results highlight the potential to investigate the effectiveness, safety and acceptability of this digital CBTi program in people with a confirmed diagnosis of OSA in different settings, before scaling access to people with COMISA throughout the health system.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because of Human Research Ethics Committee requirements. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to AS, alexander.sweetman@flinders.edu.au .

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Southern Adelaide Clinical Human Research Ethics Committee (2021/HRE00287). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

AS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CRe: Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Writing – review & editing. LL: Writing – review & editing. AV: Writing – review & editing. CC-C: Writing – review & editing. DW: Writing – review & editing. MC: Writing – review & editing. CRi: Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge and thank all participants that took part in this clinical trial. We also thank members of the Sleep Health Foundation, Sleep Disorders Australia, Flinders University media team, and other media organizations that assisted with study promotion. We acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People as the traditional custodians of the lands on which this study was conducted. In particular, the work was carried out on the lands of the Peramangk, Kaurna, and Whadjuk Noongar People.

Conflict of interest

AS reports research equipment and/or funding support from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Flinders University, the Flinders Foundation, the Hospital Research Foundation, Big Health, Philips Respironics, Compumedics, ResMed, and commissioned/consultancy work for Australian Doctor, Sleep Review Mag, Re-Time Australia, and Cerebra. AS, CRe, and CRi developed the digital CBTi program used in this study. LL reports patents, royalties, and share holdings in Re-time Pty. Ltd., research support from National Health and Medical Research Council Australia. AV and CC-C report research funding and/or equipment support from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Flinders Foundation, ResMed, Philips, and Big Health. MC reports receiving grant funding by Brain Research UK and is a consultant for Signifier Medical Technologies. DW reports funding support from the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities and consultancy work for GLG.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abbreviations

CBTi, Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia; COMISA, Comorbid insomnia and sleep apnea; DBAS, Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep; ESS, Epworth Sleepiness Scale; FFS, Flinders Fatigue Scale; GAD-7, Generalized Anxiety Disorder questionnaire; ISI, Insomnia Severity Index; PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire.

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Keywords: difficulties initiating and maintaining sleep, non-pharmacological, sleep disordered breathing, clinical trial, insomia

Citation: Sweetman A, Reynolds C, Lack L, Vakulin A, Chai-Coetzer CL, Wallace DM, Crawford M and Richardson C (2024) Effect of high-risk sleep apnea on treatment-response to a tailored digital cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia program: a quasi-experimental trial. Front. Sleep 3:1355468. doi: 10.3389/frsle.2024.1355468

Received: 14 December 2023; Accepted: 14 February 2024; Published: 13 March 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Sweetman, Reynolds, Lack, Vakulin, Chai-Coetzer, Wallace, Crawford and Richardson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Alexander Sweetman, alexander.sweetman@flinders.edu.au

This article is part of the Research Topic

Online Cognitive Behavioral Therapy For Insomnia

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Abstract 5896: Platform approach to develop antibodies specifically recognizing cancer-associated glycoforms

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Patrik Kehler , Johanna Gellert , Lisa Kalfhues , Sophie Marinoff , Manon Weis , Andreas Franz , Naomi Kast , Stephanie Gurka , Marianne Morche , Evelyn Hartung , Timo Lischke , Sarah Mayer-Hain , Antje Danielczyk; Abstract 5896: Platform approach to develop antibodies specifically recognizing cancer-associated glycoforms. Cancer Res 15 March 2024; 84 (6_Supplement): 5896. https://doi.org/10.1158/1538-7445.AM2024-5896

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Introduction: Recent advances in antibody engineering have created a portfolio of highly potent therapeutic approaches like antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), radioimmunoconjugates (RITs), chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) or bi-specifics. Due to the increased potency, these drugs are more than ever dependent on very clean targets to prevent side effects. We aim to address this major problem through our approach to develop antibodies with improved tumor specificity and reduced on-target/off-tumor binding utilizing the aberrant O-glycosylation on tumor cells. Altered glycosylation of proteins and lipids is one of the most drastic changes in cancer, giving rise to truncated or highly fucosylated and highly sialylated glycans which are almost absent on normal cells. Thus, developing antibodies against protein/carbohydrate combined epitopes (GlycoTargets) comprising these tumor-specific glycans enables highly potent therapies with reduced off-tumor toxicity.

Experimental procedures: A workflow and corresponding database was established to evaluate the O-glycosylation of proteins. The first and most basic criterion is the presence of suitable O-glycosylated peptide stretches in the extracellular domain of a protein based on predictions. For proteins fulfilling this criterion cancer-relevant expression is analyzed in a second step. This is done either using publicly available data or experimentally (immunohistochemistry or protein expression data). During the final major step, the theoretical existence of suitable O-glycosylation is confirmed by our own experimental data. This includes analysis of cellularly expressed proteins by anti-glycan antibodies and mass spectrometric studies.

Results summary: Case studies will be presented that highlight our workflow to identify suitable GlycoTargets based on publicly available data analysis and experimental confirmation. Additionally, the subsequent development of antibodies against the identified GlycoTargets will be shown.

Conclusion: A standardized process was developed for the data collection and prioritization of potential GlycoTargets. The obtained information is subsequently used for targeted discovery of antibodies that bind to protein/carbohydrate combined glycoepitopes (GlycoTargets) offering increased tumor-specificity compared to simple protein targets.

Citation Format: Patrik Kehler, Johanna Gellert, Lisa Kalfhues, Sophie Marinoff, Manon Weis, Andreas Franz, Naomi Kast, Stephanie Gurka, Marianne Morche, Evelyn Hartung, Timo Lischke, Sarah Mayer-Hain, Antje Danielczyk. Platform approach to develop antibodies specifically recognizing cancer-associated glycoforms [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 5896.

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